A Model of Innovation

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context 1
context 2
agrees on & is shaped by maintains relationship to agrees on & is shaped by maintains relationship to
A community is a system of people who interact within an agreed
set of rules—conventions.
decay (internal)
p
Typically, members of a community share a common location or
os

common interests. They may be related by birth or may come Entropy always increases.
e
together for social or business reasons. Communities rely on Resisting entropy requires energy and variety.
lo
individuals to provide the variety necessary for survival—
inevitably lead to
Inevitably, both are limited.
ng
to share perspective, insight, ideas, and inspiration.
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Over time, new members join and existing members depart. These
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changes can affect the conventions the community keeps.
hr t
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o t
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Every convention exists within a community. Pressure from outside or decay inside changes the
s)
relationship between a community and its context. That
ce
A convention establishes a relation between relationship—formalized as a convention—is no longer
on
a community and its context. It defines a way comfortable, no longer a fit.
se n
en
am
on ctio
the community expects its members to behave
in a given situation. It prescribes the tools A disturbance upsets an existing convention.
qu
s
they can use, even what they can think. This is a root cause of innovation.
d c ru
an rd g
on
es r th as e
s c d-o nin
. R - o h lac
be er
ult ir te
. ce nd fit,” p
ne est
ti
ed an co “ ne
Every innovation has a precedent in a A disturbance has variety of its own.
nd v e eir o
la
te ad s, s th n in
previous convention. Unless a community has corresponding variety to cancel it,
insight
nin le in ue uce tio

re
lan e d
the variety in a disturbance will overwhelm the community.
s u ab tin d ova
ce w on y re n
Variety cancels variety.
in
str on e
en no c a . In
de luti “th
ing s
np iv
qu t k cle d m re
oy ize
e.” tly vo as
se no cy an ltu
ce
on re the ns f cu
on san y re tion
(u reat
d c ts a s tio b o
ew es ntl uc
n
a n , inc ssa str

an ec n. A ven we
la
ng in ce de
ing eff tio on a
ati ith in ve
ris ct va c in
ba
re w at ati
rp ire no d ist
su ind er in late s ex
y c om n th re
m
ntl fr o s c
or rth ts re on
sa re tati be
fu ec enti
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es ctu mu cri
is
inc stru ial des

aff onv
C
tr r
on ic us te
ld nom ind pe
e o o of um
th e ec ss ch
th ce ph S
pro se
Jo
e,
(environment) A misfit arises when a convention no longer maintains
(experiences)

a desired relation between a community and its context.
in
Misfit manifests itself as pain. It exacts a cost—
cr
Every community exists within a context. physical, mental, social, or financial—on members W. Ross Ashby describes variety as a measure of information.
e
of the community. Variety describes a system’s potential to respond to
as
Context is the environment in which a community lives. disturbances—the options it has available. Applied to communities,
e
To survive, a community must have a stable relationship variety describes the experiences—the richness of language and
st
with its environment. Maintaining that stable relationship range of cultural tools—they can bring to bear on problems.
he
is the purpose of conventions.
In a stable environment, increasing efficiency makes sense.
ike l
Do what you’ve been doing, but do it better and at a lower cost.
That means narrowing language—decreasing variety.
ih l
oo
In an unstable environment, pursuing efficiency may actually be
d
dangerous. You may get better at doing the wrong thing—at doing
of
something that no longer matters.
The key is to make sure what you produce is valuable, before you
worry about making it more efficiently. Increasing effectiveness
calls for increasing variety—changing perspective, bringing new
people, new experience, and new language into the conversation
and expanding the field of action.
Recognition of misfit comes from observation and experience.
als ss
Research methods—such as ethnography—help.
s th f a
go roce
en o
e
op ing
But identifying a problem requires definition.
ing am
)
fin e fr
Definitions are constructed—agreed to.
r re t th
ing p
They have constituencies.
s. g o ou
he in ab
fin ing
Thus, definition is a political act,
ac fram ons
an exercise of power.
pro Re sti
ap ls. ue
(re arn
er oa e q
oth of g rais
ing n ay
le
try itio m
to fin pe
ity r de ty
ibil o roto
possess
ss m p
po ble ng a
pro sti
Te
(a bit of luck)
Each innovation is a link between two conventions:
the one it replaces and the one it becomes. (immersion) Insight begins a process of restoring fit. Insight remains the most
mysterious part of the innovation process. It may be irreducible, but
Individuals who are prepared to innovate possess:
motivates
n)
An innovation is a pivot; it transforms one period into the next. it can be aided. Immersion within the context is almost always Optimism
olu s
ev es
change
essential. Experience with other domains helps (by increasing Belief they can improve the world
tio
Some organizations have processes by which their members build variety). For example, applying patterns from other domains can Openness to change
ial oc
(or buy) new ideas at a small scale. The organizations vet (or select help solve new problems. This is the promise of Genrich Altshuller’s Confidence to make it so
system known as TRIZ.
fic pr
or destroy) ideas, moving a few to the next stage. They “incubate” Tenacity, persistence to see it through
y
orl
Passion, desire, even obsession
d d on po
new ideas in “hothouses” long enough to launch them into the
an sec ing
rti n
world. Examples include (perhaps most notably) Royal Dutch Shell, Insight is a type of hypothesis, a form of abduction.
es d
n— e ard
(a esig
.
ign
Insight may come from juxtaposition Variety
tio is th isc
some religions (such as Catholicism), venture capital firms, and
olu s) ., d
technology companies such as Google. and pattern matching. Experience, skill, and talent
ev on . e
of riati on (i
Domain expertise
ism va cti

