SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE NP: THE SUBJECT [The boy] greeted the girl. greeted the boy.

Su Su [The DO DO girl]

The subject may be reali4ed by 5 types of phrases% 6# simple N/- 7# comple3 N/- 5# clausal N/ 6# simple N/ e.g. [The museum] was simple N/ Subject closed.

e.g.

[That he did not ha e any chance]

is clear to e eryone. The N/ functioning as Su is fre'uently associated with the thematic role of ;genthowe er sometimes the Su can ha e other thematic roles as well. e.g. [The boy] ,ic,ed the ball. ;gent [The boy] lo es football. $3periencer

SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS OF THE NP: THE OBJECT The main syntactic function of the N/ inside the =/ is that of Object. Direct Object The DO is the syntactic function of the N/ which appears in post& erbal position. The DO appears after simple transiti e bsditransiti e bs. !8gi e.# and comple3 transiti e bs.% e.g. They accused him of murder. & comple3 transiti e DO /O Object deletion% The DO may be deleted or omitted after certain bs. and in certain conte3ts. e.g. She is singing !a song#.

In some languages the subject of the sentence is identified by means of special endings to show Nominati e case !e.g. "omanian#. $nglish identifies the subject by means of the position in the sentence% & the Subject occupies the initial position in affirmati e sentences and in wh&'uestions addressed to the subject e.g. [(ho] greeted subject wh&'. the girl)

The pronoun 8it. can function as the Su of the sentence and it can be interpreted in 5 different ways% e.g. This is my boo,. It is here. 9 personal pronoun [:meaning] [&meaning] It pronoun It is ob ious [that they are good students]. & e3pleti e pronoun &personal 9 when it replaces a noun &impersonal 9 in sentences about weather &e3pleti e 9 when it simply occupies the Su. position and anticipates the real Su. of the sentence. There is a boo, on the table. 9 the sentence has 7 subjects- one grammatical and one logical. In $nglish there are two e3pleti e pronouns% 8it. and 8there.. 7# comple3 N/ ; comple3 N/ contains a Spec- a <ead and a clause functioning as adjunct. e.g. [The girl [who is sitting there]] is my sister. comple3 N/ 5# clausal N/ The Su position can be occupied by a whole clause. The distinction between the comple3 N/ and the clausal N/ is that the comple3 N/ contains a N : clause while the clausal N/ contains only a clause. is snowing. & impersonal

& the Subject occupies the second position in *es+No 'uestions e.g. Did [the boy] greet the girl)

& the Subject occupies the third position in non& subject wh& 'uestions e.g. (ho did [the boy] greet)

Indirect Object The IO appears with ditransiti e bs. !8to gi e.# and with simple intransiti e bs. !8to happen.#. >rom a semantic point of iew- 7 types of IO can be distinguished% & the dative of reference- which shows a personal point of iew e.g. [To me]- he is a hero.

& the Subject occupies the final position in ta'&'uestions e.g. *ou li,e music- don.t [you])

The N/ functioning as subject enters a relationship of agreement in person and number with the b. of the sentence e.g. here. N/ [0ary] is here. 1[0ary] are N/

& the dative of interest- which shows the person to whose ad antage the action ta,es place e.g. me]. I want you to do something [for

The subject of the sentence determines if the predicati e is singular or plural. e.g. [2oe and Tim] are [my brothers]. Subject N/ Nominal predicati e The le3icali4ation of the subject

The classification of ditransiti e bs.% Ditransiti e bs. obligatorily ta,e an IO and can be classified depending on whether they re'uire the preposition 8to. or 8for. for the IO. & ditransiti e bs. with a to&N/ object% bs. belonging to this group show the transfer of an object to a recipient !IO#

e.g. the 8gi e. class% the house [to students.]

She

rented

?esides the le3ical b. 8to be.- the au3iliary erb 8to be. can also appear in e3istential constructions% e.g. him. grammatical Su logical Su [; song] was played by him. [There] was [a song] played by

The grammatical subject 8there. has most of the properties of ordinary subjects% & in 'uestions the grammatical subject 8there. occupies the same position as an ordinary subject e.g. 'uestion <as 0ary read the boo,) *es+No <as there been an incident)

