Chapter 6

Circuit Equations

Kirchhoffs laws and Ohms law provide the number of equations necessary to analyze an electric circuit, but the number of equations can become unwieldy except in simple circuit configurations. Although the theorems, procedures and techniques discussed in Chapter 3, 4, and 5 can be invaluable in simplifying the analysis in many cases of practical interest, there remains cases where these methods are of limited use. Systematic methods based on Kirchhoffs laws have therefore been developed to facilitate analysis of more complex circuits and reduce the likelihood of error in writing the equations that govern the behavior of electric circuits. The most commonly used node-voltage and mesh-current methods are presented in this chapter, including some special considerations and generalizations. 6.1 Node-Voltage Method

Concept In the node-voltage method, voltages of essential nodes are assigned with respect to one of the essential nodes taken as a reference. This automatically satisfies KVL in every mesh in the circuit. Equations based on KCL are then written directly in terms of Ohms law for each essential node other than the reference node. The node-voltage method will be illustrated by the circuit of Figure 6.1.1a, which is excited by a current source and in which resistance values are expressed as conductances. The first step is to select one of the essential nodes as the reference node. This can be done quite arbitrarily, but it is somewhat convenient to select as a reference node the node that has the largest number of connections, which is usually a grounded node. It is also convenient to select as a reference node, one of the node with respect to which a required voltage is defined, so that only one unknown needs to be determined. If the node voltages are required with respect to a node other than the selected reference node, this can be done very simply, as will be shown later. When the reference node is not a grounded node, it is denoted by a
ISRC + Va a + Vab G1 Vca +

G5
Vb b G2 + Vbc V c Vdb d (a) + G3 G4 c

+
Vcd

Vad

Gsrc

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filled or an open arrow, as in Figure 6.1.1a, where node d is chosen as the reference node. The reference node is assigned a voltage of zero, and the voltages of all the other essential nodes are
Figure 6.1.1 (b) Iac G5 I bVb bc Iab G1 Iba G2 d Ica Vc

Iad ISRC

Va a

Ibd

G3

Icb G4

c Icd

Gsrc

expressed with reference to this node. To verify that KVL is satisfied around every mesh, consider the upper mesh to begin with. The voltage drops around this mesh are denoted as Vab, Vbc, and Vca in Figure 6.1.1a. KVL around this mesh will then be: Vab + Vbc + Vca = 0 node voltages as: Vab = Va Vb, Vbc = Vb Vc, and Vca = Vc Va. The LHS of Equation 6.1.1 becomes: (Va Vb) + (Vb Vc) + (Vc Va) = 0 The node voltages cancel out in pairs, so they sum to zero, as required by KVL. The same is true of the mesh on the RHS of Figure 6.1.1a, for which KVL takes the form: Vbc + Vcd + Vdb = 0 6.1.2. KVL for the mesh composed of V1, V2, and Gsrc is: Vad Vab + Vdb = 0 Equation 6.1.3. With KVL satisfied, KCL is written for each of the essential nodes in terms of Ohms law and any source currents entering or leaving the node. For node a, the current leaving the node through the conductances connected to the node is: Iad + Iac + Iab (Figure 6.1.1b), where Iad = GsrcVa, Iac = G5(Va Vc) and Iab = G1(Va Vb). The source current entering node a is ISRC. Equating the current leaving the node through the conductances to the current entering the node from the source and collecting terms in the node voltages gives KCL for node a as: (Gsrc + G1 + G5)Va G1Vb G5Vc = ISRC (6.1.4) The current leaving node b through the conductances connected to the node is: Iba + Ibc + Ibd, where Iba = G1(Vb Va), Ibc = G3(Vb Vc), and Ibd = G2Vb. There is no source current entering node b. Collecting terms in the node voltages gives KCL for
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(6.1.1)

The voltage drops Vab, Vbc, and Vca can be expressed in terms of the assigned

(6.1.2)

Substituting Vbc = Vb Vc, Vcd = Vc Vd, and Vdb = Vd Vb satisfies Equation (6.1.3)

Substituting Vad = Va Vd, Vab = Va Vb, and Vdb = Vd Vb again satisfies

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node b as: G1Va (G1 + G2 + G3)Vb G3Vc =0 (6.1.5) The current leaving node c through the conductances connected to the node is: Icb + Ica + Icd, where Icb = G3(Vc Vb), Ica = G5(Vc Va), and Icd = G4Vc. There is no source current entering node c. Collecting terms in the node voltages gives KCL for node c as: G5Va G3Vb (G3 + G4 + G5)Vc =0 (6.1.6)

Comparing Equations 6.1.4 to 6.1.6 reveals a pattern that allows writing the node-voltage equations by inspection, namely: 1. in the equation for a given node, the coefficient multiplying the voltage of this node is the sum of all the conductances connected to that node. Thus, in the equation for node a (Equation 6.1.4) Va is multiplied by (Gsrc + G1 + G5), the sum of the three conductances connected to node a. Similarly, in the equation for node b (Equation 6.1.5), Vb is multiplied by (G1 + G2 + G3), and in the equation for node c (Equation 6.1.6), Vc is multiplied by (G3 + G4 + G5).These coefficients are known as the self conductances of the nodes. 2. In the equation for a given node, the coefficient multiplying the voltage of each of the other nodes is the conductance that directly connects this node to the given node, with a minus sign. The minus sign arises from subtracting the voltages of the other nodes from the voltage of the given node. Thus, the current leaving node a through G1 is (Va Vb)G1 = G1Va G1Vb, where G1 connects node a to node b. In the equation for node a (Equation 6.1.4) Vb is therefore multiplied by -G1. The current leaving node a through G5 is (Va Vc)G5 = G5Va G5Vc, where G5 connects node a to node c. In the equation for node a (Equation 6.1.4) Vc is therefore multiplied by G5, The same is true of the other node equations. These coefficients are known as the mutual conductances between the nodes. If there is no conductance that directly connects a certain node with the node in question, the corresponding mutual conductance is zero. If the coefficients of the node voltages in Equations 6.1.4 to 6.1.6 are arranged in an array, as illustrated in Figure 6.1.2, the array has the following features, which provide a useful check on
G5 G3 Figure 6.1.2 (G3 + G4 + G5) (Gsrc + G1 + G5) G1 G5

G1

(G1 + G2 + G3)

