Ainu: [inu] (also called Ezo in historical texts) are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaid, the Kuril slands,

and !uch o" #akhalin$ %here are !ost likel& o'er ()*,*** Ainu toda&+ ho,e'er the exact "igure is not kno,n as !an& Ainu hide their origin due to racial issues in -apan$ n !an& cases, sur'i'ing Ainu !a& not .e e'en a,are o" their ancestr&, as their parents and grandparents kept their descent pri'ate in order to protect their children "ro! social pro.le!s$ %heir !ost ,idel& kno,n ethnon&! is deri'ed "ro! the ,ord ainu, ,hich !eans /hu!an/ (particularl& as opposed to ka!ui, di'ine .eings) in the Hokkaid dialects o" the Ainu language+ E!ishi, Ezo or 0ezo () are -apanese ter!s, ,hich are .elie'ed to deri'e "ro! the ancestral "or! o" the !odern #akhalin Ainu ,ord enci, or en1u, also !eaning /hu!an/$ %he ter! 2tari (!eaning /co!rade/ in Ainu) is no, pre"erred .& so!e !e!.ers o" this !inorit&$ 3ote that 0ezo ,as also an earlier na!e o" the island o" Hokkaid, i" not o" the ho!on&!ous pre"ecture 4rigins %he origins o" the Ainu ha'e not .een "ull& deter!ined$ %he& ha'e o"ten .een considered -!on51in, nati'es to -apan "ro! the -!on period$ /%he Ainu li'ed in this place a hundred thousand &ears .e"ore the 6hildren o" the #un ca!e/ is told in one o" their 0ukar 2popo (Ainu legends)$[(] Ainu culture dates "ro! around (7** 6E[7] and recent research suggests that it originated in a !erger o" the 4khotsk and #atsu!on cultures$[8] %heir econo!& ,as .ased on "ar!ing as ,ell as hunting, "ishing and gathering$[9] :ull5.looded Ainu are !ostl& "air5skinned, ,ith the !en generall& ha'ing dense hair de'elop!ent$[)] ;an& earl& in'estigators proposed a 6aucasian ancestr& although recent <3A tests ha'e "ound no traces o" 6aucasian ancestr&$ [=] Ainu !an, circa (>>*$ ?enetic testing o" the Ainu people has sho,n the! to .elong !ainl& to 05haplogroup <$ [@] %he onl& places outside o" -apan in ,hich 05haplogroup < is co!!on are %i.et and the Anda!an slands in the ndian 4cean$[>] n a stud& .& %a1i!a et al$ (7**9), t,o out o" a sa!ple o" sixteen (or (7$)A) Ainu !en ,ere "ound to .elong to Haplogroup 68, ,hich is the !ost co!!on 05chro!oso!e haplogroup a!ong the indigenous populations o" the Bussian :ar East and ;ongolia+[@] Ha!!er et al$ (7**=) tested another sa!ple o" "our Ainu !en and "ound that one o" the! .elonged to haplogroup 68$ [C] #o!e researchers ha'e speculated that this !inorit& o" Haplogroup 68 carriers a!ong the Ainu !a& re"lect a certain degree o" unidirectional genetic in"luence "ro! the 3i'khs, a traditionall& no!adic people o" northern #akhalin sland and the ad1acent !ainland, ,ith ,ho! the Ainu ha'e long5standing cultural interactions$[@] According to %anaka et al$ (7**9), their !t<3A lineages !ainl& consist o" haplogroup 0 (7($=A) and haplogroup ;@a (()$@A)$[(*] ;itochondrial <3A haplogroup 0 is other,ise "ound !ainl& a!ong 3i'khs, as ,ell as at lo,er "reDuenc& a!ong Koreans, ;ongols, %ungusic peoples, Kor&aks, tel!ens, and Austronesians+ haplogroup ;@a, on the other hand, is