PASSIVE VOICE *e&initi#n+ inst n"es #& 'ent,de!eti#n /assi i4ation is a process that affects the morphological- syntactic and semantic le el. ;t the morphological le el- the au3. @beA and the au3. @getA are introduced and the acti e erb is in the past participle form. ;t the syntactic le el- the acti e subject and object change position. The acti e object mo es to the beginning of the clause and it becomes more important. The acti e subject is changed into a prepositional object and it is placed in post& erbal position. e.g. [The police] chased [the robbers]& /atient acti e oice N/ acti e Su N/ acti e DO /atient ;gent by&phrase [The robbers] were chased [//by the police] Subject be: = 5rd /O Semantically- the object becomes more

& ditransiti e bs. with a for&N/ object% bs. belonging to this group show actions performed by the agent for the benefit of the IO e.g. She coo,ed dinner [for her father] ;gent DO // IO

T$e %r#%erties #& t$e !#'i" ! sub(e"t The most important condition for a sentence to become an e3istential construction is that the subject should be indefinite. The indefiniteness of the subject is indicated by indefinite determiners !a- some- any#- by the zero article- by the negation preceding the logical subject and by quantifiers !manylittle#. e.g. [Two ca,es] are on the table. There are [two ca,es] on the table. & just li,e ordinary subjects- the grammatical subject 8there. can appear in finite relati e clauses and in non&finite clauses e.g. I read the article [about which 0ary has so many comments]. relati e clause I read the article [about which there ha e been so many comments]. & there is no agreement between the grammatical subject and the b. ;greement in person and number is established only between the b. and the logical subject. e.g. There is a girl there. There are some girls there. 1is+

EXISTENTIAL CONSTRUCTIONS [; dictionary] was on the table. N/ indefinite subject [There] was [[a dictionary] on the table. grammatical Su logical Su Sentences containing the e3pleti e pronoun 8there. functioning as grammatical subject are ,nown as e3istential constructions. $3istential constructions are produced by mo ing the indefinite subject after the b. ;nd by introducing in initial position the e3pleti e pronoun. Verbs used in existenti ! "#nstru"ti#ns The b. which is most fre'uently used in e3istential constructions is the b. 8to be.- but there are also other types of intransiti e bs. which can be used in e3istential constructions% a# e3istential bs. !to li e- to be- to occur- to e3ist-to happen# b# aspectual bs. !to seem-to appear-to happen# c# ingressi e bs. !to arise-to emerge-to burst# d# bs. of motion !to come-to arri e-to run# e# positional bs. !to stand-to lie-to hang# e.g. [; wall] ran around the illage. indefinite Su There ran a wall around the illage.

In most e3istential constructions the logical subject is indefinite- howe er there are certain conte3ts in which the logical subject is allowed to be definite% & when the logical subject appears with the words 8same. and 8other. only the definite determiner 8the. can be used. e.g. door. There was [the same man] at the

important than the subject. The deletion of the ;gent by&phrase

& the definite determiner 8the. can be used when the logical subject is e3pressed by a comple3 N/ e.g. There is [the possibility that he will come]. comple3 N/ !N: clause# as logical Su & when the logical subject is preceded by an adjecti e in the superlati e- it must ta,e the definite determiner 8the. e.g. for you. There is [the nicest girl] waiting

Banguage spea,ers use passi e sentences without an agent in the following cases% a# The identity of the agent is un,nown. e.g. 2ohn was ,illed in the war. b# The agent is indefinite. e.g. Dogs are lo ed. c# The agent is not important. e.g. The doctor was called. d# The agent is well&,nown. e.g. <e was arrested. e# The spea,er does not wish to name the agent. e.g. ; secret letter was sent to me.

T$e %r#%erties #& t$e 'r )) ti" ! sub(e"t

P ssi-i. b!e -erbs+ % ssi-i. ti#n

-erbs

t$ t

resist

0ost transiti e erbs and a few intransiti e erbs allow a passi e ersion. /assi i4able transiti e bs Transiti e bs can be simple or comple3.

