Al-Balqa' Applied University

Faculty of Engineering Technology

Mechatronics Engineering Department
ecture !otes
in
Modeling Engineering "ystems
#"econd "emester $%%&' $%%()
*nstructor+
Dr, -ussein "arhan
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Analysis of Dynamic Systems
1.1 Basic definitions
Systems
A system is a com.ination of elements intended to act together
to accomplish an o./ective, For e0ample1 an electrical resistor is
an element for impeding the flo2 of current1 and it is usually not
considered to .e a system in the sense of the definition,
-o2ever1 2hen it is used in a net2or3 2ith other resistors1
capacitors1 inductors1 etc,1 it .ecomes part of a system,
The 2ord system is used to define a.stractly a relatively
comple0 assem.ly #or arrangement) of physical elements
characteri4ed .y measura.le parameters,
To model the system+
5, The system's .oundaries or constraints must .e defined,
$, The system .ehavior in response to e0citations or
distur.ances from the environment must .e predicta.le
through its parameters,
Engineering System
Engineering system is a term referred to a product or device that
may contain mechanical1 electrical1 fluid1 and'or thermal
components, An engineering system can therefore .e
interdisciplinary1 and require a designer to have 3no2ledge of
many engineering fields,
Engineering
Engineering is the application of physics and other .ranches of
science to the creation of products and services that ma3e the
2orld a #hopefully) .etter place, 6our success in engineering
2ill li3ely .e closely related to ho2 2ell you can create
products and services that your organi4ation's customers need
and 2ant, Unfortunately1 it is found that creating ne2 products
and services is a lot more difficult than analy4ing or critici4ing
2
those that already e0ist, Modeling is the creative side of
engineering1 and analy4ing is the critical side,
Engineering Design Process
The process of designing something is characteri4ed as an
interactive procedure1 2hich consists of si0 identifia.le steps or
phases+
5, 7ecognition of need,
$, Definition of pro.lem,
&, "ynthesis,
(, Analysis and optimi4ation,
8, Evaluation,
9, :resentation,
Figure 5,5, The general design process,
3
Figure 5,$ sho2s the .loc3 diagram of the .asic process
undergone in developing a ne2 engineering design,
Figure 5,$, The engineering design process,
The design is created first in your mind1 2hen you .ecome
a2are of a 2ant or need, 6ou then ma3e a list of specifications
that you envision 2ould satisfy that need, Then you 2ill create
#in your mind1 at first) a product or service that meets these
specifications,
*n order to ;give .irth; to this ne2 design idea1 you have to get
it out of your mind and into reality, 6ou can transfer your ;mind
model; into a ;sym.olic; or even a ;physical model;, *t is
usually .est to 2or3 2ith sym.olic models at first1 .ecause they
are typically less e0pensive than physical models #.ut not
al2ays), A sym.olic model might .e a circuit diagram from
2hich you can derive a num.er of mathematical e0pressions for
the ans2ers you need,
<ne you have the first solution to your mathematical
e0pressions1 then-and only then-allo2 your critical side to tear
apart your design, Don't .e discouraged if the first attempt at
meeting the specifications seems silly, Use the results of your
analysis to see ho2 2ell your product met the specifications1
and alter your specs and modify the design as needed, Then
4
create another model to analy4e, =ontinue to iterate in this
manner until you have a product that satisfies the need,
At this point in your design you have to as3 yourself1 ;Am *
confident enough in my analytical results to proceed 2ith the
construction of a full-scale prototype>; *f the ans2er is no1 then
consider .uilding and testing a physical model of your product,
:hysical model e0periments can produce empirical solutions to
pro.lems that are difficult to solve mathematically or for 2hich
too many untested assumptions had to .e made in order to
derive the analytical model and its solution, Building and testing
physical models are usually much less e0pensive than .uilding
and testing a full-scale prototype,
7esults of physical model-testing e0periments could lead to a
revision of your specifications1 a ne2 mathematical model1 or
even another series of physical model e0periments, Eventually
you 2ill get to the point 2here you are confident enough 2ith
your design to proceed to the construction of a prototype,
"eriously consider at this point conducting e0periments 2ith this
prototype to o.tain data to verify your analytical and physical
model results, *f the prototype does not meet your original
specifications1 you may have to iterate once again through the
design cycle .efore proceeding further,
The System Approach
The .lac3-.o0 concept is essential to 2hat has .een called the
;system approach; to pro.lem solving, ?ith this approach1 each
element in the system is treated as a .lac3 .o01 and the analysis
focuses on ho2 connections .et2een the elements influence the
overall .ehavior of the system,
The .ehavior of a .lac3-.o0 element is specified .y its input-
output relation, An input is a cause@ an output is an effect due to
the input, Thus the input-output relation e0presses the cause-
and-effect .ehavior of the element, For e0ample1 a voltage v
applied to a resistor R causes a current i to flo2, The input-
output or causal relation is i=v/R, *ts input is v1 its output is i1
and its input-output relation is the preceding equation,
5
Block Diagrams
The .lac3-.o0 treatment of an element can .e e0pressed
graphically1 as sho2n in Figure 5,5, The .o0 represents the
element, *nside the .o01 2e place the mathematical e0pression
that relates the output to the input, This graphical representation
is a .loc3 diagram,
!ot all .lac3-.o0 representations must refer to actual physical
elements, "ince they e0press cause-and-effect relations they can
.e used to display processes as 2ell as components, T2o
e0amples of this are sho2n in figures 5,5d and 5,5e, *f 2e
integrate the acceleration a over time1 2e o.tain the velocity v1
that is
adt v
, Thus1 acceleration is the cause of velocity,
"imilarly1 integrating velocity produces displacement x+
Figure 5,&, Bloc3 diagrams of input-output relations, #a)
Aoltage-current relation for a resistor, #.) Displacement-force
relation for a spring, #c) Force-acceleration relation for a mass,
#d) Aelocity as a time integral of acceleration, #e) Displacement
as the time integral of velocity,