"ound else,here al!ost exclusi'el& a!ong -apanese, B&uk&uans, Koreans, and Eaars o" the -aintia Hills in ;eghala&a, ndia$[((][(7][(8] A recent ree'aluation o" cranial traits suggests that the Ainu rese!.le the 4khotsk !ore than the& do the -!on$[(9] %his agrees ,ith the re"erence to the Ainu culture .eing a !erger o" 4khotsk and #atsu!on cultures re"erenced a.o'e$ #o!e ha'e speculated that the Ainu !a& .e descendants o" a prehistoric group o" hu!ans that also produced indigenous Australian peoples$ n #te'e 4lsonFs .ook ;apping Hu!an Histor&, page (88, he descri.es the disco'er& o" "ossils dating .ack (*,*** &ears, representing the re!ains o" the -!on, a group ,hose "acial "eatures !ore closel& rese!.le those o" the indigenous peoples o" 3e, ?uinea and Australia$ A"ter a ne, ,a'e o" i!!igration, pro.a.l& "ro! the Korean Geninsula so!e 7,8** &ears ago, o" the 0a&oi people, the -!on ,ere pushed into northern -apan$ ?enetic data suggest that !odern -apanese are descended "ro! .oth the 0a&oi and the -!on$

n the late 7*th centur&, !uch speculation arose that people o" the group related to the -o!on !a& ha'e .een one o" the "irst to settle 3orth A!erica$ %his theor& is .ased largel& on skeletal and cultural e'idence a!ong tri.es li'ing in the ,estern part o" 3orth A!erica and certain parts o" #outh A!erica$ t is possi.le that 3orth A!erica had se'eral peoples a!ong its earl& settlers H these relati'es o" the -o!on .eing one o" the!$ %he .est5kno,n e'idence that !a& support this theor& is pro.a.l& Kenne,ick ;an$[()] [(=]

?round.reaking genetic !apping studies .& 6a'alli5#"orza ha'e sho,n a sharp gradient in gene "reDuencies centered in the area around the #ea o" -apan, and particularl& in the -apanese Archipelago, that distinguishes these populations "ro! others in the rest o" eastern Asia and !ost o" the A!erican continent$ %his gradient appears as the third !ost i!portant genetic !o'e!ent (in other ,ords, the third principal co!ponent o" genetic 'ariation) in Eurasia (a"ter the /?reat expansion/ "ro! the A"rican continent, ,hich has a cline centered in Ara.ia and ad1acent parts o" the ;iddle East, and a second cline that distinguishes the northern regions o" Eurasia and particularl& #i.eria "ro! regions to the south), ,hich ,ould !ake it consistent ,ith the earl& -!on period, or possi.l& e'en the pre5-!on period A"ter initial contact ,ith the i!!igrants, large settle!ents o" the -apanese ne,co!ers graduall& spread into Ainu territor&$ As the -apanese !o'ed north and took control o'er Ainu lands, the Ainu o"ten ga'e up ,ithout resistance, ,ith so!e occasional ,ars in (9)@, (==C, and (@>C, ,here the Ainu ,ere de"eated$ 3ota.le Ainu re'olts include #hakushainFs Be'olt and the ;enashi5Kunashir Iattle$ %he -apanese go'ern!ent ,as not a.le to control the Ainu lands "ro! Hokkaido and north,ard until the (Cth centur&$[(>] -apanese policies .eca!e increasingl& ai!ed at assi!ilating the Ainu in the ;ei1i period starting in (>=>, outla,ing their language, "orcing the! to use -apanese na!es, redistri.uting their land to -apanese "ar!ers[)] and restricting the! to "ar!ing on go'ern!ent5pro'ided plots and as la.or in the -apanese "ishing industr&$ As the -apanese go'ern!ent encouraged i!!igration o" ethnic -apanese to populate Hokkaido, the Ainu .eca!e increasingl& !arginalised in their o,n land$ %he population ,as greatl& reduced due to hardship and diseases introduced .