1 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation

C Ch ha ap pt te er r2 2: : T TH HE ES SC CH HO OO OL LA AS SA AN NA AG GE EN NT TO OF F S SO OC CIIA AL LIIS SA AT TIIO ON N

CONTENTS Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 1: Introduction 2: The Schools as an Agent of Socialisation 3: Education and Social Mobility 4: Education and Occupation 5: Peer Group 6 : Home 7 : Academic Underachievers 8 : Teaching Profession

LEARNING OUTCOMES When you complete this chapter you should be able to: Define socialisation Distinguish between the forms of socialisation Compare the different dimensions of socialisation Suggest activities that encourage socialisation in and outside the classroom Describe the socialisation that takes place inside the classroom,

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Preamble What is socialisation? Types of socialisation Agents of socialisation Dimensions of socialisation Sociology of the classroom Socialisation and type of school Socialisation in the classroom Socialisation outside the classroom Key Words Summary References

2 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation PREAMBLE

In Chapter 1 you were introduced to the sociology of education and the importance of the field in better understanding the relationship between school and society. In this chapter we will examine the school as an agent of socialisation with emphasis on the forms and dimension of socialisation. Socialisation takes place both in the outside the school. The student in the classroom is constantly being socialised through teacherstudent and student-student interactions. WHAT IS SOCIALISATION?

Socialisation begins when the individual is born. The new born baby enters a social environment meeting first its parents and other caregivers. As social beings, humans naturally engage in relationships with others in society. The following are some definitions of socialisations: Socialisation is the act of adopting the behaviour patterns and norms of the surrounding culture. Another word to describe socialisation is enculturation (Wordnet. Princeton University). The term socialisation is used by sociologists, social psychologists and educationalists to refer to the process of learning ones culture and how to live within that culture (Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia). Socialisation is the process by which a human being beginning at infancy acquires the habits, beliefs, and accumulated knowledge of society through education and training for adult status (Merriam-Webster Dictionary) Socialisation is process of being raised within a culture and acquiring the characteristics of the given group (Prentice-Hall Publishers) Socialisation is to adapt or make conform to the common needs of a social group (Your Dictionary.Com).

In short, socialisation is the instilling of the language, values, rules, customs, traditions, skills, knowledge, understanding of others, understanding of oneself as a social being or a social self. During this process, individuals learn who they are and how they go about forming their social identity. Socialisation occurs through several agencies of social control, however, one common thread is that they teach people, normally at a young age how society functions and what it expects and values in an individual. For example, a mother may rewards her child for being polite as society expects children (and also others!) to be polite in public (WikiAnswers.com). Socialisation provides the individual with the knowledge and skills necessary when participating in society. On the other hand, society uses socialisation as the means of maintaining cultural continuity (New World Encyclopaedia, 2008).

3 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation TYPES OF SOCIALISATION

Sociologists have distinguished the following types of socialisation which occurs in various social settings such as the school, the home, the workplace, among peers and so forth:

Primary socialisation Secondary socialization Reverse socialization Anticipatory socialisation Resocialisation Reciprocal socialisation

Primary Socialisation Primary socialisation is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to function as members of a particular culture. In many instances, the socialisation process takes place without the individual knowing about it. Primary socialisation is essentially through face-to-face interaction between people and the main socialising institution is the family. Secondary socialization Secondary socialisation refers to the process of learning what is appropriate behaviour as a member of a smaller group within the larger society. This type of socialisation is purposeful and obvious. Usually it involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialisation. Example would be being socialised by the peer group or when entering the workplace or relocating to a new environment or society. A substantial amount of secondary socialisation takes place in the school and peer groups. Reverse socialisation Reverse socialization is deviation from the desired behaviours or enculturation. This is especially common among young adults. Anticipatory socialization Anticipatory socialisation refers to the processes of socialisation in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a high school student who has been accepted to university begins to dress and adopt mannerisms which are supposed to be characteristic of an undergraduate. Resocialisation Resocialisation refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle. Resocialisation can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with their past, and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example

