Just How Singular is r = 2m

Notes for GR-I - CCD

The line element for the Schwarzschild spherically symmetric solution can be written
as
ds
2
=
_
1
2m
r
_
dt
2

_
1
2m
r
_
1
dr
2
r
2
d
2
(1)
At rst glance, this line element and the corresponding metric tensor seems to have a
singularity of some sort at r = 2m. Examination of the determinant of the metric tensor
components and the Kretschmann curvature scalar, given by
g = |g
ab
| = r
4
sin
2
and R
abcd
R
abcd
= 48m
2
/r
6
(2)
indicates that the volume element and the components of the Riemann curvature tensor
remain well behaved when r = 2m. This suggests that r = 2m may be a signicant surface,
but it is not singular in terms of spacetime curvature, for example.
To investigate the signicance of r = 2m, it is useful to consider the world lines of radi-
ally free falling time-like or null particles. Solving the geodesic equations, or equivalently,
the Euler-Lagrange equations, for time-like particles, we have
u
1
=
dr
d
=
_
A
2
(1 2m/r) (3)
and
u
0
=
dt
d
=
A
1 2m/r
(4)
where A is a constant and is the proper time or wrist watch time as measured by the free
falling particle. In the case of null particles, ie. photons, we have
dr
dt
=
_
1
2m
r
_
(5)
Consider a particle falling from some radius r
0
> 2m. From equations (3) and (4) we
can obtain dt/dr, and thus calculate the coordinate time required for the particle to fall
from r
0
to r = 2m. The elapsed coordinate time interval is
t
r
0
=
_
2m
r
0
Adr
_
1
2m
r
_
_
A
2

_
1
2m
r
_
(6)

c Charles C. Dyer
1
This integral diverges, so the interval of coordinate time for the free fall of a particle from
any position with r
0
> 2m will be innite. This is the time that an observer at rest in the
usual Schwarzschild coordinates would measure, so this observer would wait forever on his
own clock for the particle to free fall through the surface r = 2m.
Lets change to the consideration of the time taken to reach r = 2m as measured on
that infalling observers wrist watch, ie. his proper time. From equation (3), we have

r
0
=
_
2m
r
0
dr
_
A
2

_
1
2m
r
_
(7)
but this integral is nite. Consequently, on his own wrist watch, ie. his own proper time, the
infalling observer reaches the r = 2m surface in a nite time. In fact, there is no particular
reasons to terminate the integration at r = 2m, so that this observer can continue to fall
below the r = 2m surface. Further, this observer will not easily even discover that he
has fallen within r = 2m.
Examining the line element in equation (1), an attempt to handle the region where
r < 2m by swapping sign of each of the oending terms will not solve the problem, in
part because there are not matching conditions that would allow the matching of the line
element of equation (1) with the line element
ds
2
=
_
2m
r
1
_
dt
2

_
2m
r
1
_
1
dr
2
r
2
d
2
(8)
We will now consider a number of new coordinate systems for the Schwarzschild vacuum
spacetime, basing the choice of coordinates on their relationship to particular classes of
particles. Since we now know that the region of spacetime represented by r < 2m is
accessible to infalling time-like observers, we should suspect that there are coordinate
systems that extend naturally into that region, without particular diculty at r = 2m.
Knowing that the (t, r) coordinates become problematic at r = 2m, and searching for new
coordinate systems that extend below r = 2m, it follows that the transformation from (t, r)
to the new coordinates will probably become badly behaved at, or below, r = 2m.
Lematre Coordinates
Since it appears that a particle can fall radially from a large distance to r = 2m and
below, it would be useful to try to introduce coordinates which are tied to these infalling
particles.
We consider a particle free falling radially from r = , where it was initially at rest.
Equations (3) and (4) then imply that A = 1 and become
u
1
=
dr
d
=

2m
r
(9)
and
u
0
=
dt
d
=
1
1 2m/r
(10)
2
Suppose we introduce a new time-like coordinate
1
, T, dened by
dT = dt +

2m
r
dr
1 2m/r
(11)
Evaluating this for the infalling observer, using equations (9) and (10), we nd that dT =
d. Thus we see that T is just the proper time (or wrist watch time) measured by the
falling observer. Integrating, we have
T(r, t) = t + 2

2mr + 2mln

2m

r +

2m

(12)
Proceeding in a similar manner, we can introduce a new radial coordinate, R, dened by
dR = dT +
_
r
2m
dr = dt +
_
r
2m
dr
1 2m/r
(13)
Evaluating this for the infalling observer, using equations (9) and (10), we nd that dR = 0.
Thus R remains xed for any single infalling observer, and thus R is the comoving radial
coordinate of the infalling particles. Solving for the areal radial coordinate, r, we have
r(R, T) =
_
3
2

2m (R T)
_
2/3
(14)
Finally, we have the Lematre (1933) metric for the Schwarzschild vacuum spacetime
ds
2
= dT
2

2m
r
dR
2
r
2
d
2
(15)
The T and R coordinates, tied to a stream of particles falling from innity with zero ini-
tial velocity thus lead to a metric where there is no singularity at r = 2m. The singularity
at r = 0 remains. It is important to note that while the transformation T(r, t) appears
problematic at r = 2m, one can show by direct calculation that the Lematre metric for
the spherically symmetric vacuum spacetime satises the Einstein Field Equations for the
whole range of r, from 0 to innity. Thus the (T, R, , ) coordinates are valid coordinates
in the region below r = 2m, where the (t, r, , ) are no longer useful.
Eddington-Finkelstein Coordinates
Changing our consideration from radially infalling time-like particles to photons falling
radially from innity, it is useful to dene a new retarded time coordinate, v. We dene
this retarded time by
dv = dt dt