vdt x
6
?henever an output is the time integral of the input1 the element
is said to e0hi.it integral causality,
The input-output relations for each element provide a means of
specifying the connections .et2een the elements, ?hen
connected together to form a system1 the inputs to some
elements 2ill .e the outputs from other elements,
The system itself can have inputs and outputs, These are
determined .y the selection of the system's .oundary, Any
causes acting on the system from the 2orld e0ternal to this
.oundary are considered to .e system inputs, "imilarly1 a
system's outputs can .e the outputs from any one or more of the
elements1 vie2ed in particular from outside the system's
.oundary,
A simple e0ample of a system diagram is provided in Figure
5,(, "uppose a mass m is connected to one end of a spring, The
other end of the spring is attached to a rigid support, *n addition
to the spring force f
s
1 another force f
o
acts on the mass, This
force is considered to .e due to the e0ternal 2orld and acts
across the system ;.oundary;@ that is1 it is not generated .y any
action 2ithin the system itself, *t might .e due to gravity1 for
e0ample,
Figure 5,(, #a) Mass-spring system 2ith e0ternal force f
o.
#.)
Bloc3 diagram of the causal relations,
7
The cause-and-effect relations can .e summari4ed .y the system
diagram in Figure 5,(., The net force on the mass in the
direction of positive displacement x is f
o
-f
s
1 since the spring 2ill
pull up on the mass if the mass position is .elo2 the rest
position #x>0), The addition and su.traction of forces to
produce the net force are represented .y a ne2 sym.ol1 the
comparator,
The system input is f
o
@ its output could .e any or all of the
varia.les generated 2ithin the diagram, *f 2e are interested in
only the displacement x1 then its arro2 is sho2n leaving the
system,
Static and Dynamic Systems
*n general1 the present value of an element's output is the result
of 2hat has happened to the element in the past as 2ell as 2hat
is currently affecting it, ?e define a dynamic element to .e one
2hose present output depends on past inputs, =onversely1 a
static element is one 2hose output at any given time depends on
only the input at that time,
*n popular usage1 the terms static and dynamic distinguish
situations in 2hich no change occurs from those that are su./ect
to changes over time, A static element's output can change 2ith
time only if the input changes and 2ill not change if the input is
constant or a.sent, -o2ever1 if the input is constant or removed
from a dynamic element1 its output can still change, For
e0ample1 if the car's engine is turned off1 the car's position 2ill
continue to change .ecause of the car's velocity #.ecause of the
past inputs), A similar statement cannot .e made for the
electrical resistor,
*n the same 2ay1 2e also spea3 of static and dynamic systems,
A static system contains all static elements, Any system that
contains at least one dynamic element is a dynamic system,
8
1. !odeling" Analysis" and Control
!odeling
*n order to deal in a systematic and efficient 2ay 2ith pro.lems
involving time-dependent .ehavior1 2e must have a description
of the o./ects or processes involved, ?e call such a description
a model, Models are used to descri.e ho2 the system 2or3s,
A model for enhancing our understanding of the pro.lem can
ta3e several forms, A physical model1 li3e a scale model1 helps
us to visuali4e ho2 the components of the design fit together
and can provide insight not o.taina.le from a .lueprint #2hich
is another model form), Braphs or plots are still another type of
model, They can often present time-dependent .ehavior in a
concise 2ay, The model type 2e 2ill use most frequently is the
mathematical model1 2hich is a description in terms of
mathematical relations, These relations 2ill consist of
differential or difference equations if the model is to descri.e a
dynamic system, Mathematical models generally require a
;theory; or equations that descri.e the system's .oundaries and
.ehavior through its input parameters, *n short1 if no theory
e0ists1 the model is not via.le and the system is not controlla.le,
<ne of out aims here is to introduce a frame2or3 that allo2s the
development of mathematical models for descri.ing the time-
dependent .ehavior of many types of phenomena+ fluid flo21
thermal processes1 mechanical elements1 and electrical systems1
as 2ell as some nonphysical applications, *n this regard1 it is
important to remem.er that the precise nature of a mathematical
model depends on its purpose, For e0ample1 an electrical
resistor can .e su./ected to mechanical deformations if its
mounting .oard is su./ected to vi.ration, *n this case1 the force-
deflection spring model could .e used to descri.e the resistor's
mechanical .ehavior,
Bloc3 diagrams are often used to display the mathematical
model in a form that allo2s us to understand the interactions
occurring .et2een the system's elements, For e0ample1 the
9
mathematical model of the mass-spring system sho2n in Figure
5,(a is+