& the i!!igrant -apanese$ %he island o" Hokkaido ,as called Ezo or Ezo-chi during the Edo period$ ts na!e ,as changed to Hokkaido during the ;ei1i Bestoration as part o" the progra! to /uni"&/ the -apanese national character under the aegis o" the E!peror, thus reducing the local identit& and autono!& o" the di""erent regions o" -apan$ n (>CC the -apanese go'ern!ent passed an act la.eling the Ainu as "or!er A.origines, ,ith the idea the& ,ould assi!ilate$ %he act ,as replaced in (CC@Juntil then the go'ern!ent had stated there ,ere no ethnic !inorit& groups$[)] t ,as not until -une =, 7**> that -apan ,ould "or!all& recognise the Ainu as an indigenous group$[)] As -apanese citizens, the Ainu are no, go'erned .& -apanese la,s and 1udged .& -apanese tri.unals, .ut in the past, their a""airs ,ere ad!inistered .& hereditar& chie"s, three in each 'illage, and "or ad!inistrati'e purposes the countr& ,as di'ided into three districts, #aru, 2su and shikari, ,hich ,ere under the ulti!ate control o" #aru, though the relations .et,een their respecti'e inha.itants ,ere not close and inter!arriages ,ere a'oided$ %he "unctions o" 1udge ,ere not entrusted to these chie"s+ an inde"inite nu!.er o" a co!!unit&Fs !e!.ers sat in 1udg!ent upon its cri!inals$ 6apital punish!ent did not exist, nor did the co!!unit& resort to i!prison!ent$ Ieating ,as considered a su""icient and "inal penalt&$ Ho,e'er, in the case o" !urder, the nose and ears o" the culprit ,ere cut o"" or the tendons o" his "eet se'ered$ nter!arriages .et,een -apanese and Ainu ,ere acti'el& pro!oted .& the Ainu to lessen the chances o" discri!ination against their o""spring$ As a result, !an& Ainu are indistinguisha.le "ro! their -apanese

neigh.ors$ %here are !an& s!all to,ns in the southeastern or Hidaka region ,here "ull5 .looded Ainu !a& still .e seen such as in 3i.utani$ n #a!.utsu especiall&, on the eastern coast, !an& children o" such !arriages !a& .e seen$ he 9**,*** -apanese citizen inha.itants o" #akhalin (including all indigenous Ainu) ,ere deported "ollo,ing the conDuest o" the southern portion o" the island .& the #o'iet 2nion in (C9) at the end o" Eorld Ear $ %oda&, !an& Ainu dislike the ter! Ainu .ecause once it had .een used ,ith derogator& nuance and pre"er to identi"& the!sel'es as 2tari (co!rade in the Ainu language)$ n o""icial docu!ents .oth na!es are used$ ?eograph& %he Ainu ,ere distri.uted in the northern and central islands o" -apan, "ro! #akhalin island in the north to the Kurile islands and the island o" Hokkaid and 3orthern HonshK, although so!e in'estigators place their "or!er range as throughout HonshK and as "ar north as the southern tip o" Ka!chatka$ %he island o" Hokkaido ,as kno,n to the Ainu as Ainu ;oshir, and ,as "or!all& annexed .& the -apanese at the late date o" (>=>, partl& as a !eans o" pre'enting the intrusion o" the Bussians, and partl& "or i!perialist reasons$ According to the Bussian E!pire 6ensus o" (>C@, (99= persons in the Bussian E!pire reported Ainu language as their !other tongue, (989 o" the! in #akhalin sland$[7*] :or historical reasons nearl& all Ainu li'e in -apan no,$ %he southern hal" o" #akhalin ,as acDuired .