The rule was e3plained to the students by the teacher. 9 passi e There are some idiomatic phrases that allow 7 passi e ersions. e.g. @to ta,e ad antage of smth.A <e too, ad antage of me. ;d antage was ta,en of me. 9 passi e I was ta,en ad antage of. 9 passi e /assi i4able intransiti e bs. /assi i4able intransiti e bs. are bs- that ta,e an obligatory preposition. e.g. They put up with him cheerfully. 9 prepositional phrasal intransiti e b <e was put up with cheerfully. 9 passi e Classes of erbs that resist passi i4ation There are se eral types of transiti e erbs that cannot be passi i4ed. "eciprocal bs li,e @to resembleA- @to di orceA cannot be passi i4ed because they allow the switch of position between the object and the subject in the acti e oice. e.g. 2ane resembles <elen. <elen resembles 2ane. 1 <elen is resembled by 2ane. "elational bs. li,e @to ha eA- @to containA and others also resist passi i4ation. e.g. 2ane has a car 1; car is had by 2ane. These bs cannot be passi i4ed because the beneficiary role associated with the subject is always more important. Stati e bs. which e3press mental perception !@to ,nowA# and bs of perception !@to seeA# can be passi i4ed only when their DO is a complement clause. e.g. She ,new the poem. 1The poem was ,nown by her. $ eryone ,nows [that ?ill was right]. That ?ill was right is ,nown by e eryone.

TYPES OF /UESTIONS Yes0N# 1uesti#ns are deri ed from simple declarati e sentences by means of inflection mo ement- in other words the au3iliary or the modal b mo es in pre&subject position e.g. 2ohn will tell the truth. (ill 2ohn tell the truth)

2$, 1uesti#ns. /uesti#nin' t$e *O+ t$e IO nd t$e PO3 (h& 'uestions are deri ed from simple declarati e sentences by means of inflection mo ement and wh&mo ement. The au3iliary or the modal b mo es in pre&subject position with the wh&word preceding it. e.g. 2ohn will tell the truth (hat will 2ohn tell) (h& 'uestions are introduced by% a# interrogati e pronouns !what- who- which#E b# interrogati e ad erbs !where- how- why# Fuestioning the DO

e.g. They painted the house. 9 simple transiti e b The house was painted by them. 9 passi e They accused [2ohn] [of cheating]. 9 comple3 transiti e b DO /O 2ohn was accused of cheating. 9 passi e Tom ga e [0ary] [a boo,]. 9 double object construction IO DO Tom ga e [a boo,] [to 0ary]. 9 obli'ue object construction DO IO 0ary was gi en a boo, by Tom. 9 passi e ; boo, was gi en to 0ary by Tom. 9 passi e Ditransiti e bs allow 7 passi e constructions- either by mo ing the acti e IO from the double object construction or by mo ing the acti e DO from the obli'ue object construction. There are three types of ditransiti e erbs% erbs with two alternate construction !gi e#erbs which allow only an obli'ue object construction !e3plain#- and erbs which can only occur in double object constructions. The obli'ue IO reali4ed bt a to+for N/ cannot be promoted to the Su. position in the passi e sentence. Certain ditransiti e bs. ha e only one passi e oice ersion. e.g. The teacher e3plained [the rule] [to the students]. DO /O

In negati e *+N 'uestions the au3iliary appears in contracted form with the negator @notA. e.g. <asn.t 2ohn attended the course) T ' 1uesti#ns consist of a declarati e clause followed by a tagged *+N 'uestion. e.g. 2ohn will tell the truth- won.t he) The tag contains a repetition of the au3iliary or the modal from the declarati e clause and a pronoun referring to the subject of the declarati e. e.g. She can spea, 2apanese- can.t she) If the declarati e clause is affirmati e then the tag is normally negati e. If the declarati e clause does not contain an au3iliary or a modal then the au3iliary @doA is used in the tag 'uestion. e.g. She spea,s 2apanese- doesn.t she) Types of clauses according to communicati e function% declarati ee3clamati eimperati e- interrogati e. The re ersed polarity is typical for tag 'uestions and is neutral in tone. Similar polarity in the tag and in the main clause indicated the spea,erDs attitude !ironysincere- interest or thoughtful consideration# towards the content of the main clause.

Fuestions addressed to the DO are formed by replacing the [&human] DO with @whatA or the [:human] DO with @whoA and then the wh& word is mo ed is pre&subject position together with the au3iliary or the modal b. e.g. 2ohn will tell the truth (hat will 2ohn tell) The DO is 'uestioned in sentences that contain a simple or a comple3 transiti e erb. e.g. They accused 2ohn of cheating (ho did they accuse of cheating) Fuestioning the /O e.g. They depend [on their friends] (hom do they depend on) 9 preposition stranding !informal $nglish# On whom do they depend) /ied&piping !formal $nglish# There are 7 constructions in $nglish for 'uestioning the /O% in formal $nglish the preposition mo es together with the wh&word to the beginning of the 'uestion- in the so& called pied&piping construction- while in informal $nglish only the wh&word mo eslea ing the preposition behind in the preposition stranding construction.