G3

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the correctness of the node-voltage equations: 1. the self conductances are the diagonal entries in the array. 2. ii) The array is symmetrical with respect to the diagonal, as illustrated by the coefficients pointed to by the arrows in Figure 6.1.2. This symmetry is because the conductance is independent of the direction of current. For example, in the expression Iab = G1(Va Vb), G1 is the same as in the expression Iba = G1(Vb Va), although Iab = -Iba. It will be shown in the next section that this symmetry is destroyed when the dependency relations of dependent sources are taken into account. 3. All the mutual conductances have a negative sign, as explained previously. 4. In any row or column, the mutual conductances are part of the self conductances in that row or column. Thus, in the first row or first column in the array of Figure 6.1.2, G1 and G5 are included in the self conductance term (Gsrc + G1 + G5). The procedure for writing the node-voltage equation for a given essential node n can be summarized as follows: 1. The voltage of node n is multiplied by the sum of all the conductances connected directly to this node, so that node n constitutes one terminal for each of these conductances. 2. The voltage of every other node is multiplied by the conductance connected directly between this node and node n, with a negative sign. If there is no such conductance, the coefficient is zero. 3. The LHS of the node-voltage equation for node n is the sum of the terms from the preceding steps, ordered as the unknown node voltages. This sum is the total current leaving node n through the conductances connected to this node. 4. The RHS of the equation is equal to the algebraic sum of source currents entering node n. Thus, a source current entering node n will have a positive sign, whereas a source current leaving node n will have a negative sign. Example 6.1.1 It is required to analyze the circuit of Figure 6.1.3 using the node-voltage method. Solution: Taking node d as a reference node, and following the aforementioned standard procedure, the node voltage equations are:
Figure 6.1.3 6A
0.5 S 1/12 S 0.25 S Va 1/3 S Vb 0.25 S

0.1 S

Vc

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Node a: Node b: Node c:

(0.5 + 1/3 + 0.1)Va (1/3)Vb 0.1Vc = 6 (1/3)Va + (1/3 + 0.25 + 1/12)Vb 0.25Vc = 0 0.1Va 0.25Vb + (0.25 + 0.25 + 0.1)Vc = 0 (14/15)Va (1/3)Vb 0.1Vc = 6 (1/3)Va + (2/3)Vb 0.25Vc = 0 0.1Va 0.25Vb + (3/5)Vc = 0

(6.1.7) (6.1.8) (6.1.9)

Equations 6.1.7 to 6.1.9 can be simplified to: (6.1.10) (6.1.11) (6.1.12)

Equations 6.1.10 to 6.1.12 can be solved by any of the usual methods for solving linear simultaneous equations, or by using appropriate calculators, to give: Va = 9 V, Vb = 6 V, and Vc = 4 V. Linear simultaneous equations can be conveniently solved using MATLAB. To do so, the conductance coefficients on the LHS of the node-voltage equations are entered as a square matrix, and the source currents on the RHS of the node-voltage equations are entered as a column matrix. In the example under consideration, the matrix of coefficients are entered in MATLAB as follows: C = [14/15,-1/3,-0.1;-1/3,2/3,-0.25;-0.1,-0.25,3/5] In MATLAB, a matrix is entered between square brackets. Elements in a row are separated by commas, whereas rows are separated by semicolons. The matrix of source currents is entered as:

S = [6;0;0]
The command: C\S is equivalent to [inv(C)]*S and gives a column matrix of the node voltages in the order Va, Vb, and Vc. MATLAB displays the solution to the simultaneous Equations 6.1.6 as: 9.000 6.000 4.000 Simulation: The circuit is entered as in Figure 6.1.4. After selecting Bias Point/General Settings in the simulation profile and running the simulation, pressing the I and V buttons displays the currents and voltages, respectively, indicated in Figure 6.1.4.
Figure 6.1.4 0 6Adc +

10 500.0mA 9.000V 4.500A 1.000A 3 2 500.0mA

6.000V 4.000V

500.0mA 4 12 1.000A 4

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Example 6.1.2 It is required to analyze the circuit of Figure 6.1.5 using the node-voltage method. The circuit is of the same form as that in Figure 6.1.3, but with different circuit parameters and with the uppermost conductance replaced by a current source. One of the mutual conductances is now zero, and there is algebraic summation of source currents at one of the nodes. Solution: In writing the node-voltage equations for a given node as KCL equations, the LHS of the equations represents current leaving the node through conductances, and the RHS represents source current entering the node. Hence in writing the nodevoltage equation for node a, a source current leaving the node must be entered on the RHS with a negative sign. Alternatively, it may be considered that the net source current entering node a is (12 6) A. The equation for node a is: Node a: (0.5 + 0.25)Va 0.25Vb 0Vc = 12 6 (6.1.13) Note that since there is no conductance that directly connects node a to node c, the mutual conductance between these two node is zero, which means that Vc no longer appears in the node-voltage equation for node a, nor does Va appear in the node-voltage equation for node c. The remaining node voltage equation are: Node b: Node c: -0.25Va + (1/3 + 0.25 + 0.5)Vb 0.5Vc = 0 0Va 0.5Vb + (0.25 + 0.5)Vc = 6 (6.1.14) (6.1.15)
Figure 6.1.5 12 A 0.5 S Va

6A

0.25 S

Vb

0.5 S

Vc
0.25 S

1/3 S
d

The solution to these equations gives Va = 11 V, Vb = 9 V, and Vc = 14 V. Note that if the 0 coefficient is removed, the matrix is no longer square and the array of coefficients is no longer symmetrical about the diagonal. Simulation: The circuit is entered as in Figure 6.1.6. After selecting Bias Point/General Settings in the simulation profile and running the simulation,
Figure 6.1.6 0 12Adc +

6Adc
+

11.00V 5.500A

500.0mA 4 2
3.000A

9.000V

14.00V 2.500A 2 3
3.500A

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pressing the I and V buttons displays the currents and voltages, respectively, indicated in Figure 6.1.6. Exercise 6.1.1 Verify that KCL and Ohms law are satisfied in Figure 6.1.5.

Exercise 6.1.2 Reverse the direction of the 6 A source in the circuit of Figure 6.1.5, derive the node-voltage equations and determine Va, Vb, and Vc. Simulate the circuit and verify the values of the node voltages, KCL, and Ohms law. Ans. Va = 25 V, Vb = 3 V, and Vc = -6 V.