adt v
vdt x
kx f
ma f f
s
s o
Each equation e0presses a cause-and-effect relationship for one
part of the system,
The diagram is a valua.le aid1 .ut if 2e 2ish to solve for the
displacement
) #t x
1 2e need the model in equation form, *f 2e
differentiate the last t2o relations 2e o.tain
$
$
1 1
dt
x d
a
or
a
dt
dv
and v
dt
dx

"u.stituting this and the second relation into the first give
$
$
dt
x d
m kx f
o

This differential equation is a quantitative description of the
system, Biven
1 1 1 m k f
o and the initial position
) % # x
and velocity
) % # v
1 2e can solve the equation for
) #t x
,
Analysis
A mathematical model represents a concise statement of our
hypotheses concerning the .ehavior of the system under study,
?e can deal 2ith the verification of the model in t2o 2ays,
Aerification .y e0periment or testing is ultimately required of
all serious design pro/ects, This is not al2ays done at the outset
of a study1 ho2ever1 especially if 2e are dealing 2ith
component types 2hose .ehavior is 3no2n to .e descri.ed .y a
specific model on the .asis of past e0perience,
<nce 2e are satisfied 2ith the validity of our chosen component
models1 they can .e used to predict the performance of the
system in question, :redicting the performance from a model is
called analysis, For e0ample1 the current produced in a resistor
.y an applied voltage v can .e predicted to .e
r v i '
.y solving
the resistor model for the un3no2n varia.le i in terms of the
given quantities v and R, Most of our mathematical models 2ill
10
descri.e dynamic .ehavior and 2ill thus consist of differential
equations,
Control
The successful operation of a system under changing conditions
often requires a control system,
The term control refers to the process of deli.erately influencing
the .ehavior of an o./ect in order to produce some desired
result, The physical device inserted for this purpose is the
controller or control system,
*n the terminology of the control engineer1 2e say that the
controller must respond satisfactory to changes in commands
and maintain system performance in the presence of
distur.ances,
<ne or more controllers are often required in comple0 dynamic
systems in order to ma3e the system elements act together to
achieve the intended goal, "o the design of dynamic systems
quite naturally involves the study of control systems, <n the
other hand1 the variations produced .y command changes and
distur.ances tend to upset the system, Thus1 control system
design requires models that descri.e the dominant dynamic
properties of the system to .e controlled1 and the analysis
techniques must .e capa.le of dealing 2ith such a model,
Modeling1 analysis1 and control of dynamic systems therefore
constitute a unified area of study,
1.# Types of !odels
Static$%ersus dynamic$element models
Those elements 2hose .ehavior is fast relative to other elements
are often modeled as static elements in order to reduce the
comple0ity of the model, For e0ample1 the s2itching time of a
thermostat is fast compared to the time required for the room
temperature to change apprecia.ly, Thus the room temperature
2ould most li3ely .e modeled as a dynamic element and the
thermostat as a static one,
11
&umped$and distri'uted$parameter models
Many varia.les in nature are functions of location as 2ell as
time, The process of ignoring the spatial dependence .y
choosing a single representative value is called lumping #room
air is considered to .e one ;lump; 2ith a single temperature),
The model of a lumped element or system is called a lumped-
parameter model, *f it is dynamic1 the only independent varia.le
in the model 2ill .e time@ that is1 the model 2ill .e an ordinary
differential equation, <nly time derivatives 2ill appear #
$
$
dt
x d
m kx f
o