& -apan as a result o" the Busso5-apanese Ear o" (C*95*), .ut at the end o" Eorld Ear in (C9), the #o'iets declared ,ar on -apan and took possession o" the Kurile islands and southern #akhalin$ %he Ainu population, as pre'iousl& -apanese su.1ects, ,ere /repatriated/ to -apan$ %here are, ho,e'er, a s!all nu!.er o" Ainu li'ing on #akhalin, !ost o" the! descendants o" #akhalin Ainu ,ho ,ere e'icted and later returned$ %here is also an Ainu !inorit& li'ing at the southern!ost area o" the Ka!chatka Geninsula and on the Kurile slands$ Ho,e'er, the onl& Ainu speakers re!aining (.esides perhaps a "e, partial speakers) li'e solel& in -apan$ %here, the& are concentrated pri!aril& on the southern and eastern coasts o" the island o" Hokkaid$ <ue to inter!arriage ,ith the -apanese and ongoing a.sorption into the predo!inant culture, there are no trul& Ainu settle!ents existing toda&$ %he to,n o" 3i.utani in Hidaka area (Hokkaido pre"ecture) has a nu!.er o" Ainu households and a 'isit to so!e o" the Ainu o,ned cra"t shops close to the Ainu !useu!s (there are t,o o" the! in 3i.utani) is an opportunit& to interact ,ith the Ainu people$ ;an& /authentic Ainu 'illages/ ad'ertised in Hokkaido such as Akan and #hiraoi are tourist attractions and pro'ide an opportunit& to see and !eet Ainu people$ %he Ainu language is signi"icantl& di""erent "ro! the -apanese language in its s&ntax, phonolog&, !orpholog&, and 'oca.ular&$ Although there ha'e .een atte!pts to sho, that

the& are related, the 'ast !a1orit& o" !odern scholars re1ect that the relationship goes .e&ond contact, such as the !utual .orro,ing o" ,ords .et,een -apanese and Ainu$ n "act, no atte!pt to sho, a relationship ,ith Ainu to an& other language has gained ,ide acceptance, and Ainu is currentl& considered to .e a language isolate$ %he Ainu language is pol&s&nthetic, and atte!pts ha'e .een !ade to relate -apanese, Korean and Ainu 'ia an earl& proto5Ainu language$ Eords used as prepositions in English such as: to, "ro!, .&, in, and at are postpositional in Ainu+ the& co!e a"ter the ,ord that the& !odi"&$ A single sentence in Ainu can .e !ade up o" !an& added or agglutinated sounds or !orphe!es ,hich represent nouns or ideas$ %he Ainu language has had no s&ste! o" ,riting, and has historicall& .een transliterated .& the -apanese kana or the Bussian 6&rillic and no, Latin alpha.ets .& in'estigators$ %he un,ield& nature o" the -apanese kana ,ith its ina.ilit& to accuratel& represent ter!inal consonants has contri.uted to the degradation o" the original Ainu, ,ith such ,ords as /Kor/ (!eaning to hold), .eing pronounced no, ,ith a ter!inal 'o,el sound, /Koro/, in !an& -apanese Ainu dialects, as distinct "ro! the Kurile or #akhalin Ainu$ ;an& o" the Ainu dialects e'en "ro! one end o" Hokkaido to the other ,ere not !utuall& intelligi.le+ ho,e'er, the classic Ainu language o" the 0ukar, or Ainu epic stories, ,as understood .