Change of Reference Node Consider Figure 6.1.1a. Any branch voltage is the difference between two node voltages. For example, Vab = Va Vb. If the same quantity is added to both Va and Vb, it will cancel out from the RHS, leaving Vab the same. In Example 6.1.1, node d was taken as a reference and the node voltages were found to be: Va = 9 V, Vb, = 6 V, Vc = 4 V, with Vd = 0 because it is the reference node. Suppose after finding the node voltages with respect to node d as reference, we wish to determine the node voltages with respect to another node, say node b as reference, which means that Vb must be zero. To make Vb = 0 without changing the branch voltages, we simply subtract 6 V from all the node voltages, which gives, Va = 3 V, Vb, = 0 V, Vc = 1 V, and Vd = -6 V. The branch voltages are evidently the same. With node d as reference, Vab = 9 6 = 3 V, and with node b as reference, Vab = 3 0 = 3 V. If the branch voltages remain the same, then the branch currents and KCL will also remain the same. Concept In any circuit, the branch voltages and currents are independent of the choice of reference node. Exercise 6.1.3 Redo Example 6.1.2 with node b as reference and verify the new values of node voltages.

Non-Transformable Voltage Source* When the node-voltage method is to be used in a circuit that has an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor, the combination is conveniently transformed to a current source in parallel with the same resistor. But when the ideal voltage
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source does not have a resistor in series with it, it cannot be transformed to a current source and must be left unaltered. The circuit of Figure 6.1.7, for example, is the same as that of Figure 6.1.5 but with the 6 A source replaced by a 3 V source that
Figure 6.1.7
12 A Ix Va

3V

+
0.5 S Ix Vc

0.25 S

Vb

0.5 S

1/3 S
d

0.25 S

cannot be transformed to a current source. In applying the node-voltage method, an unknown current Ix is assigned an arbitrary direction through the voltage source and the standard procedure followed, treating Ix like a source current, in accordance with the substitution theorem. The node-voltage equations become: Node a: Node b: Node c: (0.5 + 0.25)Va 0.25Vb 0Vc = 12 Ix 0.25Va + (1/3 + 0.25 + 0.5)Vb 0.5Vc = 0 0Va 0.5Vb + (0.25 + 0.5)Vc = Ix (6.1.16) (6.1.17) (6.1.18)

Ix can be eliminated by adding together Equations 6.1.16 and 6.1.18 for the two nodes between which the voltage source is connected. The resulting equation is: 0.75Va 0.75Vb + 0.75Vc = 12 results from combining nodes a and c. The node-voltage equation for the supernode can be written following the usual procedure, without having to introduce an unknown source current. However, introducing such a current is more fundamental and is less likely to cause an error. Adding two node-voltage equations to eliminate the unknown source current reduces the number of independent voltage equations by one. But an additional equation in the node voltages is provided by the relation between the node voltages and the source voltage. In Figure 6.1.7, Vc Va = 3 (6.1.20) (6.1.19) Equation 6.1.19 is sometimes referred to as the equation of a supernode that

Equations 6.1.17, 6.1.19 and 6.1.20 are three independent equations that can be solved to give: Va = 11 V, Vb = 9 V, and Vc = 14 V. These values are the same as in Example 6.1.2, because in this example Vc Va = 3, as for the voltage source between nodes a and c. Exercise 6.1.4 Simulate the circuit of Figure 6.1.7 and verify that KCL, KVL, and Ohms law

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are satisfied.

6.2

Dependent Sources in Node-Voltage Method Dependent current

2 Ib

sources are treated in exactly the same manner as independent current sources. Consider, for example, the circuit of Figure 6.2.1, which is the same as that of Figure 6.1.5 but with the 6 A independent source replaced by a dependent current source. The nodevoltage equations are written in the usual way as: Node a: Node b: Node c: (0.5 + 0.25)Va 0.25Vb 0Vc = 12 2Ib 0.25Va + (1/3 + 0.25 + 0.5)Vb 0.5Vc = 0 0Va 0.5Vb + (0.25 + 0.5)Vc = 2Ib
Figure 6.2.1 Va

0.25 S

Vb

0.5 S Vc

12 A

0.5 S

1/3 S d Ib

0.25 S

(6.2.1) (6.2.2) (6.2.3)

Note that in these equations, the net current entering node a is 12 2Ib and the current entering node c is 2Ib. Leaving the 0 coefficient in the equations maintains the symmetry in the array of coefficients. In order to solve the node-voltage equations the controlling variable, Ib in this case, should be expressed in terms of the node voltages. In the circuit of Figure 6.2.1, Ib = Vb /3 A. Substituting and moving the term in Vb to the LHS, Equations 6.1.8 to 6.1.10 become: Node a: Node b: Node c: (0.5 + 0.25)Va (0.25 2/3)Vb 0Vc = 12 0.25Va + (1/3 + 0.25 + 0.5)Vb 0.5Vc = 0 0Va (0.5 + 2/3)Vb + (0.25 + 0.5)Vc = 0 (6.2.4) (6.2.5) (6.2.6)

Solving these equations gives Va = 11 V, Vb = 9 V, and Vc = 14 V, the same as in Example 6.1.2, because in this example Ib = 3 A, and 2Ib = 6 A, the same as the independent current. Note that the array of coefficients is symmetrical with respect to the diagonal in Equations 6.2.1 to 6.2.3, when 2Ib is on the RHS, but the symmetry is destroyed in Equations 6.2.4 to 6.2.5 when 2Ib is substituted for in terms of Vb and moved to the LHS. In the case of dependent voltage sources, if the source is in series with a resistance, the dependent voltage source is transformed to a dependent current source in parallel with this resistance, and the standard procedure followed. If the

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dependent voltage source cannot be transformed to a current source, an unknown current is assigned to the voltage source, and the procedure explained in connection with Figure 6.1.7 is followed. Several examples of this type are included in problems at the end of the chapter. It will be observed from the preceding that the effect of the dependent source in Figure 6.2.1 is to modify some of the conductance coefficients in the node-voltage equations, leaving only the values of independent source on the RHS of the equations. This is in accordance with the discussion of Section 4.1, Chapter 4, that dependent sources alone cannot excite a circuit, and with discussion in connection with Equation 5.1.5, Chapter 5.