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might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military. Reciprocal Socialisation Reciprocal socialisation is when parents socialise children and children in turn socialise their parents. We are taught to socialise at every stage of our life course, we learn new knowledge and social skills appropriate for our age group. Whatever we acquire at one stage becomes the foundation for the socialization of the next stage. For example, at the primary school level, for example, we learn reading, writing and mathematics and these became the foundation for introducing other more difficult and complex subjects. Similarly, at this stage of the childs life he learns through primary socialization; basic knowledge and values of his society. In other words, the socialisation that evolves around his family. As he grows older, he learns through secondary socialisation; synthesis, creativity, logic, emotional control and advanced knowledge. Thus, secondary socialisation extends beyond his family to include institutions, groups and organisations and prepares him for the outside world. Source: Socialization. (2008, April 2). New World Encyclopedia. Retrieved 12:45, May 13, 2009

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is socialisation? b) Explain the difference between primary and secondary socialisation? c) Give a few examples of resocialisation.

5 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION

Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence an individual's self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour. Among the common agents of socialisation include the family, schools, the media, religion, the workplace, and the government (see Figure 2.1).

FAMILY AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION

SCHOOL

PEERS

MEDIA & COMMUNICATION

WORKPLACE

Figure 2.1 Five Main Agents of Socialisation FAMILY Family is responsible for, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion and establishing career goals. Family is an important agent of socialization by right of the sheer amount of time spent within one's family. The first few years of a child's life are likely to be spent only with their family and much of their subsequent downtime in the following years will also be spent with the family. As such, family members can teach good or bad habits regarding social interaction, adopting social norms, and inhabiting traditional roles within one's society [Discussed in detail in Chapter 6]. The most

6 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation important agent of socialization, because it stands at the centre of childrens lives. o Provides for basic needs, and teaches children skills, cultural values, and attitudes about themselves and others o Passes on to children a social position (places them in society in terms of race, ethnicity, religion and class) o Socialises children into gender roles

SCHOOL Outside of the family, students probably spends the most time in school. Schoolmates, teachers, and the environment itself can have lasting impacts on a child's socialization. It is in this environment that children learn to interact with their peers, to compete, to cooperate, to respect authority, and many other valuable skills. Besides these interpersonal skills, schools are also places of learning cultural content in which one can be made aware of their society's history, traditions, and norms. Schooling enlarges childrens social world to include people with social backgrounds different from their own o School teach children a wide range of knowledge and skills o School is the childs first experience with bureaucracy o School socialise children into gender roles MEDIA AND COMMUNICATION Some sociologists and theorists of culture have recognized the power of mass communication as a socialization device. Dennis McQuail says: the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behaviour as represented in the media [Discussed in detail in Chapter 6]. An alternative view is that it is a learning process whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations which go with a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual experience. Spreads information on a mass scale, and functions to connect people. o Media influences our attitudes and behaviour through the images and messages it conveys o Media mirrors societys patterns of inequality and rarely challenges the status quo o Media reflects the values of the dominant culture PEERS Provides young people the experience in developing social relationships on their own and establishing an identity apart from their family [Discussed in detail in Chapter 5]. Provides the opportunity to discuss interests not shared by adults Provides a sense of belonging that eases the anxiety of breaking away from the family. Provides young people the experience in developing social relationships on their own and establishing an identity apart from their family o Provides the opportunity to discuss interests not shared by adults

7 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation o Provides a sense of belonging that eases the anxiety of breaking away from the family [Discussed further in Module 5]. WORKPLACE After having left school, the young person either continues studying in a college or university or enter the place of work. The workplace plays an important part in socialising individuals and among the values acculturated are punctuality, work ethics, working in teams and so forth.

DIMENSIONS OF SOCIALISATION

In order to understand socialisation, we need to understand the various aspects that constitute socialisation which are as follows: Behaviour Conformity: If a student conforms to the rules and procedures in a school, then we label the student as being good. For example, in schools we have rules to govern students behaviour during the classroom lessons. Students know that they have to raise their hands if they need to ask or answer the teacher. If students do not comply with this expected behaviour then it is the duty of the teacher to use her power to socialize the students to conform to the required behaviour. Moral Conformity: Socialisation train students to conform to moral behaviour (moral conformity) that are perceived as the correct action. Students are instilled with moral behaviour such as honesty, generosity, fairness, kindness and hard work. In the Malaysian school curriculum, subjects such as moral and religious subjects are taught to instil these moral behaviours. Cultural Conformity: Socialisation trains students for cultural conformity or acculturation. What do you mean by cultural conformity? It means that members of a society incorporate norms and values from other cultures into their own. The process of cultural conformity happens through intercultural contact and the borrowing or imitation of cultural norms. For example, English Language became the second language in Malaysia due to earlier British colonisation. Cultural conformity may also mean acquiring approved styles and outlooks. For example, we tend to approve students who are academically inclined rather than those who are less inclined [Read Chapter 7: Academic Underachievers and its consequences]. This could be due to our society placing higher emphasis on those who excel in the national examinations. Thus, the child grows up to fit into his society.