& all$ Eithout a ,riting s&ste!, the Ainu ,ere !asters o" narration, ,ith the 0ukar and other "or!s o" narration such as the 2epeker (2,epeker) tales, .eing co!!itted to !e!or& and related at gatherings o"ten lasting !an& hours or e'en da&s$ %raditional Ainu culture ,as Duite di""erent "ro! -apanese culture$ 3e'er sha'ing a"ter a certain age, the !en had "ull .eards and !oustaches$ ;en and ,o!en alike cut their hair le'el ,ith the shoulders at the sides o" the head, tri!!ed se!icircularl& .ehind$ %he ,o!en tattooed their !ouths, and so!eti!es the "orear!s$ %he !outh tattoos ,ere started at a &oung age ,ith a s!all spot on the upper lip, graduall& increasing ,ith size$ %he soot deposited on a pot hung o'er a "ire o" .irch .ark ,as used "or color$ %heir traditional dress ,as a ro.e spun "ro! the inner .ark o" the el! tree, called attusi or attush$ Marious st&les o" clothing ,ere !ade, and consisted generall& o" a si!ple short ro.e ,ith straight slee'es, ,hich ,as "olded around the .od&, and tied ,ith a .and a.out the ,aist$ %he slee'es ended at the ,rist or "orear! and the length generall& ,as to the cal'es$ Eo!en also ,ore an undergar!ent o" -apanese cloth$ ;odern cra"ts,o!en ,ea'e and e!.roider traditional gar!ents ,hich co!!and 'er& high prices$ n ,inter the skins o" ani!als ,ere ,orn, ,ith leggings o" deerskin and in #akhalin, .oots ,ere !ade "ro! the skin o" dogs or sal!on$ Ioth sexes are "ond o" earrings, ,hich are said to ha'e .een !ade o" grape'ine in "or!er ti!es, as also are .ead necklaces called ta!asa&, ,hich the ,o!en prized highl&$ %heir traditional cuisine consists o" the "lesh o" .ear, "ox, ,ol", .adger, ox or horse, as ,ell as "ish, "o,l, !illet, 'egeta.les, her.s, and roots$ %he& ne'er ate ra, "ish or "lesh+ it ,as al,a&s .oiled or roasted$ %heir traditional ha.itations ,ere reed5thatched huts, the largest 7* "t$ (= !) sDuare, ,ithout partitions and ha'ing a "ireplace in the center$ %here ,as no chi!ne&, onl& a hole at the angle o" the roo"+ there ,as one ,indo, on the eastern side and there ,ere t,o doors$ %he house o" the 'illage head ,as used as a pu.lic !eeting place ,hen one ,as needed$ nstead o" using "urniture, the& sat on the "loor, ,hich ,as co'ered ,ith t,o la&ers o" !ats, one o" rush, the other o" "lag+ and "or .eds the& spread planks, hanging !ats around the! on poles, and e!plo&ing skins "or co'erlets$ %he !en used chopsticks ,hen eating+ the

,o!en had ,ooden spoons$ Ainu cuisine is not co!!onl& eaten outside Ainu co!!unities+ there are onl& a "e, Ainu5run restaurants in -apan, all located in %ok&o or Hokkaid, ser'ing pri!aril& -apanese "are$

#teagul o"icial Ainu Beligion :or !ore in"or!ation see Ainu creation !&th$ %he Ainu are traditionall& ani!ists, .elie'ing that e'er&thing in nature has a ka!u& (spirit or god) on the inside$ %here is a hierarch& o" the ka!u&$ %he !ost i!portant is grand!other earth ("ire), then ka!u& o" the !ountain (ani!als), then ka!u& o" the sea (sea ani!als), lastl& e'er&thing else$ %he& ha'e no priests .& pro"ession$ %he 'illage chie" per"or!s ,hate'er religious cere!onies are necessar&+ cere!onies are con"ined to !aking li.ations o" rice .eer, uttering pra&ers, and o""ering ,illo, sticks ,ith ,ooden sha'ings attached to the!$ %hese sticks are called inau (singular) and nusa (plural)$ %he& are placed on an altar used to /send .ack/ the spirits o" killed ani!als$ %he Ainu people gi'e thanks to the gods .e"ore eating and pra& to the deit& o" "ire in ti!e o" sickness$ %he& .elie'e their spirits are i!!ortal, and that their spirits ,ill .e re,arded herea"ter .& ascending to ka!u& !osir (Land o" the ?ods)$ #o!e Ainu in the north are !e!.ers o" the Bussian 4rthodox 6hurch$ Ainu