)1 not spatial derivatives,
?hen spatial dependence is included1 the independent varia.les
are the spatial coordinates as 2ell as time, The resulting model
is said to .e a distri.uted-parameter model, *t consists of one or
more partial differential equations containing partial derivatives
2ith respect to the independent varia.les, The difference is
illustrated in Figure 5,8a1 2hich sho2s the temperature T of a
metal plate, *f the plate is heated at one side1 the temperature
2ill .e a function of location and time
) 1 1 1 # z y x t T T
and the
model 2ill have the form
% 1 1 1 1
$
$
$
$
$
$

,
_

z
T
y
T
x
T
t
T
T T
But if the plate temperature is lumped 2ith a single value1 the
model 2ill have the form
% ) 1 #
dt
dT
T f
1 2hich is mathematically easier to handle,
12
Figure 5,8 Temperature distri.ution in a plate, #a) Distri.uted-parameter
representation, #.) umped-parameter representation using three
elements,
&inear and nonlinear models
et y .e the output and x the input of an element that can .e
either static or dynamic, *ts model is 2ritten as
) #x f y
2here the function
) #x f
may include such operations as
differentiation and integration, The model #or element) is said to
.e linear if1 for an input $ 5
bx ax +
1 the output is
$ 5 $ 5 $ 5
) # ) # ) # by ay x bf x af bx ax f y + + +
#5,&-5)
13
2here a and b are ar.itrary constants1 x
1
and x
2
are ar.itrary
inputs1 and
) #
5 5
x f y
) #
$ $
x f y
Thus1 linearity implies that multiplicative constants and additive
operations in the input can .e factored out 2hen considering the
effects on the output, The linearity property #5,&-5) is sometimes
called the superposition principle1 .ecause it states that a linear
com.ination of inputs produces an output that is the
superposition #linear com.ination) of the outputs that 2ould .e
produced if each input term 2ere applied separately, Any
relation not satisfying the property #5,&-5) is nonlinear,
et us consider some input-output relations to see if they are
linear, The simple multiplicative relation
mx y
is linear1 .ecause
$ 5 $ 5 $ 5
) # by ay bmx amx bx ax m y + + +
2here 5 5
mx y
and $ $
mx y
, The operation of differentiation1
dt
dx
y
1 is linear1 .ecause
$ 5
$ 5
$ 5
) # by ay
dt
dx
b
dt
dx
a bx ax
dt
d
y + + +
"imilarly1 integration is a linear operation, *f
xdt y
1 then
$ 5 $ 5 $ 5
) # by ay dt x b dt x a dt bx ax y + + +