The three types of conformity are emphasised in most schools but it is unlikely schools will be able to successfully instil the three types. For example, in the military

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academy or college, there is a higher emphasis on behaviour conformity where students are required to obey military rules and regulations. Similarly, we find that in religious schools there is a higher emphasis on moral conformity where the students are expected to conform to good behaviour. Thus, schools need to ensure that they implement a certain minimum level of each of the three types of conformity. In addition, schools need to be aware that socialization does change over time, especially in terms of the messages and the techniques used. This is seen when we compare the life styles of children in the 40s and 50s with those of today.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is socialisation? b) Explain the difference between primary and secondary socialisation? c) Give a few examples of resocialisation.

SOCIALISATION ACCORDING TO TYPE OF SCHOOL

Let us now compare how the socialisation process varies according to the type of school. A) SOCIALISATION IN VILLAGE SCHOOLS The village school is used to pass on essential information about the culture of the immediate community; i.e. values, skills and knowledge necessary for survival. Sometimes this process occurs in formal classrooms, sometimes in informal places. For example, in some west African villages children may have several years of formal education in a village school, but they learn values of right and wrong and future roles informally by observing their elders and by playing at the tasks they will soon undertake for survival. The girls help with household chores while boys build model boats and practice negotiating waves. Classroom environments are conducted in informal settings and schools do not stress on school Picture 2.1 Village school in attendance, classroom attentiveness and academic west Africa performance (see Picture 2.1). Life is slow and relatively more laid-back but emphasis on the three dimensions of socialisation is strong; i.e. behaviour, moral and cultural conformity closely related to the immediate culture of the community.

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Over the seven day period, out of 50.5 hours spent at school by the children 30.5 hours were [spent out of the classroom] as follows: 16.5 hours in recreation periods, 4.5 hours in sports competitions, 3.5 hours waiting during adult meetings, 3.5 hours in which teachers were absent during school, and 2.5 hours in line-up activities. A portion of the class time was allocated for cleaning up the classroom

B) SOCIALISATION IN MODERN SCHOOLS As societies became modern elders and family members were not able to teach all the skills necessary for survival. Formal schooling emerged to meet the needs of industrial and postindustrial societies. Schools also became more heterogeneous where diverse groups met to learn rules that maintain social cohesion and order. Children receive socialisation messages from teachers, the formal curriculum and the routine practices and rules of everyday classroom life. Most people remember their first day of elementary school, marking a transition between the warn, loving, accepting world of the family and a more impersonal school world that emphasises discipline, knowledge, skills, responsibility and obedience. In school children learn that they must prove themselves, they are no longer accepted regardless of their behaviours as they were in their families. They must meet certain expectations and compete for attention and rewards. They also must prepare to participate in their societys political and economic systems, in which a literate populate is necessary to make informed decisions on issues. Values and Virtues Students are Socialised into in Schools Schools are where children are taught virtues that reflect moral traditions; truthfulness, politesse, broad-mindedness, love of goodness, and compassion, work ethic of industry; endeavour, planning, and prudence, and patriotism; courageousness in battle, love of independence, respect for the rule of law and the Constitution and responsible participation in the institutions of political society.

Teachers are now responsible to equip their students with mental abilities instead of the previous focus on character building and survival skills only. Aspects of cognitive development becomes the niche areas of most school curriculum. The

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increasing cultural diversity of schools, led to concern and sensitivity to differences in language, customs and traditions in the classroom. As countries became more industrialised, the pattern of socialisation changed with very high focus on behavioural training and moral conformity. Also, dependence on export and import and international trade, cultural conformity sets in to accommodate the need to socialise with the world. In modern schools, authoritarian methods are no longer the favoured structural forms of control but instead schools became the place for active exploration and learning. Modern schools expose students to a bureaucratic organisation and mass consumption of industrialised societies. Schools are given the task of preparing students for jobs in bureaucracies and consumer-oriented life style of choice and variety.