%he Ainu people o" Hokkaid recount the de!iurge ,ith a cos!olog& consisting o" six hea'ens and six hells ,here gods, de!ons, and ani!als li'ed$ <e!ons li'ed in the lo,er hea'ens$ A!ongst the stars and the clouds li'ed the lesser gods$ n highest hea'en li'ed Ka!ui, the creator god, and his ser'ants$ His real! ,as surrounded .& a !ight& !etal ,all and the onl& entrance ,as through a great iron gate$ Ka!ui !ade this ,orld as a 'ast round ocean resting on the .ack.one o" an enor!ous trout$ %his "ish sucks in the ocean and spits it out again to !ake the tides+ ,hen it !o'es it causes earthDuakes$ 4ne da& Ka!ui looked do,n on the ,ater& ,orld and decided to !ake so!ething o" it$ He sent do,n a ,ater ,agtail to do the ,ork$ I& "luttering o'er the ,aters ,ith its ,ings and .& tra!pling the sand ,ith its "eet and .eating it ,ith its tail, the ,agtail created patches o" dr& land$ n this ,a& islands ,ere raised to "loat upon the ocean$ Ehen the ani!als ,ho li'ed up in the hea'ens sa, ho, .eauti"ul the ,orld ,as, the& .egged Ka!ui to let the! go and li'e on it, and he did$ Iut Ka!ui also !ade !an& other creatures especiall& "or the ,orld$ %he "irst people, the Ainu, had .odies o" earth, hair o" chick,eed, and spines !ade "ro! sticks o" ,illo,$ Ka!ui sent Aioina, the di'ine !an, do,n "ro! hea'en to teach the Ainu ho, to hunt and to cook$

#u.grupuri: 4rigin o" the ,ord /E!ishi/ %he "irst !ention o" these people "ro! a source outside -apan ,as in the 6hinese .ook o" #ong in 9@> ,hich re"erred to the! as /hair& people/()$ n that .ook is a re"erence to

/the )) kingdo!s() o" the hair& people () o" the the East$$$/ %he -apanese used this kan1i to descri.e these people, .ut changed the reading "ro! /ke.ito/ or /!o1in/ to /E!ishi/ !ost likel& .& the se'enth centur& A<$ :urther!ore, the kan1i character also changed to ,hich is a co!.ination o" the character "or /shri!p/ and /.ar.arian/ in the sa!e centur&$ %his is thought to re"er to the long ,hiskers o" a shri!p, ho,e'er, this is not certain$ %he .ar.arian aspect clearl& descri.ed an outsider, li'ing .e&ond the .order o" the e!erging e!pire o" -apan ,hich sa, itsel" as a ci'ilizing in"luence, and thus 1usti"&ing their conDuest$ %his kan1i ,as "irst seen in the %Fang sources that descri.e the !eeting ,ith the t,o E!ishi that the -apanese en'o& .rought ,ith hi! to 6hina (see .elo,)$ %he kan1i character !a& ha'e .een adopted "ro! 6hina, .ut the reading /E.isu/ and /E!ishi/ ,ere -apanese in origin, and !ost likel& ca!e "ro! either the -apanese /&u!ishi/ ,hich !eans .o,!an (their !ain ,eapon), or /e!ushi/ ,hich is s,ord in the Ainu tongue$ [(] 4ther origins ha'e .een proposed such as the ,ord /enchiu/ "or !an in the Ainu tongue, ho,e'er, the ,a& it sounds is al!ost phoneticall& identical to e!ushi so it !a& !ost likel& ha'e had an Ainoid origin$[7] N %ohoku Ainu ("ro! HonshK, no kno,n li'ing population) N Hokkaido Ainu N #akhalin Ainu N Kuril Ainu (no kno,n li'ing population) N Ka!chatka Ainu (extinct since pre5historic ti!es) N A!ur Malle& Ainu (pro.a.l& none re!ain) %he Ainu !a& .e descendants o" an indigenous population once ,idel& spread o'er northern Asia+ !an& conte!porar& Ainu clai! so!e connection to -apanFs prehistoric -!on culture$ %he traditional Ainu language, an isolate ,ith a nu!.er o" dialects, had .een al!ost co!pletel& supplanted .