Fuestioning the IO It is only possible in obli'ue object constructions. The preposition @toA either mo es together with the wh&word to the beginning of the 'uestion in the so&called pied&piping construction or the preposition remains in the same position in the preposition stranding construction. e.g. 2ohn ga e a boo, [to 0ary] obli'ue object construction To whom did 2ohn gi e a boo,) pied&piping (hom did 2ohn gi e a boo, to) preposition stranding

The conjunction @norA is usually followed by in ersion of the Su. with the au3iliary or the modal. e.g. [/eter didnDt want the responsibility] and [his wife didnDt want the responsibility.] Neither /eter nor his wife wanted the responsibility. Neither /eter wanted the responsibilitynor his wife. e.g. [0ary washed the dishes] and [she dried them.] co&referent 0ary both washed the dishes and dried them. e.g. 0ary washed the dishes and 2ohn washed the dishes too. ?oth 0ary and 2ohn washed the dishes.

,E!!i%sis, e.g. [(e can go for a wal,] or [we can watch T=.] (hen two or more clauses are coordinatedindentical constituents are often omitted+ellipted. The synctactic rules that allow the deletion of identical constituents are called @ellipsis rulesA. $nglish has se eral important ellipsis rules% gapping- long distance ellipsis- sluicingright note raising+e3traction- and N/ ellipsis. 6# Gapping e.g. [Hen li,es dancing] and [;nnie li,es athletics.] Hen li,es dancing and ;nnie athletics. N/ doubtful that he will e er be [the richest man in Te3as.] au3. cop. N/ b. b. The omitted constituents in this type of ellipsis can be ;/- N/- =/. //. The constituents preser ed in final position are au3iliaries- modals- copulati e @beA. e.g. 0ary [spea,s >rench] and 2erry [spea,s >rench] too. 0ary spea,s >rench and 2erry does too. e.g. X [Sam encouraged /am] because [(illis encouraged 2ane.] Gapping- that is omission of the erb in the 7nd clause can only be used with coordinate clauses and not with subordinate ones. !X# 7# Bong distance ellipsis rules e.g. [2ohn appears to be[fond of sweets]] but [IDm not more that he really is [fond of sweets.]] ;/ cop..be. ;/ e.g. [(e thought that >red would be [wor,ing hard on the project-]] but [it turns out that =/ he hasnDt been [wor,ing hard on the project.]] au3.8 b. =/ (e thought that fred would be wor,ing hard on the project- but it turns out that he hasnDt. (hen the deleted material is a erb in the present or past simple- the au3iliary @doA !does- did# is inserted in the 7nd coordinate clause where it appears as a final constituent. e.g. I donDt dance much now- but I used to dance a lot. I donDt dance much now- but I used to. e.g. <e will ne er [li e home-] he hasnDt got the courage to [lea e home.] =/ =/ <e will ne er li e home- he hasDnt got the courage !to#. e.g. *ou canDt force him [to lea e home-] heDs not ready [to lea e home.] *ou canDt force him to lea e home- heDs not ready !to#. e.g. [(hene er 0ary has [drun, beer-]] [>red has [drun, beer] too.] au3.. b. (hene er 0ary has drun, a beer- >red has too. BD$ in ol es omission of identical constituents at the far end of the 7 nd coordinate clause. e.g. 0ary thought that George would soon be [the richest man in Te3as]- but now it is

COOR*INATION AN* ELLIPSIS ,C##rdin ti-e % irs, both..and.. either..or.. neither..nor.. not only..but also.. e.g. [Da id lo es 2ane] and [wants to marry her.] coordinator e.g. [Da id doesnDt lo e 2ane] and [doesnDt want to marry her.] e.g. [Da id neither lo es 2ane] [nor wants to marry her.] Two affirmati e clauses in coordination can be negated wither by means of negator not attached to the au3iliary or the modal erb- or by means of the correlati e pair @neither..norA. e.g. 0ary was neither happy- nor was she sad. The conjunction @neitherA is mobileE it can appear between the Su. and the le3ical erbbetween the copulati e and the predicati ebetween the au3iliary and the le3ical erb. The correlati e pair @both..andA is used in clause coordination when the subjects or the predicates are identical. e.g. [They bro,e into his office-] [stole his boo,s] and [tore up his manuscripts.] They not only bro,e into his office and stole his boo,s but they also tore up his manuscripts. The correlati e pair @not only..but alsoA is used when the meaning con eyed by the classes in coordination is failed to be surprising- ama4ing- unpleasant.