C) SOCIALISATION IN ELITE SCHOOLS Many countries in the world have elite schools; some of which are recent establishment while some have been around for centuries. For example, in England the famous Eton public school was established to cater for the elite English society, and its own curriculum to groom English aristocracy (McConnell, 1985). Similarly, in other European countries for example Germany, with its bildungsbergertum values to cater for the upper middle class society, while in France, grandes ecoles became part of the school system; transforming young Frenchmen into military, industrial, and administrative statesmen. Germany: In the beginning of the 19th century, the educated bourgeoisie, the "Bildungsbrgertum", separated itself from other groups of society not so much on the basis of its economic position but rather on the basis of its education. This is reflected in the idealist assumption that a more advanced knowledge is accessible to a small, chosen elite only. This education, mirroring the idealistic ideas that led to the foundation of Berlin University, was humanistic, with an emphasis on philosophy, history and the classical languages. Humanistic training was offered at an elitist institution of secondary education: the "Gymnasium". Other, more practical forms of knowledge were taught at less prestigious types of schools. France: The Grandes coles are uniquely French institutions. Created in the early 19th century in parallel to the university system, they are extremely selective and offer education of a very high standard. Engineering and business are the specialties of most of Frances unique and renowned Grandes coles, institutions of higher education that may be public or private. But others, including some of the most famous, are devoted to public administration (the coleNationale dAdministration), military sciences, postsecondary teaching and research (the coles Normales Suprieures), agronomy, and veterinary medicine. The fees in these institutions are expensive and thus, only the wealthier families can afford to enrol their children in these schools (see Picture 2.1). The students bring to classes their refined manner which can be a model to fellow classmates. On the other hand, these children may express aloof attitude towards those who they perceived as lower in social status and may only want to socialise with peers of the same social background. Socialisation in elite schools may also reflect the types of activities these group of community practices.

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Picture 2.1 Elite Indian school in Dubai

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) How the role of the village school different from modern schools? b) How do you think private schools socialise students differently from public or government schools?

SOCIALISATION IN THE CLASSROOM

The process of socialisation is most distinct in the classroom. As we all know classrooms are filled with children. Jackson (1968, p. 10) termed it as one teachermany students where students are placed within a close proximity (classroom) and the teacher (a central figure) is in-charge to maintain control through discipline techniques. In order to understand the dynamics of socialisation in the classroom one has to understand and recognise the importance of the classroom environment.

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The culture of the classroom comprises routines imposed by teachers onto students which are school and classroom rules and regulations designed to maintain control and discipline in the classrooms. Its purpose is to channel the desired behaviour, belief and orientations set by the school. Students are free to interact within the boundaries of these rules but when they act beyond the accepted behaviours such as hurting other students, disrupting lessons, cheating during test or exams, and the like, these rules and regulations define the seriousness of the offence and set the relevant punishment for the offender. Rules and regulations are part of the bureaucratic system in school which decide the dos and donts. The socialising rules in schools may differ according to society. For example, in the United States there is higher emphasis on rules at the elementary level and once students internalise them it becomes less stringent as they proceed through high school. On the other hand, in Japan, school rules and regulations are strictly enforced throughout the primary and secondary schooling. THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM The "Hidden Curriculum" is a term to used to describe the unwritten social rules and expectations of behaviour that we all seem to know, but were never taught (Bieber, 1994). For example, children just seem to know that if you smack you classmate, you will get in trouble. Most students also know that its not a great idea to tell an offcolour joke in front of a teacher, even if the joke was funny during recess Or; that its not a smart idea to argue with a policeman even if he is wrong (Myles & Southwick, 1999). Similarly, students quickly learn which teachers are more insistent than others about conforming to classroom rules, who are more adept at catching them cheating on tests, and who are more gullible about accepting homework excuses. No one ever explains these

