VSD

Figure 1: Schematic representation of a typical variable-speed drives.

Why Use VSD?

A VSD, also referred to as a variable-frequency drive (VFD) or adjustable-speed drive (ASD), is
a power-conversion device that varies the speed of a three-phase induction motor. The basic
principle used by the VSD is to vary the frequency of its output, which, in turn, varies the speed
of the motor.
VSD have become an important component in building power systems from the standpoint of
energy savings. Centrifugal pumps, as well as centrifugal and vane axial fans have variable
torque loads. The torque driving the fan or pump is proportional to the square of the speed. Since
torque and horsepower (HP) are related to each other as a function of speed, the HP requirement
is proportional to the cube of the speed.
This relationship indicates that if the speed of the fan or pump can be modulated, the HP required
to drive the fan or pump increases or decreases by the cube of the speed. Therefore, the use of a
VSD enables us to deliver only as much power to the motor as is required to drive the load.
Consider a hypothetical ducted variable air volume (VAV) system in which the calculated static
pressure drop and airflow characteristics require a 50-hp supply fan motor for peak conditions.
However, airflow requirements may often be less than the worst-case design condition.
When we remember that there are circumstances such as partial occupancy, we can take
advantage of lower load requirements. Some VAV boxes can be pinched down and fan speed can
be reduced by a VSD. For our example, if the fan speed can be reduced to 80% of full speed, the
corresponding system requirement is now a little over 25 HP, about half of the system's
maximum capability.
This highlights the magnitude of opportunity for saving energy by applying VSD. Not only are
there operating cost savings from lower energy bills, many utility companies also have rebate
incentives that may pay a portion of the capital costs associated with retrofits.
Concepts

Figure 2: Schematic representation of a pulse-width modulation.

Let's recap by remembering that the speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency
of the ac voltage applied to it, as well as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is
expressed by the equation:
RPM = (f x 120) / p

Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2.

Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in direct
proportion to the frequency change. The control of frequency applied to the motor is the job
given to the VSD.

The VSD basic principle of operation is to convert the building's electrical system frequency and
voltage to the frequency and voltage required to drive a motor at a speed other than its rated
speed. The two most basic functions of a VSD are to provide power conversion from one
frequency to another, and to enable control of the output frequency.

The basic principle used by the VSD is to vary the frequency of its output, which, in turn,
varies the speed of the motor.

VSD Power Conversion

As illustrated by Figure 1, there are two basic components, a rectifier and an inverter, to
accomplish power conversion.
The rectifier receives the 60-Hz ac voltage and converts it to direct current (dc) voltage. A dc bus
inside the VFD functions as a "parking lot" for the dc voltage. The dc bus energizes the inverter,
which converts it back to ac voltage again. The inverter can be controlled to produce an output
frequency of the proper value for the desired motor shaft speed.
There have been various types of inverters since the inception of the technology. Ideally, the
inverter should produce a perfectly smooth sine wave, like the input. Practically speaking, this is
difficult to achieve. The earliest inverters had limited control capabilities. They were able to
provide ac output voltage in steps of constant voltage imprecisely following a sine wave,
commonly referred to as the six-step waveform.
The most common type of inverter used today is the pulse-width-modulated (PWM) type. It
simulates a sine wave by supplying the motor with various "widths" of voltage throughout the
voltage cycle. When averaged together over the length of a cycle, the voltage “segments” looks
like a sine wave to the motor.
The voltage pulses are accomplished with the use of transistors, which act like on-off switches to
provide varying pulse-widths of voltage to the motor. This is done in positive and negative pulse
groups; each positive and negative group represents one cycle.
The illustration in Figure 2 represents a schematic of the transistor output of the inverter. The
actual output of a VSD may be a little different depending on its output filtering.
One common complaint with early PWM drives was the objectionable noise created by the
carrier frequency, or the transistors' speed of switching. Relatively low switching frequencies
caused vibration in motor laminations to produce audible noise, which was transmitted through
ducts and the building structure to occupied areas. This has been remedied by the use of isolated-
gate bipolar transistors (IGBT’s), which can be operated at higher frequencies, putting the
associated noise above the audible range for the human ear.
Some of the advantages of the PWM inverter include constant power factor at all loads and
speeds, efficiency as high as 98%, ride-through of power losses up to several seconds, a wide
range of control capability, and the ability to withstand fairly wide line-voltage fluctuations.
There are two modes of operation with respect to base speed for a VSD, the constant-torque
mode and the constant-horsepower mode. In the constant-horsepower mode, the VFD drives the
motor above its rated frequency (hence, speed) and in order to do so, must sacrifice torque.
Therefore, this mode of application is not typically used for fans and pumps, since their torque
requirements increase with speed. These applications require that the VSD be applied in the
constant-torque mode, which is applicable up to 60 Hz (for U.S. systems). In this speed range,
the motor is enabled to deliver its rated torque.
In the constant-torque mode, the VSD maintains output voltage and frequency in proportion to
each other. This is called the volts/hertz ratio, typically 7.6 V/Hz for a 460-V motor. If this ratio
is exceeded, the motor core becomes "saturated" with magnetic flux. Figure 3 illustrates the
volts/hertz ratio for 230- and 460-V motors.

Power Conversion Control

Figure 3: Volts/Hertz ratio.

The first generation means for control of a VSD power conversion is referred to as scalar control.
Within the drive, it is an open-loop control system, which simply maintains output frequency
scaled to output voltage.
The scalar control method does not utilize a "proportional-integral-derivative" (PID) algorithm
and does not utilize feedback internally. For this reason, its torque control capabilities are not
sufficient for demanding applications which have been historically reserved for dc motors and
drives.
A closed-loop scheme using PID control can be applied externally to refine the output of a drive
with scalar control. The control algorithm had been external to the drive, but drives now
generally include on-board PID control capability, requiring only a process sensor input to do
on-board, closed-loop process control.
The second-generation control method, called vector control, is becoming more prevalent in
building system applications. This prevalence is due to the mainstreaming of technology into the
marketplace rather than technical demands. Typical HVAC applications do not require precise
torque or speed control such as, for instance, an elevator does.
The intricacies of this method are beyond the scope of this article, but at a conceptual level it
enables feedback to be utilized to maximize motor and drive performance. The feedback can be
directly provided from a tachometer or encoder, or indirectly by storing known motor parameters
in drive memory.
Some drives have the capability of "learning" the motor characteristics to which they are mated.
The feedback is utilized in an on-board, closed loop control algorithm to provide precise speed,
torque, and power control, with quick response to changes in load conditions.

Conclusion
Considering the prevalence of electric motors and associated drives in today's building systems;
a basic understanding of these components is indispensable.
The operational principles of this motor enable the use of frequency conversion by a VSD to
modulate the speed of the motor, with the additional benefit of saving energy.