Exercise 6.2.1 Simulate the circuit of Figure 6.2.1 and verify that KCL, KVL, and Ohms law are satisfied.

6.3

Mesh-Current Method

Concept In the mesh-current method, the unknown mesh currents are assigned in such a manner that KCL is automatically satisfied at every essential node. Equations based on KVL are then written for each mesh directly in terms of Ohms law. The mesh-current method will be illustrated by the circuit of Figure 6.3.1a. The first step is to assign a current to each mesh, conventionally in the clockwise direction, as illustrated by I1, I2, and I3 in the figure. Since the same mesh current enters and leaves any given node, KCL is automatically satisfied at each of the essential nodes a, b, c, and d. To verify this, consider node a. The mesh current I1 enters node a through Rsrc and leaves through R1. The mesh current I2 enters node a through R1 and leaves through R5. The current leaving node a through R1 can be considered as I1 I2. Equating the total current entering node a to that leaving it: I1 = I1 I2 + I2 = I1,
VSRC Rsrc R5

I2 a
I2 R1 b R3 I3 I2 I3 I3 d I2 c I3 R4

I1 I1 I2 I1

I1 I3
R2 I1 (a)

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which satisfies KCL. At node b, the current entering the node through R1 is I1 I2. The current leaving node b through R2 is I1 I3 and that leaving it through R3 is I3 I2. Equating the total

+ R5I2

I2

R1I2 +
+ VSRC + RsrcI1

R3I2 +

I1

+ R1I1 + R2I1

+ R3I3 R2I3 I3 +

+ R4I3

Figure 6.3.1

(b)

current entering node b to that leaving it: I1 I2 = I1 I3 + I3 I2 = I1 I2, thereby satisfying KCL. At node c, the current entering the node through R5 is I2 and that entering through R3 is I3 I2. The current leaving node c through R4 is I3. Equating the total current entering node c to that leaving it: I2 + I3 I2 = I3, thereby satisfying KCL. At node d, the current entering node d through R4 is I3 and that entering it through R2 is I1 I3. The current leaving node d through the source is I1. Equating the total current entering node d to that leaving it: I3 + I1 I3 = I1, thereby satisfying KCL. The next step is to write KVL around each mesh. Figure 6.3.1b indicates the voltage drop in each resistor due to the mesh currents flowing through the resistor. Considering R1, for example, the net current through R1 is (I1 I2) in the direction of I1, and the voltage drop in R1 in the direction of I1 is R1(I1 I2). Similarly, the voltage drop in R2 is R2(I1 I3) in the direction of I1. The total voltage drop in the direction of I1 due to the resistors in the mesh is therefore RsrcI1 + R1(I1 I2) + R2(I1 I3). According to KVL, the total voltage drop due to the resistors in the mesh must be equal to the voltage rise due any sources in the mesh, which is VSRC in the direction of I1. Equating the voltage drop to the voltage rise and collecting terms in the mesh currents gives: (Rsrc + R1 + R2)I1 R1I2 R2I3 = VSRC (6.3.1)

The term (Rsrc + R1 + R2)I1 is the voltage drop in mesh 1 due to I1 alone. The negative signs in Equation 6.3.1 can be usefully interpreted in terms of voltage rises. Thus, in the term R1(I1 I2), R1I2 is a voltage rise in mesh 1, in the direction of I1, due to I2 flowing in R1 (Figure 6.3.1b). Since the LHS of Equation 6.3.1 is the voltage drop in the direction of I1 due to the resistors in mesh 1, the term R1I2 is a voltage rise and will have a negative sign on the LHS of Equation 6.3.1. Similarly, since R2I3 is a voltage rise in mesh 1, in the direction of I1, due to I3 flowing in R2, the term R2I3 will have a negative sign on the LHS of Equation 6.3.1.
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In mesh 2, the net current in R1 in the direction of I2 is (I2 I1) and the voltage drop in R1 in the direction of I2 is R1(I2 I1). Similarly, the net current in R3 in the direction of I2 is (I2 I3) and the voltage drop in R3 in the direction of I2 is R3(I2 I3). The total voltage drop in the direction of I2 due to the resistors mesh 2 is: R1(I2 I1) + R5I2 + R3(I2 I3). As there are no sources in mesh 2, this total voltage drop must be equal to zero. Collecting terms in the mesh currents, gives the mesh current equation for mesh 2 as: R1I2 (R1 + R3 + R5)I1 R3I3 =0 (6.3.2) In mesh 3, the net current in R2 in the direction of I3 is (I3 I1) and the voltage drop in R2 in the direction of I3 is R2(I3 I1). Similarly, the net current in R3 in the direction of I3 is (I3 I2) and the voltage drop in R3 in the direction of I3 is R3(I3 I2). The total voltage drop in the direction of I3 due to the resistors mesh 3 is: R2(I3 I1) + R4I3 + R3(I3 I2). As there are no sources in mesh 3, this total voltage drop must be equal to zero. Collecting terms in the mesh currents, gives the mesh current equation for mesh 3 as: R2I1 R3I2 + (R2 + R3 + R4)I3 =0 (6.3.3)

Comparing Equations 6.3.1 to 6.3.3 reveals a pattern that allows writing the mesh-voltage equations by inspection, namely: 1. In the equation for a given mesh, the coefficient multiplying the mesh current is the sum of all the resistances in the mesh. Thus, in the equation for mesh 1 (Equation 6.3.1) I1 is multiplied by (Rsrc + R1 + R2). Similarly, in the equation for mesh 2 (Equation 6.3.2), I2 is multiplied by (R1 + R3 + R5), and in the equation for mesh 3 (Equation 6.3.3), I3 is multiplied by (R2 + R3 + R4).These coefficients are known as the self resistances of the meshes. 2. In the equation for a given mesh, the coefficient multiplying the current of each of the other meshes is the resistance that is common to the two meshes, with a minus sign. Thus, in the equation for mesh 1 (Equation 6.3.1) I2 is multiplied by -R1, where R1 is the resistance that is common between meshes 1 and 2, and I3 is multiplied by -R2, where R2 is the resistance that is common between meshes 1 and 3. The same is true of the other mesh equations. These coefficients are known as the mutual resistances between the meshes. If there is no resistance that is common between a certain mesh with the mesh in question, the corresponding mutual resistance is zero. If the coefficients of the mesh currents in Equations 6.3.1 to 6.3.3 are arranged in an array, as illustrated in Figure 6.3.2, the array has the following features, which are a useful check on the correctness of the mesh-current equations: 1. The self resistances are the diagonal entries in the array.
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2. The array is symmetrical with respect to the diagonal, as illustrated by the coefficients pointed to by the arrows in Figure 6.3.2. This symmetry is because the same resistance that is
Figure 6.3.2 R2 R3 (R2 + R3 + R4) (Rsrc + R1 + R2) R1 R2