= dt +
dr
1 2m/r
(16)
where dt

is the coordinate time elapsed as the photon falls a coordinate distance dr. From
equation (5), it follows that for the incoming photon, dv = 0. Solving for v, we have
v = t + r + 2mln(r 2m) 2mln(2m) (17)
1
A coordinate is time-like if an observer moving only along that coordinate curve, ie. the other coordi-
nates remaining xed, is a time-like observer. The denition of a space-like coordinate is similar, except
that the observer moving only along that coordinate curve is a space-like observer.
3
With this coordinate change, the line element becomes
ds
2
=
_
1
2m
r
_
dv
2
2drdv r
2
d
2
(18)
In this system, radially incoming photons have a xed value of v, and v is called the
incoming null coordinate. The coordinate v is called the ingoing Eddington-Finkelstein
coordinate.
Unlike the t coordinate, inverting the sign of v does alter the line element and met-
ric. This means that the transformation v v actually exposes a new part of the
Schwarzschild solution, a part that was not apparent in the original coordinates, r and t.
Having considered infalling photons, it now seems reasonable to consider the introduc-
tion of a coordinate based on outgoing photons. Using the other sign in equation (5) leads
to the denition of u, the second null coordinate by
du = dt
dr
1 2m/r
(19)
Then du = 0 for outgoing photons, so that any outgoing photon remains at a xed coordi-
nate u. Solving for u, we have
u = t r 2mln(r 2m) + 2mln(2m) (20)
The coordinate u is called the outgoing Eddington-Finkelstein coordinate.
When the metric is written in terms of the retarded coordinate v and the advanced
coordinate u, we have the very simple result
ds
2
=
_
1
2m
r
_
dudv r
2
d
2
(21)
This is the Schwarzschild vacuum solution written in double null coordinates. In this metric,
r = r(u, v) is just a function that must be evaluated. Solving for r(u, v) is straightforward.
It is again important to note that while the transformations from (r, t) to (u, v) appear
to be problematic at r = 2m, one can show by direct calculation that the metric for the
spherically symmetric vacuum spacetime satises the Einstein Field Equations.
This solution represents the maximal extension of the Schwarzschild vacuum solution.
This means that every geodesic is either of innite ane parameter length in both directions
(and thus has no starting point and no ending point) or it begins or ends on a singularity.
Kruskal-Szekeres Coordinates and the Kruskal Diagram
The metric in equation (21) can be transformed to the Kruskal-Szekeres coordinate
system in the following way. First we introduce modied coordinates u and v given by
u = e
u/4m
and v = e
v/4m
(22)
and then transform to new coordinates w and z, given by
w =
1
2
( v + u) and z =
1
2
( v u) (23)
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With these coordinate transformations, equation (21) leads to the metric
ds
2
=
32m
3
r
e
r/2m
(dw
2
dz
2
) r
2
d
2
(24)
where r = r(w, z). The w and z coordinates are known as Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates or
sometimes simply as the Kruskal coordinates. Examination of equation(24) indicates that
w is a time-like coordinate and z is a space-like coordinate.
Inverting the sequence of coordinate transformations, we can obtain the following rela-
tions between (w, z) and (t, r)
z
2
w
2
=
1
2m
(r 2m) e
r/2m
and
w
z
= tanh
_
t
4m
_
(25)
and w and z are only restricted to keeping r(w, z) > 0. By direct calculation, it can
be veried that the spacetime described with this metric in these coordinates is indeed a
vacuum solution of the Einstein Field Equations.
Using these new Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates, we can then construct the Kruskal di-
agram, where w is the time-like coordinate and z is the remaining space-like coordinate,
with (, ) suppressed. It is important to recall that null cones retain their 45

structure.
The image of r = constant is the curve with z
2
w
2
remaining constant. Every such
curve is a member of a family of hyperbolas, except when r = 2m, when the curves
become the asymptotes of this family of curves, z = w. The image of t = constant
has w/z remaining constant, so each straight line passing through (0, 0) is characterized
by a constant value of t. This Kruskal diagram shows clearly that we have the maximal
extension of the Schwarzschild vacuum spacetime. Every radial geodesic either continues
forever in each direction, such as the space-like geodesics and the specic null geodesics
comprising the surface where r = 2m, or has at least one terminal point on a singularity,
as do all the other null geodesics and the time-like geodesics.
In this maximally extended Schwarzschild vacuum spacetime, the usual region with
r > 2m is called region I, and the usual region with r < 2m is called region II. Once
the spacetime is maximally extended, the corresponding additional regions are called I

and II

respectively. It is now apparent that the singularity at r = 0 corresponds to two

distinct curves in this diagram, one the future singularity in region II and the other the
past singularity in region II

.
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Null Cone
Forbidden region
r < 0
Forbidden region
r < 0
w
z
r
=
1
0
m
r
=
3
m
r
=
0
r
=
0
r
=
m
r
=
8
m
r
=
5
m
r
=
m
I
I

t = 5m
t = 20m
t = 10m
t = and r = 2m
t = and r = 2m
t = and r = 2m
II

t = and r = 2m
II
Figure 1: Kruskal diagram
6