Any relation involving a transcendental function or a po2er
other than unity is nonlinear, For e0ample1 if
$
x y
1
$
$
$
5
$
$
$
$ 5
$
5
$ $
$ 5
$ ) # bx ax x b x abx x a bx ax y + + + +
"imilarly1 if
x y sin
1
$ 5 $ 5
sin sin ) sin# x b x a bx ax y + +
14
The definition of linearity #5,&-5) can .e e0tended to include
functions of more than one varia.le1 such as
) 1 # z x f
, This
function is linear if and only if
) 1 # ) 1 # ) 1 #
$ $ 5 5 $ 5 $ 5
z x bf z x af bz az bx ax f + + +
Differential equations represent input-output relations also and
can .e classified as linear or nonlinear,
A differential equation is easily recogni4ed as nonlinear if it
contains po2ers or transcendental functions of dependent
varia.le, For e0ample1 the follo2ing equation is nonlinear+
f y
dt
dy
+
Time$%ariant and time$in%ariant models
The presence of time-varying coefficient does not ma3e a model
nonlinear, For e0ample1 the model
f y t c
dt
dy
+ ) #
is linear, Models 2ith constant coefficients are called time-
invariant or stationary models1 2hile those 2ith varia.le
coefficients are time-variant or nonstationary, As an e0ample1
suppose the mass m in Figure 5,5 represents a .uc3et of 2ater
2ith a lea3, *ts mass 2ould then change 2ith time1 and
) #t m m
,
Discrete$and continuous$time models
"ometimes it is inconvenient to vie2 the system's dynamics in
terms of a continuous-time varia.le, *n such cases1 2e use a
discrete varia.le to measure time, =ommon e0amples of this
practice include a person's age #2e usually e0press it in integer
years1 2ith no fractions, For engineers1 the most important
situation suggesting the use of discrete-time models occurs
2hen a system contains a digital computer for measurement or
control purposes, *t is an inherently discrete-time device1
.ecause it is driven .y an internal cloc3 that allo2s activity to
15
ta3e place at only fi0ed intervals, Thus1 a digital computer
cannot ta3e measurements continuously .ut must ;sample; the
measured varia.le at these instants,
*f 2e choose to represent our system in terms of discrete time1
the form of the model is a difference equation instead of a
differential equation, For e0ample1 an amount of money x in a
savings account dra2ing 8C interest compounded annually 2ill
gro2 according to the relation
x(k+1) = 1.0x(k)
The inde0 k represents the num.er of years after the start of the
investment,
(irst$order" higher$order models
Equation
$
$
dt
x d
m kx f
o

is called a second-order differential equation1 .ecause its highest
derivative is second order, *t is equivalent to the relations
v
dt
dx
kx f
dt
dv
m
o

These t2o first-order equations are coupled to each other
.ecause of the x term in the first equation and the v term in the
second equation, <ne cannot .e solved 2ithout solving the
other@ they must .e solved simultaneously, Ta3en together1 they
thus form a second-order model,
Stochastic !odels
"ometimes1 there is uncertainty in the values of the model's
coefficients or inputs, *f this uncertainty is great enough1 it
might /ustify using a stochastic model, *n such a model1 the
coefficients and inputs are descri.ed in terms of pro.a.ility
distri.utions involving1 for e0ample1 their means and variances,
16
A model classification tree
Figure 5,9 is a diagram of the relationship .et2een the various
model types,
Figure 5,9 =lassification of mathematical models,
17
1.) &ineari*ation
Because of the usefulness of the superposition principle1 2e
al2ays attempt to o.tain a linear model if possi.le, "ometimes1
this can .e done from the outset .y neglecting effects that 2ould
lead to a nonlinear model, A common e0ample for this is the
small angle appro0imation, *f 2e assume that the angle of
rotation