R1

(R1 + R2 + R5)

R3

common between two meshes appears in the equation of each of the two meshes as a multiplier of the current in the other mesh. It will be shown in the next section that this symmetry is destroyed when the dependency relations of dependent sources are taken into account. 3. All the mutual resistances have negative signs when mesh currents are in the same sense, that is clockwise or anticlockwise, because the voltage across a common resistance is a voltage drop when this resistance is part of the self resistance of a mesh, but is a voltage rise if the resistance is a mutual resistance, as explained in connection with Equation 6.3.1. 4. In any row or column, the mutual resistances are part of the self resistance in that row or column. The procedure for writing the mesh-current equation for a given mesh n can be summarized as follows: 1. The current of mesh n is multiplied by the sum of all the resistances in the mesh. 2. The current of every other mesh is multiplied by the resistance that is common between this mesh and mesh n, with a negative sign. If there is no such resistance, the coefficient is zero. 3. The LHS of the mesh-current equation for mesh n is the sum of the terms from the preceding steps, ordered as the unknown mesh currents. This sum is the total voltage drop, in the direction of the mesh current, due to all the resistances in the mesh. 4. The RHS of the equation is equal to the algebraic sum of source voltages in mesh n. A source voltage that is a voltage rise in the direction of the mesh current will have a positive sign, whereas a source voltage that is a voltage drop in the direction of the mesh current will have a negative sign.

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Example 6.3.1 It is required to analyze the circuit of Figure 6.3.3 using the mesh current method. Solution: The circuit is redrawn in Figure 6.3.3 showing the mesh currents. Following the standard procedure, the mesh current equations are written as: Mesh 1: Mesh 2: Mesh 3: 17I1 3I2 12I3 = 12 -3I1 +17I2 4I3 = 0 -12I1 4I2 + 20I3 = 0 (2 + 3 +12)I1 3I2 12I3 = 12 -3I1 + (3 + 4 + 10)I2 4I3 = 0 -12I1 4I2 + (4 + 4 +12)I3 = 0
10

(6.3.4) (6.3.5) (6.3.6)

These equations reduce to: (6.3.7) (6.3.8) (6.3.9)

+ 12 V I1 2 3

I2

The solution to these equations gives: I1 = 1.5 A, I2 = 0.5 A, and I3 = 1 A. Simulation: The circuit is entered as in Figure 6.3.4. After selecting Bias Point/General Settings in the simulation profile and running the simulation, pressing the I and V buttons displays the currents and voltages, respectively, indicated in Figure 6.3.4. Example 6.3.2 It is required to analyze the circuit of Figure 6.3.5 using the mesh-current method. The circuit is of the same form as that in Figure 6.3.3, but with different circuit parameters, and with the 3 resistor replaced by an 8 V source. One of the mutual resistances is now zero, and there is algebraic summation of source voltages in mesh 1. Solution: Following the standard procedure, and starting with mesh 1, the self resistance of this mesh is (2 + 8) , the mutual resistance with mesh 2 is zero, and
Figure 6.3.4 0
+

12

I3

Figure 6.3.3
500.0mA 9.000V 10 1.000mA 2 6.000V

3.000V

1.500A

500.0mA
4 1.000mA

3 500.0mA
12

12Vdc

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14-6

the mutual resistance with mesh 3 is 8 . The LHS of the mesh current equation, which accounts for the total voltage drop in the direction of I1 due to the resistances in mesh 1 is:(2 + 8)I1 + 0I2 8I3. The source voltage of the 12 V source is a voltage rise in the direction of I1,
12 V 2
+

8V

I2

+
I1

I3

Figure 6.3.5

and the source voltage of the 8 V source is a voltage drop in the direction of I1. The net voltage rise in the direction of I1 due to the voltage sources in mesh 1 is (12 8) V. The mesh-current equation for mesh 1 is therefore: Mesh 1: (2 + 8)I1 0I2 8I3 = 12 8 (6.3.10)

The mesh-current equations for the other two meshes, in accordance with the standard procedure are: Mesh 2: Mesh 3: 0I1 + (8 + 8)I2 8I3 = 8 -8I1 8I2 + 20I3 = 0 10I1 0I2 8I3 = 4 0I1 + 16I2 8I3 = 8 -8I1 8I2 + 20I3 = 0 Note the symmetry of the coefficients with respect to the diagonal. Simulation: : The circuit is entered as in Figure 6.3.6. After selecting Bias Point/General Settings in the simulation profile and running the simulation, pressing the I and V buttons displays the currents and voltages, respectively, indicated in Figure 6.3.6. I1 is the same as the current in the 12 V source, I2 is the same as the current in the upper 8 resistor, and I3 is the same as the current in the 4 resistor.
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+

(6.3.11) (6.3.12)

These equations reduce to: (6.3.13) (6.3.14) (6.3.15)

The solution to these equations gives: I1 = 1 A, I2 = 0.875 A, and I3 = 0.75 A.

875.0mA 10.00V

8
125.0mA + 2.000V

3.000V

1.000A
2 12Vdc

125.0mA
8 750.0mA

8Vdc 250.0mA

Figure 6.3.6

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Exercise 6.3.1 Verify that KVL and Ohms law are satisfied in Figure 6.3.5. Exercise 6.3.2 Reverse the polarity of the 8 V source in the circuit of Figure 6.3.5, derive the mesh-current equations and determine I1, I2, and I3. Simulate the circuit and verify the values of the mesh currents, KVL, and Ohms law. Ans. I1 = 3 A, I2 = 0.125 A, and I3 = 1.25 A.