Gapping has the effect of remo ing the identical constituent from the middle part of the 7nd coordinate clause !the erb#. e.g. [/ete must eat meat] and [>red must eat bread.] /ete must eat meat and >red bread.

e.g. Can you [start the engine)] IDll try to [start the engine.] Can you start the engine) IDll try !to#. (hen the 7nd coordinate clause contains a erb in the infiniti e- the erb is always omitted while the particle of the infiniti e is optionally preser ed after nouns- adjecti es or erbs. e.g. 2ohn is [cle er]- but ?illy is not [cle er.] ;/ ;/ e.g. 2ane will [read your reports]- but <enry will not [read your reports.] =/ =/ To conclude on BD$ we notice that the constituent occurring in final position can only be an au3iliary- a modal- colulati e @beAparticle @toA and the negator @notA. &So&Neither Construction& e.g. [Da id ,nows [how much money was ta,en]] and [?ill ,nows [how much money was ta,en too.]] pres part Da id ,nows how much money was ta,en and ?ill does too. Da ind ,nows how much money was ta,en and so does ?ill. ;fter BD$ in the 7nd coordinate clause- if the 7nd contains a Su. : an au3iliary :too- then the insertion of the word @soA triggers in ersion between the au3iliary and the Su. e.g. 2ohn didnDt clean [clean the blac,board] and ?od didnDt [clean the blac,board] either. 2ohn didnDt clean the blac,board and ?ob didnDt either 2ohn didnDt clean the blac,board and neither did ?ob.

The insertion of @neitherA triggers in ersion between the Su. and the au3iliary if the coordinate clauses are in the negati e. 5# Sluicing e.g. [Someone has been stealing our flowers] but [I donDt ,now [who has been stealing them.]] 9 indirect wh. 'uestion Someone has been stealing our flowersbut I donDt ,now who. Sluicing is ellipsis used in indirect wh. 'uestions. The whole 'uestion can be omitted e3ept the interrogati e pronoun or ad erb. e.g. 2ohn [coo,ed] smth but ?etty didnDt ,now [what 2ohn coo,ed.] 9 indirect 'uestion 2ohn coo,ed smth but ?etty didnDt eat [what 2ohn coo,ed.] 9 relati e clause This ellipsis rule cannot be used with other types of sentences- only indirect 'uestions. I# "ight Note raising+$3traction e.g. 2ohn will spea, 2apanese and 0ary might spea, 2apanese. 2ohn will- and 0ary might- spea, 2apanese. This type of ellipsis in ol es e3traction and mo ement of this constituent of the identical constituent from both coordinate clauses. J# N/ ellipsis spec adj head e.g. [The pretty [girls]] N/ the 9 determiner some 9 indefinite determiner many 9 indefinite 'uantifier your 9 possessi e determiner motherDs 9 noun in the geniti e case head head

e.g. These are [<elenDs glo es] K+ and [these glo es] are mine.L+ N/ N/ These are <elenDs glo es and these are mine. e.g. [0any animals] were sa ed K+ but [many animals] were lost.L+ N/ N/ 0any animals were sa ed but many were lost. e.g. [Some people] say a thing K+ but [some people] say another thing.L+ N/ N/ Some people say a thing but some say another thing. e.g. 2ane fed [her dog] K+ and then fed [your dog]. L+ N/ N/ 2ane fed her dog and then fed yours. your 9 possessi e adjecti e yours 9 possessi e pronoun e.g. *ou can ta,e [/eterDs car] K+ and I can ta,e [SusieDs car.] L+ *ou can ta,e /eterDs car and I can ta,e SusieDs. 9 noun in the geniti e case e.g. (e ha enDt got [any bog apples]- only [small apples.] (e ha enDt got any big apples- only small ones. ;nother ,ind of BD$ in ol es the deletion of the head in a N/ !whic, occupied the final position in a N/#. ;fter the head is deleted- the constituents preser ed from the N/ are% &demonstrati es 9 these- those- this- that &indefinite 'uantifiers 9 many- much &indefinite determiners 9 some- any- none- no &possessi e pronouns 9 your &noun in the geniti e 9 /eterDs &adjuncts e3pressed by an adjecti e 9 small &indefinite pronoun & once