The dog ate my homework

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things to them, yet students readily adjust their behaviour according to those expectations, knowing what the consequences are likely to be, and are prepared to make those choices seemingly without effort. The hidden curriculum is a major socialising process in the classroom. This process may include daily features such as queuing, doing class exercises independently, following instructions made by the teacher, doing group work and keeping the classroom clean and neat. At times it could be through messages conveyed verbally or nonverbally by teachers such as expectations, attitudes towards others and power relations through interaction between students or pupils and the teacher. CLASSROOM INTERACTIONS As John Dewey said: The only way to prepare for social life is to engage in social life and the classroom is the place to do so. The classroom is one of the places where through a gradual process of socialisation, students or pupils are equipped with the knowledge, skills and responsibilities needed in adult life. Interactions that occur in the classroom environment will depend very much on the teaching styles and behaviour of teachers. Teacher-student interactions and student-student interactions creates the atmosphere of the classroom. Just look at the interactions that goes on during a 40 minute class lesson. There may be around a few hundred interactions which may be in spoken form, unspoken form; facial expressions, tone, gesture and physical movements and so forth. Interactions in the classroom vary according to the pedagogical strategies of teachers. During the interaction between the teacher (transmitter) and the students (acquirer), knowledge is transmitted via the teaching methods used by the teacher. Thus, the teacher has control over how knowledge is to be transmitted; the teaching materials, the skills to be incorporated, how much information to be conveyed and received (Bernstein (1990, 1996). Teachers who practiced an authoritarian teaching style tend to control noise in the classroom where students can only speak when permitted to do so. This style was found to prevalent in classrooms with low achievers and children from lower socio-economic backgrounds. On the other hand, if teachers perceived themselves as facilitators they tend to allow students more freedom to speak and have less control over them. This approach was found to be more prevalent in classrooms with high achievers and children from high socio-economic backgrounds (Kalekin-Fishman, 1991). Hence, different teaching styles and approaches has a different effect on classroom interactions which in turn has different socialisation effects on students in the class. Besides teacher-students interactions, another form of interaction that contributes towards socialising students or pupils is through student-student interaction. For example, in most classrooms a structured seating arrangement is imposed where students have no choice but to sit according to the seating assigned. Invariably, students start to get to know those seated around them. Later they hang out together in the school canteen and perhaps after school leading to the development of friendship which becomes an integral part of the informal learning experience.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) How does the classroom socialise students or pupils? b) Explain the role of the hidden curriculum in socialising students. c) How does student-teacher interaction influence the socialisation process? d) . FRIENDSHIP Friendship begins in preschool years when children first encounter the world outside their family. The preschool years are filled with play and informal learning where there is plenty of opportunity for children to make friends. Socialisation begins here and develops as they go through childhood. A child who is able to interact with other children grows socio-emotionally. As the child grows into adolescence, friendship is seen as an important part of a teenagers life. They perceive social peers and close friends as people whom they can associate with, seek advice, and have a sense of belonging. As such adolescents tend to place friends above their parents, because they perceive loyalty and commitment as important aspects of friendship. The socialisation process that takes place among friends can vary depending on whether the classroom culture is autocratic or democratic. For example, in a democratic classroom, affective and emotional development of students is likely to be enhanced because of increased interaction and shared activities leading to wider frienships. On the other hand, in autocratic classrooms, students tend to make friends mostly with those seated near them. Democratic classrooms further encourage more and longer lasting friendships compared to autocratic classrooms. Interestingly, students in democratic classrooms tend to have fewer best friends but more general friendships (Grubaugh & Houston, 1990). Gender differences are also observed in terms or friendship and socialisation. In a study by Corsaro and Eder (1990), it was reported that girls tend to have close friends and are more open in sharing their secrets and problems with each other. On the other hand, the boys are unlikely to have close friends but they tend to develop friendships based on common interest, especially in sports. Also, boys are likely to gain popularity because of their athletic capability, hardiness, aloofness, and crossgender relations. On the other hand, girls become popular based on their parents socioeconomic status, their physical looks, social skills, and school performance (Adler, Kless & Adler, 1992). In addition, girls who are popular tend not to socialise with those from the lower status. Boys on the other hand tend to adopt an insensitive and aggressive attitude to cope with the pressure for success (Edler et al., 1995).