Generalization of Mesh-Current Method* It is sometimes convenient not to take all mesh currents in the same sense, or to consider as a variable a loop current rather than a mesh current. Compared to Figure 6.3.3, for example, I1 in Figure 6.3.7 is the current in the outer loop, I2 is the current in the same mesh 2, and I3 is the current in the same
Figure 6.3.7
12 V + 12 I1 2 3

10

I2

I3

mesh 3 but in the counterclockwise sense. How can the equations relating I1, I2, and I3 be written in the same form as the previously described mesh-current equations? Doing so enhances the understanding of how KVL is applied in a more general context. Considering loop 1, the self resistances in the loop are the (2 + 10 + 4) . The voltage drop in the direction of I1 due to the self resistance of the loop is (2 + 10 + 4)I1. The mutual resistance between loop 1 and mesh 2 is the 10 resistance. But I1 and I2 flow in the same direction in this resistor, so that the voltage across this resistor due to I2 is a voltage drop in loop 1 in the direction of I1, just like the voltage in the 10 resistor due to I1. The effect of I2 in the 10 resistor is to add a voltage drop 10I2 in loop 1. The mutual resistance between loop 1 and mesh 3 is the 4 resistance. But with I1 and I3 flowing in opposite directions in this resistor, I3 produces a voltage rise 4I3 in loop 1, which subtracts from the total voltage drop in the direction of I1 in loop 1. The net voltage drop in the direction of I1 in loop 1 is therefore: (2 + 10

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16-6

+ 4)I1 + 10I2 4I3 = 16I1 + 10I2 4I3. The voltage rise due to source voltages in loop 1 is 12 V. Hence the loop-current equation for this loop is: 16I1 + 10I2 4I3 = 12 (6.3.16)

Considering mesh 2, the voltage drop in the direction of I2 due to the self resistance in the mesh is (10 + 4 + 3)I2. I1 flowing in the 10 resistor, and I3 flowing in the 4 resistor, both add to the voltage drop in mesh 2. The total voltage drop in the direction of I2 in mesh 2 is therefore: (10 + 4 + 3)I2 + 10I1 + 4I3 = 17I2 + 10I1 + 4I3. With no sources in mesh 2, the mesh-current equation for mesh 2 is: 10I1 + 17I2 + 4I3 = 0 (6.3.17)

Considering mesh 3, the voltage drop in the direction of I3 due to the self resistances in the mesh is (12 + 4 + 4)I3. I1 flowing in the 4 resistor produces a voltage rise in mesh 3, whereas I2 flowing in the 4 resistor produces a voltage drop in mesh 3. The net voltage drop in the direction of I3 in mesh 3 is therefore: (12 + 4 + 4)I3 4I1 + 4I2 = 20I2 4I1 + 4I2. With no sources in mesh 3, the mesh-current equation for mesh 3 is: -4I1 + 4I2 + 20I3 = 0 (6.3.18)

Equations 6.3.16 to 6.3.18 are the three independent equations that can be solved to give: I1 = 1.5 A, I2 = -1 A, and I3 = 0.5 A. These values are in agreement with those derived for the same circuit in Figure 6.3.3. The current in the 12 V source is 1.5 A, the current in the 10 resistor is I1 + I2 = 5 A, and the current in the 4 resistor on the side is I1 I3 = 1 A, as found from the mesh current equation in Figure 6.3.3. When using loop currents, with or without mesh currents, the following should be noted: 1. The only modification from the standard procedure is that if the loop or mesh currents flow in the same direction in a mutual resistance, this resistance is written with a positive sign in the KVL equations. 2. The number of independent equations is the same as the number of meshes in the circuit. 2. The array of coefficients is symmetrical with respect to the diagonal, in the absence of dependent sources, as in Equations 6.3.16 to 6.3.80. The symmetry also applies in the presence of dependent sources but before the dependency relations are taken into account, as discussed in connection with Equations 6.2.4 to 6.2.5.

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Exercise 6.3.3 Redo Example 6.3.2 using the same loop and mesh currents as in Figure 6.3.6. Non-Transformable Current Source* When the mesh-current method is to be used in a circuit that has an ideal current source in parallel with a resistor, the combination is conveniently transformed to a voltage source in series with the same resistance. But when the ideal current source does not have a resistor in parallel with it, it cannot be transformed to a current source and must be left unaltered. The circuit of Figure 6.3.8, for example, is the same as that of Figure 6.3.5, except that the 8 V source has been replaced by a current source that cannot be transformed to a voltage source. An unknown voltage Vx of arbitrary polarity is assumed across the current source and is treated like a source voltage. The mesh current equations become: Mesh 1: (2 + 8)I1 0I2 8I3 = 12 Vx (6.3.19)
2 0.125 A I2 8

Mesh 2: 0I1 + (8 + 8)I2 8I3 = Vx 4)I3 = 0 (6.3.20)

12 V

+ I1

Mesh 3: -8I1 8I2 + (8 + 8 + (6.3.21) Vx can be eliminated by adding together Equations

Vx 8

I3

Figure 6.3.8

6.3.19 and 6.3.20 for the two meshes between which the current source is connected. The resulting equation is: 10I1 + 16I2 16I3 = 12 (6.3.22) Equation 6.3.22 is sometimes referred to as the equation of a supermesh that results from combining meshes 1 and 2. The mesh-current equation for the supermesh can be written following the usual procedure, without having to introduce an unknown source voltage. However, introducing such a voltage is more fundamental and is less likely to cause an error. Adding two mesh-current equations reduces the number of independent mesh-current equations by one. But an additional equation is provided by the relation between the mesh currents and the source current. From Figure 6.3.8, I1 I2 = 0.125 (6.3.23)

Equations 6.3.21 to 6.3.23 are three independent equations that can be

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18-6

solved to give I1 = 1 A, I2 = 0.875 A, and I3 = 0.75 A. These values are the same as in Example 6.3.2, because I1 I2 = 0.125 A, as for the current source between meshes 1 and 2. Exercise 6.3.3 Simulate the circuit of Figure 6.3.8 and verify that KCL, KVL, and Ohms law are satisfied. 6.4 Dependent Sources in Mesh-Current Method Dependent voltage sources are treated in exactly the same manner as independent voltage sources. Consider, for example, the circuit of Figure 6.4.1, which is the same as that of Figure 6.3.4 but with the 8 V independent source replaced by a dependent voltage source. The node voltage equations are written in the usual way as: Mesh 1: Mesh 2: (2 + 8)I1 0I2 8I3 = 12 32Ib 0I1 + (8 + 8)I2 (6.4.2)
32Ib 8 Ib Figure 6.4.1 I2 8

(6.4.1)