of the lever in Figure 5,D is small1 the rectilinear

displacement of its ends is roughly proportional to

such that
! x
, The same is not true for a large enough value of

,
Figure 5,D "mall-angle appro0imation for the displacement of a
lever endpoint,
*f such an appro0imation is not o.vious1 a systematic procedure
.ased on the Taylor series e0pansion can .e used, et the input-
output model for a static element .e 2ritten as
) # y f "
*ts form is s3etched in a general 2ay in Figure 5,E, A model that
is appro0imately linear near the reference point
) 1 #
o o
y "
can .e
o.tained .y e0panding
) # y f
in a Taylor series near this point
and truncating the series .eyond the first-order term, The series
is
,,, ) # ) #
F $
5
) # ) # ) # ) #
$
$
$
+ + +
o o o o o
y y
dy
f d
y y
dy
df
y f y f "
18
Figure 5,E ineari4ation of the function
) # y f "
a.out a point
) 1 #
o o
y "
*f
y
is close enough to o
y
the terms involving
i
o
y y ) #
for
$ i
are small compared to the first t2o terms, *gnoring these higher
order terms gives
) # ) # ) # ) #
o o o
y y
dy
df
y f y f " +
#5,(-5)
This is a linear relation, To put it into a simpler form1 let
o
o o
o
y y x
y f " " " z
dy
df
m

) #
) #
Then #5,(-5) .ecomes
mx z
The geometric interpretation of this result is sho2n in Figure
5,E, ?e have replaced the original function 2ith a straight line
passing through the point
) 1 #
o o
y "
and having a slope equal to
the slope of
) # y f
at the reference point, ?ith the
) 1 # x z
coordinates1 a 4ero intercept occurs1 and the relation is
simplified,
19
E+amples of &ineari*ation
#xam$%& 1.1. '$rin(s
The relationship .et2een the force ) and the e0tension x
produced for an ideal spring is linear1 .eing given .y
kx )
, A
graph of the force ) plotted against the e0tension x is a straight
line passing through the origin 2hen the relationship is linear
#Fig, 5,G #a)),
Figure 5,G, inearity of springs+ #a) ideal1 #.) real,
7eal springs1 li3e any other components1 are not perfectly linear
#Fig, 5,G#.)), -o2ever1 there is often a range of operation for
2hich linearity can .e assumed, Thus for the spring giving the
graph in Fig, 5,G#.)1 linearity can .e assumed provided the
spring is only used over the central part of its graph, For many
system components1 linearity can .e assumed for operations
2ithin a range of values of the varia.le a.out some operating
point,
20
"uppose the correct relation for a particular spring is
$
y f
1
2here y is the e0tension of the spring from its free length
#Figure 5,5%),
Figure 5,5% ineari4ation of the function
$
y f
a.out the points
#515) and #G1&),
et it .e attached to the mass as sho2n in Figure 5,(1 and allo2
the mass to settle to its rest position o
y
, At this position1 the
2eight of the mass 2ill equal the spring force1 so that+
$
o
y m(
or
m( y
o

, The Taylor series applied to the spring
relation
$
y f
gives
) # $ ) #
$
$
$ $
o o o o
o
o
y y y y y y
dy
dy
y y f +

,
_

+
et
$
o o
y f f f z
and o
y y x
, Thus1
x y z
o
$
The varia.le z is the change in spring force from its value at the
rest position y
o
, The last equation sho2s that the force change is
appro0imately linear if y is close to y
o
@ that is if x is small,
21
The free-.ody diagram of the mass is sho2n in Figure 5,551
2ith the gravity force and spring force the only forces applied to
the mass,
Figure 5,55 Free-.ody diagram of the mass-spring system,
From !e2ton's la21
) #
$
$
z f m(
dt
x d
m
o
+
Using
x y z
o
$
and the fact that
o o
f y m(
$
2e o.tain
$
$
$
y m(
dt
y d
m
2hich is nonlinear .ecause of the y
2
term,
From
x y z
o
$
2e see that the ;spring constant; k is 2y
o
, *t
depends on not only the spring's physical properties1 2hich yield
the constant $1 .ut also on the reference position y
o
, The
constant 2y
o
is the slope of the force-e0tension curve of the
spring at the position y
o
,
22
This position is determined .y the spring's characteristics and
the 2eight of mass, *f m( = 11 then y
o
=1 and k=2, For a larger
2eight1 say m(= *1 y
o
=+ and k=,,
#xam$%& 1.2 T-& rat& of f%o" of %i./id . t-ro/(- an orific&
The rate of flo2 of liquid q through an orifice is given .y