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SEGREGATION OR STREAMING Segregation or streaming of students or pupils into particular classes can influence socialisation. Streaming students according to their academic ability may confine students socialising with students of the same academic ability and exclude them from mixing with students of different ability levels. Similarly, grouping students on the basis of their ethnic origin may hinder them from socialising with those from other ethnic groups. Segregating students deprives students the opportunity to understand and socialise with students of other races which is especially important for a multiracial society like Malaysia. Interracial friendship is important to prepare students for future work environments in most instance multiracial. SEATING ARRANGEMENT Another aspect of the classroom that may influence socialisation is the seating arrangement and physical conditions of the classroom. Most classrooms have a common set up where the teacher is in front of the classroom and students sit in rows facing the teacher. While this pattern of arrangement gives the teacher a strategic position in front of the classroom, it also influences the socialisation process. For example, students who are seated in the first few rows have the advantage to participate more frequently compared to those seating at the back of the classroom. Because they are seated in front, they are noticed by the teacher as well as their peers. Studies have shown that teachers tend to be accommodating towards those in the front rows and imposed fewer formal directives. In college or university, students in the front rows tend to be academically better and more interested to get better results and tend to be more involved in the learning process. CLASS SIZE Size of classroom also determines childrens socialisation pattern. Smaller class size means lesser students per teacher. If the number of students in the classroom is small, teachers tend to impose less control, less time on discipline. Also smaller class size encourages more time for interaction and communication between the teacher and students and students and students. In such classes, students have the opportunity to participate actively in the class, leading to more informal interactions with teachers and administrators. In contrast, large class size leads to the gap between teachers and students to be wider; less opportunity for participation in the teaching-learning process and eventually minimal less socialisation. ENGAGING STUDENTS TO SOCIALISE IN THE CLASSROOM If the classroom is seen as a place for children to socialise then every effort should be made to create opportunities to engage students to socialise in the classroom. The following are some suggestions to enhancing socialisation:

Sudents should be involved in making their own classroom rules and regulations. Classroom duties should be regularly changed and rotated among students through discussion at class meetings. Responsibility for the welfare of students in the classroom should be shared by everyone and not only confined to teachers, prefects or class monitor.

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Teachers should not be too involved in controlling activities in the classroom and more opportunities should be given to students to organise and express their opinions. The students should be given the responsibility to take charge; for example, organising a field trip or an outing.

There should be closer relations between the students in the classroom irrespective of age, ethnicity/race and academic performance. Encourage students to tell their experiences that may be related to classroom work. Instil in students to show appreciation of the work of others in their group.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) How does segregation, streaming, seating arrangements, class size and interaction influence socialisation in the classroom? b) How can teachers engage students to socialise in the classroom? THEORSITS VIEWS ON SOCIALISATION IN THE CLASSROOM We have discussed how socialisation takes place in the classroom and the factors influencing the socialisation process. Let us examine how sociological theorists view socialisation in the classroom. In chapter 1 we discussed three schools of thought namely the functional theory, conflict theory and interactional theory. FUNCTIONAL THEORISTS argue that the socialisation of the classroom is important as it prepares children for societal roles as adults. Socialisation begins in kindergarten, primary school and extends into secondary and postsecondary education. Both the curriculum and the hidden curriculum are involved in socialising students and pupils. Obedience, adherence to rules and regulations and cooperation are among the values and skills imbued in the classroom. For example, socialising students to sit for long periods of time while quietly listening prepares them for a life in an office or business.

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CONFLICT THEORISTS on the other hand see a conflict between teachers and administrators who are the dominant adults in the school and students who are being controlled, coerced, and co-opted through various ways. Teachers are the ones who set up the time table, initiate exchanges, and set the rules in the classroom. Daily routines and rituals in the school reflect the dominant culture practiced that children will be taught. Through socialisation, teachers seek to dominate students and pupils. Socialisation is viewed as a way for the powerful to preserve the status quo. Conflict is ongoing and is a fundamental part of schools. Conflict theorists argued that the haves and the have-nots are socialised differently and learn what society expects of them. Children who come from middle- and upper-class backgrounds are more likely to participate in organised activities than some impoverished children who are unable to participate.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST THEORISTS have a different opinion about the role of schools in socialising students. It is like the looking glass self in that humans seldom see themselves objectively, but rather as images reflected from the reactions of other people; i.e. how we imagine other people see us, how we think they judge us, and how we feel about that judgement. We may make errors in how people see us and how we interpret their reactions. In other words, we are who we think other people think we are. Socialisation is essentially a process whereby students learn to take the role of others; i.e. the capacity to put oneself in the place of another is essential to becoming a member of society. Unless we are able to put ourselves in the place of other, to see ourselves as others see us, and to shape or modify our behaviour according to expectations of others, we are not fully socialised. For example, adolescents are under substantial pressure to make sure that other people think they appear and act in peer-approved ways.
LEARNING ACTIVITY

What are the differences in the functionalist, conflict and interactionist theorist views on socialisation?