8I3 = 32Ib Mesh 3: + 4)I3 = 0

-8I1 8I2 + (8 + 8 (6.4.3)

+ 2

Note that in these equations, the net voltage rise in mesh 1 is 12 32Ib and the voltage rise in mesh 2 is 32Ib. Leaving the 0 coefficient in the equations maintains the symmetry in the array of coefficients.
12 V

I1

I3

In order to solve the mesh-current equations the controlling variable, Ib in this case, should be expressed in terms of the mesh currents voltages. In the circuit of Figure 6.4.1, Ib = I1 I2. Substituting and moving the term in Ib to the LHS, Equations 6.4.1 to 6.4.3 become: Mesh 1: Mesh 2: Mesh 3: (10 +32)I1 0I2 40I3 = 12 32I1 + (8 + 8)I2 + 24I3 = 0 -8I1 8I2 + (8 + 8 + 4)Vc = 0 (6.4.4) (6.4.5) (6.4.6)

Solving these equations gives I1 = 1 A, I2 = 0.875 A, and I3 = 0.75 A, the same as in Example 6.3.2, because in this example Ib = 0.25 A, and 32Ib = 8 V, the same as the independent voltage. Note that the array of coefficients is symmetrical with

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19-6

respect to the diagonal in Equations 6.4.1 to 6.4.3, when 32Ib is on the RHS, but the symmetry is destroyed in equations 6.4.4 to 6.4.6 when 32Ib is substituted for in terms of I1 and I3 and moved to the LHS. Again, the effect of the dependent source is to modify some of the resistance coefficients in the mesh-current equations. In the case of dependent current sources, if the source is in parallel with a resistance, the dependent current source is transformed to a dependent voltage source, and the standard procedure followed. If the dependent current source cannot be transformed to a current source, an unknown voltage is assigned across the current source, and the procedure explained in connection with Figure 6.3.7 is followed. Several examples of this type are included in problems at the end of the chapter.

Exercise 6.4.1 Simulate the circuit of Figure 6.4.1 and verify that KCL, KVL, and Ohms law are satisfied. Summary of Main Concepts and Results In the node-voltage method, voltages of essential nodes are assigned with respect to one of the essential nodes taken as a reference. This automatically satisfies KVL in every mesh in the circuit. Equations based on KCL are then written directly in terms of Ohms law for each essential node other than the reference node. In any circuit, the branch voltages and currents are independent of the choice of reference node. In the mesh-current method, the unknown mesh currents are assigned in such a manner that KCL is automatically satisfied at every essential node. Equations based on KVL are then written for each mesh directly in terms of Ohms law. In writing the node-voltage and mesh-current methods, dependent sources are treated in exactly the same way as independent sources.

Problem-Solving Tips 1. The solution to any circuit problem can be checked by making sure that KCL is satisfied at every node and KVL is satisfied around every mesh. 2. A useful check on the node-voltage and mesh-current equations is that the array of coefficients on the left-hand side of the equations should be symmetrical about the diagonal. For the purpose of this check, zero coefficients must be included and dependent sources should appear as sources on the right-hand side of the
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20-6

equations. 3. An additional check is that in any row or column, the mutual conductances (resistances) are part of the self conductances (resistances) in that row or column.

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21-6

Exercises and Problems Verify solutions by PSpice Simulation. 6.1 Node-Voltage Method. Use the node-voltage method in Problems P6.1.1.to P6.1.22. P6.1.1 Determine the node voltages Va and Vb in Figure P6.1.1. Ans. Va = 0, Vb = -5/3 V.
Figure P6.1.1 6S 10 A
4S 6S 20 A a

P6.1.2

(a) Determine VO in Figure P6.1.2 and the voltages of the middle node, taking the lower nod as reference. (b) Repeat (a), taking the middle node as reference.
0.05 S 0.1 S 1A 0.1 S

VO

Ans.

VO = 10 V, voltage of middle nodes is 5 V.

1A

Figure P6.1.2

P6.1.3

(a) Determine VO in Figure P6.1.3 and the voltages of the middle nodes, taking the lower node as reference. (b) Repeat (a) taking node n as reference.
4A 2 n 2 6 6 4

VO

Ans.

(a) VO = 12 V, voltage of both nodes is 6 V; (b) voltage of upper node is 6 V, voltage of middle nodes is zero, and voltage of lower node is -6V.

Figure P6.1.3

P6.1.4

(a) Determine IO in Figure P6.1.4, taking the lower node as reference. (b) Repeat (a), taking node n as reference.
10 S
10 A 20 A 20 S IO

40 S
n

80 S

Ans.

IO = 20 A.

Figure P6.1.4

22-6

P6.1.5

(a) Determine Va in Figure P6.1.5 by transforming the voltage sources to current sources and writing the nodevoltage equation for node a. (b) Write the same node10 V + Figure P6.1.5 4

6
6

+ 20 V

voltage equation based on KCL, without transforming the sources. Ans. P6.1.6 10 V. Given that Va = 25 V and Vb = 12 V, with node c grounded. Determine Va if node b is grounded instead of node c. Ans. 13 V.
+ b c

Figure P6.1.6
0.02 S

P6.1.7 Determine VL and IA in Figure P6.1.7. Ans. 12.1 V, 0.35 A.

10 A Va IA a

0.025 S Vb 0.025 S
`

Vc c

+
VL

0.5 S

0.02 S

0.01 S

Figure P6.1.7

P6.1.8

Determine the node voltages in Figure P6.1.8.

a 4 k
`

1 k 5 mA

4 k b c 10 mA

Ans.

Va = 36.43 V, Vb = 23.57 V, Vc = 37.86 V

20 mA

2 k

2 k

Figure P6.1.8

23-6

P6.1.9

Determine the power delivered or absorbed by the current sources in Figure P6.1.9.

20 S

10 S 15 A

10 S 30 A

Ans.

15 A source absorbs 19.5 W, 30 A source delivers 66 W.

15 S

Figure P6.1.9

P6.1.10

Determine the branch voltages in Figure P6.1.10.

0.2VL
0.4 S 5A

Ans.

VL = 18.2 V, 31.8 V rise across the 5 A source, 26.4 V rise across the dependent source,
0.1 S

+
VL

0.1 S

Figure P6.1.10
4

P6.1.11

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.11.

+ 10 V

5 Ix A

Ans.

55/6 V.