) # $
$ 5
$ $
0 c .
d

2here c
d
is a constant called the discharge coefficient1 0 the
cross-sectional area of the orifice1

the fluid density and #$

1
-$
2
)
the pressure difference, For a constant cross-sectional area and
density the equation can .e 2ritten as+
$ 5
$ $ 1 .
2here 1 is a constant, This is a non-linear relationship .et2een
the rate of flo2 and the pressure difference, ?e can o.tain a
linear relationship .y considering the straight line representing
the slope of the rate of flo2'pressure difference graph #Figure
5,5$) at the operating point,
23
Figure 5,5$ Flo2 through an orifice
The slope
$ 5
$ 5
$
) #
o o
$ $
1
$ $ d
d.
m

2here
) #
$ 5 o o
$ $
is the value at the operating point, For small
changes a.out the operating point 2e 2ill assume that 2e can
replace the non-linear graph .y the straight line of slope m and
therefore can 2rite
) #
$ 5
$ $
.
m

and hence1
) #
$ 5
$ $ m .
#xam$%& 1.+ T-&rmistor
ineari4ed mathematical models are used .ecause most of the
techniques of control systems are .ased on there .eing linear
relationships for the elements of such systems, Also1 .ecause
most control systems are maintaining an output equal to some
reference value1 the variations from this value tend to .e rather
small and so the lineari4ed model is perfectly appropriate,
To illustrate the a.ove1 consider a thermistor .eing used for
temperature measurement in a control system, The relationship
.et2een the resistance R of the thermistor and its temperature T
is given .y+
aT
k& R

?e can inearise this equation a.out an operating point of T

o
,
The slope m of a graph of R against T at the operating point T
o
is
given .y dR/dT,
Thus1
o
aT
ka&
dT
dR
m


-ence1
T ka& T m R
o
aT


) #
(eed'ack Impro%es &inearity
24
<ne of the reasons is that using feed.ac3 often improves the
linearity of the system, ?e can construct a system of elements
2hose individual .ehavior is nonlinear1 .ut 2ith proper use of
feed.ac31 the resulting system's .ehavior 2ill .e appro0imately
linear,
To illustrate this effect1 consider the nonlinear element sho2n in
Figure 5,5&a, *ts input-output relation is
$
x y
, *f 2e introduce a
feed.ac3 loop1 as in Figure 5,5&.1 2e can 2rite the follo2ing
relations,
y x &
& y

$
Thus1
$
) # y x y
25
Figure 5,5& *mprovement of an element's linearity 2ith
feed.ac3, #a) <riginal nonlinear element, #.) <riginal element
2ith a feed.ac3 loop added, #c) :lots of the t2o input-output
relations,
26
The plot of y versus 0 for the original element and the feed.ac3
system is sho2n in Figure 5,5&c, The feed.ac3 system's input-
output relation is closer to .eing a straight line and therefore is
appro0imately linear over a 2ider range of x than for the
original nonlinear element, This 2ider range is 2hat 2e mean
.y ;improved linearity,;
Pro'lems
5,5 ?hat is the causal relation for the follo2ing elements 2ith
the given inputs and outputs>
a, A capacitor #charge as input@ voltage as output),
., An inertia #torque as input@ angular acceleration as
output),
c, Angular acceleration as input@ angular velocity as
output),
d, A 2ater tan3 2ith vertical sides #2ater volume as input@
2ater height as output),
e, The heat energy stored in a .ody as input@ the .ody
temperature as output),
5,$ Dra2 a .loc3 diagram for the follo2ing models, The
inputs are u and v@ the output is y, The varia.les 0 and e
are internal varia.les, "ho2 them on the diagram,
#a)
y / &
y & v x
x y
$
( &
8

+

#.)
& y v x
& /
dt
d&
x
dt
dy
+ +

& 8
$
9
27
5,& <.tain the input-output relation for each of the follo2ing
diagrams, The inputs are / and v@ the output is y,
5,( *s the follo2ing model nonlinear> E0plain,
1 & f x
dt
dx
+

'

+
% 5
% 5
x if
x if
5,8 The relationship .et2een the force ) used to stretch a
spring and its e0tension x is given .y
) = kx
2
2
2here k is a constant, inearise this equation for an operating
point of x
o
,
5,9 The relationship .et2een the e,m,f, # generated .y a
thermocouple and the temperature T is given .y
# = aT + bT
2
2
2here a and b are constants, inearise this equation for an
operating point of temperature T
o
,
28