SOCIALISATION OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM Earlier, we discussed socialization in the classroom. However, socialisation does not only occur within the four walls of the classroom. Students do interact with other students throughout the school hours, for example, at the playground and performing duties outside the classroom. Even though the time they spend outside the classroom is less compared to the hours they spent in the classroom, one should not ignore the fact that there are interactions and socialisation does happen.

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SCHOOL PLAYGROUND The school playground is an important place for students to socialise. It represents the informal setting for friendship. What happens outside the classroom helps to prepare students for the adult world as it is here that they learn about self-esteem and self-control among peers. Most schools ensure that students leave the classrooms during recess time and this allows them to socialise with other students. Why is the school playground important to childrens socialisation? When students are in the school playground they are distant from adults. Most of the time they are on their own and even if there are adults, these adults are in the background, perhaps monitoring childrens safety and possible mischievousness. When adults stay away then there is opportunity for children to perform group-directed activity. They also feel at ease to mix around and without being observed by an adult. Most of the time, children choose to play with children similar to their age group, not necessarily their neighbours or relatives. Interacting with peers reduces social distance between children. However, if they interact with children of different age groups, this allows an opportunity to get to know juniors or seniors and develop new relationships as well as break relationships. Such social interactions enable children to understanding the what, how and problems of social relationships. Therefore, children who lack experiences in socialising outside the classroom may be less prepared for adult life. What goes on at the playground are basically lessons on how to socialise, make friends and how to handle bullies, false friends, snobs, tag-alongs, tale-tellers and other behaviours of children. They learn how to react to different types of behaviour and which helps them in their judgment of others. For example, how do I deal with aggressiveness, when do I report a friends misbehaviour Does giving in mean Im being bullied, How much personal information should I reveal, What is the effective way to make friends, When should I speak and when should I listen.

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However, there is evidence based on observation to suggest that outdoor activities may vary according to gender. For example, in primary or elementary school, the more energetic boys tend to control large open play spaces and invade the space where groups of girls play leading to gender related aggressiveness. The playground is also the place where children make new friends, a place where friendships breakup, a place abusive language is learned and expressed, and a place where children may try out new identities. These experiences in the playground play are in preparing children with the skills needed in handling relationships later in their adult life.
LEARNING ACTIVITY

Observe a playground with children playing and see evidence for the following: gender segregation, inter-racial grouping, abusive language, loneliness, following rules, bonding, sharing, taking turns, bullying and so forth.

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KEY WORDS Socialisation Primary socialisation Secondary socialization Reverse socialization Anticipatory socialisation Resocialisation Reciprocal socialisation Behaviour conformity Cultural conformity Moral conformity Segregation Friendship Hidden curriculum

SUMMARY The term socialisation is used by sociologists, social psychologists and educationalists to refer to the process of learning ones culture and how to live within that culture. Sociologists have distinguished the following types of socialisation which occurs in various social settings such as the school, the home, the workplace, among peers and so forth: o Primary socialisation o Secondary socialization o Reverse socialization o Anticipatory socialisation o Resocialisation o Reciprocal socialisation Behaviour conformity: If you do not comply with this expected behaviour then it is the duty of the teacher to use her power to socialise the students to conform to the required behaviour. Socialisation trains students for cultural conformity or acculturation. Socialisation train students to conform to moral behaviour (moral conformity) that are perceived as the correct action. The village school is used to pass on essential information about the culture of the immediate community; i.e. values, skills and knowledge necessary for survival. As John Dewey said: The only way to prepare for social life is to engage in social life and the classroom is the place to do so. Segregation or streaming of students or pupils into particular classes can influence socialisation. Another aspect of the classroom that may influence socialisation is the seating arrangement and physical conditions of the classroom.

21 Chapter 2: The School as an Agent of Socialisation

Students do interact with other students throughout the school hours, for example, at the playground and performing duties outside the classroom. Friendship begins in preschool years when children first encounter the world outside their family.

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