& -apanese .& the earl& 7(st centur&+ a language5 re'italization !o'e!ent initiated "or!al instruction in Ainu in the (C>*s$ %he Ainu once li'ed on all "our !a1or -apanese islands$ %heir traditional dress included .ark cloth, o"ten decorated ,ith geo!etric designs$ Although the Ainu ,ere predo!inantl& a hunting and gathering culture, so!e !e!.ers also engaged in shi"ting agriculture, a !ethod in ,hich "ields are used "or a "e, seasons and then a.andoned so as not to exhaust the soil$ Ani!is! ,as the traditional religion+ local "orces o" nature ,ere thought to ha'e souls or spirits$ %he !ost i!portant ritual took place o'er se'eral &ears and in'ol'ed the capture o" a .ear cu. that ,as then raised as a !e!.er o" the "a!il&+ at a designated ti!e, the .ear ,as rituall& killed$ Ha'ing treated the .ear ,ell in li"e, the Ainu .elie'ed that in death its spirit ,ould ensure the ,ell5.eing o" its adopti'e co!!unit&$ Ainu ,o!en traditionall& had a dark .order tattooed around their lips as a sign o" their adulthood and .eaut&$ %attooing o" a girlFs lips, hands, and ar!s .egan in childhood and ,as co!pleted .& the age o" () or (=, signaling her eligi.ilit& "or !arriage

%raditionall&, the Ainu ,ere hunter5gatherers$ %heir staple "oods ,ere "ish, especiall& sal!on and herring, along ,ith deer and .ear$ %he& rounded out their diet .& gathering ,ild plants and practicing s!all5scale agriculture, gro,ing crops such as !illet, ,heat, and .eans$ Housing consisted o" thatched huts heated .& open "ires$ 6lothing ,as !ade "ro! attush "a.ric, ,hich Ainu ,o!en ,o'e "ro! the inner .ark "i.er o" the el! tree$ %he Ainu religion re'ol'ed around a .elie" in nu!erous gods associated ,ith natural pheno!ena and "orces$ :or exa!ple, the Ainu .elie'ed that the .ear ,as the god o" the !ountain, the killer ,hale the god o" the ocean, and the o,l the protector o" the 'illage$ %he Ainu per"or!ed 'arious rituals and cere!onies "or the gods$ 4ne o" the !ost i!portant ,as the iyomante cere!on&, in ,hich a .ear ,as rituall& slain, sending its spirit .ack to the land o" the gods$ :easting and dancing acco!panied the cere!on&$ #i!ilar OsendingP cere!onies ,ere per"or!ed "or o,ls, "oxes, and other ani!als$ %he Ainu .egan to engage in !ariti!e trading perhaps 7,*** &ears ago$ %he& used sailing canoes o" up to () ! ()* "t) in length to !ake long ocean 'o&ages$ %heir trading partners included people in Korea, 6hina, -apan, Ka!chatka, and other areas o" present5da& "ar eastern Bussia$ #tarting around the ()th centur&, the in'asion o" Ainu lands .& the -apanese graduall& changed their hunter5gatherer li"est&le .& introducing "oreign products such as glass .eads, silk, iron i!ple!ents, and rice$ Expensi'e cotton o.tained in trade slo,l& replaced traditional attush clothing, although the Ainu continued to !ake attush to trade to the -apanese$ %he de!and "or "oreign products led to in"ighting a!ong Ainu 'illages as the& co!peted "or "ish and "ur to pa& "or the "oreign goods$ Ho,e'er, 'illages also .anded together to "ight -apanese oppression$