+
2

4 Ix

VO

Figure P6.1.11

P6.1.12 Ans.

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.12,

+ 10 V 20

20 V.

10

+
20 V

+
40
VO

80

Figure P6.1.12

24-6

P6.1.13

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.13.

4 + 10 V

10 A

Ans.

15.51 V.

+
2
8 2 4 Ix

Ix

VO

Figure P6.1.13

Vx

4 Vx

+
2S

P6.1.14

Determine IO in Figure P6.1.14.

10 A

10 V 4S
8S 2S

Ans.

15.5 A.

IO

Figure P6.1.14
2S

2S

5Vx

+
4S Vx

P6.1.15

Determine IO in Figure P6.1.15.

10 A 4S

Ans.

-10/3 A.
IO
Figure P6.1.15

3VO

P6.1.16

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.16.

+ 4

Ans.

30 V.
2A

+
VO 2 2 Figure P6.1.16 5 4A

25-6

P6.1.17

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.17.

4

Vx 2

Ans.

0.

2
2Vx 10 A +

+
VO

20 V

Figure P6.1.17

IO 5S

P61.18

Determine ISRC1 ISRC1 and ISRC2 in Figure P6.1.18.

2V +

4S 2S

4S
2S

ISRC2

4V

3 IO

Ans.

ISRC1 = 1 A, ISRC2 = 95 A.
Figure P6.1.18

P6.1.19 Ans.

Determine IO in Figure P6.1.19.

+ 10 V
2S

Ix
2S 2S 2A

-22 A.

4S

2 Ix

Figure P6.1.19
0.1V

P6.1.20

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.20.

1S

20 V

0.2 S

0.5Vx
+

+
0.5 S Vx

+
V
0.2 S

+
VO 0.1 S

Ans.

18.5 V.

Figure P6.1.20

4S IO

26-6

P6.1.21

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.21.

2 1 2 + 10 V 2 4 4 2 2

Ans.

1.82 V.

+
VO 2

Figure P6.1.21
Ix 0.5Iy

Iy +

P6.1.22

Determine VO in Figure P6.1.22, assuming that all resistances are 2 .

5A

10 V

Ans.

2.56 V.

+
VO
Figure P6.1.22 0.5Ix

6.2

Mesh-Current Method Use the mesh-current method in Problems P6.2.1.to P6.2.20.

P6.2.1

Determine ISRC1 and ISRC2 in Figure P6.2.1.

ISRC1 + 4 6 +

ISRC2
20 V

Ans.

ISRC1 = 0, ISRC2 = 5/3 A.

10 V

6 Figure P6.2.1 15

P6.2.2

Determine ISRC1 and ISRC2 in Figure P6.2.2. ISRC1 = -1.3 A, ISRC2 = 2.2 A.

10 ISRC1 15 V

10

Ans.

+
20

+
Figure P6.2.2

ISRC2 30 V

27-6

P6.2.3 Ans. 0.

Determine IO in Figure P6.2.3,

+ 10 V 20

10
80

+
20 V

IO 40

Figure P6.2.3
20

P6.2.4

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.4. 12.5 V.

80 V +

20 100 + VO 40 Figure P6.2.4

40

Ans.

20

50

40

40

P6.2.5

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.5.

+ 20 V

+
50
100 VL Figure P6.2.5
10 33 V

Ans.

12.1 V.

10

+
20 30

P6.2.6 Ans.

Determine IO in Figure P6.2.6 0.85 A

+ 11 V

20

IO 66 V

10

Figure P6.2.6

28-6

P6.2.7

Determine Ix in Figure P6.2.7. -1.86 A

+ 8V

Ans.

5
2

4V

1
Ix

4
Figure P6.2.7
10 IL

P6.2.8 Ans.

Determine Ix in figure P6.2.8. 1.38 A.

50 V

25

Figure P6.2.8

0.5IO

P6.2.9

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.9. 20 V.

40 V

20 +

Ans.

+
VO

10

Figure P6.2.9

40 V

P6.2.10

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.10

2
`

Ans.

40 V.
20 A

Figure P6.2.10

5 IL

+
+ 10 V
Ix 100

20 V

10

IO

+
2

+
4

VO

29-6

P6.2.11

Determine IO in Figure P6.2.11.

Vx

4 Vx

+
2S

Ans.

15.51 A.
10 A

10 V 4S
8S 2S

IO

Figure P6.2.11
2S

P6.2.12

Determine IO in Figure P6.2.12.

2S 10 A 4S 5Vx

+
4S

+
Vx

Ans.

-10/3 A.

IO

Figure P6.2.12

3VO +

P6.2.13

Determine the power delivered or absorbed by each current source.

+
2A VO 5

Ans.

2A source delivers 2 W and 4 A source delivers 380 W.

4A

2 2 Figure P6.2.13

+ 10 V
2S

Ix
2S 2S 2A

P6.2.14 Ans.

Determine IO in Figure P6.2.12. -22 A

4S

2 Ix

4S IO

Figure P6.2.14

30-6

P6.2.15

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.15

4S + 2V

IO 5S + VO

4S

Ans.

-14.25 V

2S
3 IO

2S
+

Figure P6.2.15 10 A a

P6.2.16

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.16 15.5 V.

+

2
8 2 4 Ix

Ans.

Ix

Figure P6.2.16
Vx 4 2

P6.2.17

Determine the power delivered or absorbed by each independent source.

2
2Vx +

+ 20 V

Ans.

10 A source delivers 800 W, 20 V source 0 W.

4 4

P6.2.18

Determine Ix in Figure P6.2.18. Note that this is the same circuit as in Problem P6.1.8.

Figure P6.2.17 1 k

Ix

5 mA

4 k
`

4 k

Ans.

-1.43 mA

20 mA

2 k

2 k

10 mA

Figure P6.2.18

31-6

4V

+ VO

P6.2.19

Determine VO in Figure P6.2.19, assuming all resistances are 2 . Note that this is the same circuit as in Problem P6.1.22.
5A +

Ix 0.5Iy

Iy +

10 V

VO 0.5Ix

Ans.

-6.17 V.

Figure P6.2.19

P6.2.20

Determine Vx in Figure P6.2.20.

Ix 20 40 2 Ix

I 10

Ans.

-34.81 V.
10 5A

5 I

+ +

Vx

20

Figure P6.2.20

32-6