Some communities (some ecologies) seem to have the variety and György Polya suggests asking: Knowledge of other domains
an g tru
ch rmin es
structures needed to raise the probability of innovation (within What is the unknown? Understanding of the process
me rfo ral d
certain domains). For example, Silicon Valley, Route 128 around What are the data? Methods and techniques
pe atu
What is the condition? (What are the constraints?) Management, rhetorical, and political skills
N
Boston, Austin, Research Triangle, and Seattle all currently enjoy
this advantage. What is the connection between data and unknown? Practice (Doing it a few times helps.)
What is a related problem?
How could you restate the problem? They also know what is not known but necessary
What could you draw to represent the problem? for progress; they understand how to find it; and they
recognize who can provide that knowledge.
For insight to matter, it must be
r) n

articulated—given form.
ro io
er at
It might be a
& iter
Hypothesis
Model or diagram
ate a multip
ism
Outline
may prompt a new

ial e
an
Script or story
ch
(tr mpl
me
Sketch
ign rst
Mock-up
es e fi
.
d d th
si
helps improve
Prototype
an n is
n— tio
Pilot
tio aria
may create
olu v
ev ng
of reati
C

value Of course, the convention resulting from a successful innovation No innovation arises fully formed.
differs from the convention that preceded it. Likewise, the

pr
community that exists after an innovation is likely to have changed Articulation provides a means of sharing an insight.
Dubberly Design Office prepared this concept map as a project
es
from the community that preceded it. The context, too, is likely Demonstration proves (or disproves) the insight’s value.
to have changed beyond the change which created the misfit Demonstration provides a basis for adoption; of the Institute for the Creative Process at the Alberta College of
er
leading to an innovation. it is a key to creating change. Art and Design. The Institute exists to focus and organize activities,
ve
enterprises, and initiatives of ACAD with regard to the cultivation

Demonstration enables evaluation. of dialogue, research, and special projects that directly address
s
Testing discloses errors, increases understanding, the nature of the creative process and design thinking. ACAD is
st
and provides a basis for improvement. a leading centre for education and research, and a catalyst for
at
creative inquiry and cultural development.

us
Iteration is always necessary.

Please send comments about this model to icp@acad.ca
qu
o
beliefs
by
Acknowledgements
re
Writing and design by

si
Hugh Dubberly, Nathan Felde, and Paul Pangaro

st
Additional design by
may lead to
in
Sean Durham and Ryan Reposar

Research by
g
Satoko Kakihara, ACAD faculty Chris Frey, Wayne Giles,
convention 2 adoption (counter-change) actions

and Darlene Lee
leads to new
creates new
Copyright © 2007
The scale of change varies.
may lead to
Many people have proposed models, for example: Dubberly Design Office
2501 Harrison Street, #7

g
San Francisco, CA 94110

on
Michael Geoghegan:
fo
artifacts
- Recognizing a new domain of invention 415 648 9799
am
- Creating new opportunities for discovery within the domain

sit
- Improving the efficiency with which the discoveries are applied Institute for the Creative Process
n
ns
at the Alberta College of Art + Design

pe
Horst Rittel: 1407-14 Ave NW

tio
ro
- Simple problems, where the goal is defined Calgary, AB Canada

la
- Complex problems, where the goal remains unclear T2N 4R3

re
of
- Wicked problems, where constituents cannot agree on the goal 403 284 7670
all deliver
re
in
Parrish Hanna:
su
e
- Tactical or incremental
nc
ea
- Strategic or punctuated
la
- Cultural or process-oriented
m
Sponsorship
ba
a
is
EPCOR, a founding partner of the Institute for the Creative

is
Process, generously provided funding for this project.
context 2 fit (gain) is reflected as increased value Printed in Canada

community1 may fail to recognize pressure (external) a model of innovation
A community is a system of people who interact within an agreed
set of rules—conventions.
decay (internal) Innovation is a holy grail of contemporary society, and especially
business. A flood of books and magazines promote it. Design firms

promise it. Customers demand it. Survival, we’re told, depends on it.
p
Typically, members of a community share a common location or
os

common interests. They may be related by birth or may come Entropy always increases. But what is it? And how do we get it?
e
together for social or business reasons. Communities rely on Resisting entropy requires energy and variety.
lo
individuals to provide the variety necessary for survival— We used to ask the same questions about quality. Then Walter
inevitably lead to
Inevitably, both are limited.
ng
to share perspective, insight, ideas, and inspiration. Shewhart and Edward Deming answered. Today, statistical
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process control, total quality management (TQM), kaizen, and
Over time, new members join and existing members depart. These six-sigma management are fundamental tools in business.
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changes can affect the conventions the community keeps.
Organizations have become much better at managing quality.
hr t
Quality has become a commodity, or at least “table stakes,”
ea
necessary but not sufficient. Now, innovation matters more—
because you can’t compete on quality alone, whether as a
ts
business, a community, or a society. The next arena of global
t
competition is innovation, but the practice of innovation remains
o
stuck some 40 years behind the practice of quality.
an
y
Quality is largely about improving efficiency, whereas innovation
is largely about improving effectiveness. Improving quality is
decreasing defects. It’s about measuring. It’s making processes
more efficient. It works within an existing paradigm.
convention 1 each faces change (disturbance) Business Week design editor Bruce Nussbaum has suggested you
can’t measure your way to innovation—measurement being the
hallmark of quality processes. And though some six-sigma
Every convention exists within a community. Pressure from outside or decay inside changes the advocates disagree, Nussbaum is pointing out a fundamental
s)
relationship between a community and its context. That difference between managing quality and managing innovation.
ce
A convention establishes a relation between relationship—formalized as a convention—is no longer Innovation is creating a new paradigm. It’s not getting better at
on
a community and its context. It defines a way comfortable, no longer a fit. playing the same game; it’s changing the rules and changing the
se n
en
am
on ctio
the community expects its members to behave game. Innovation is not working harder; it’s working smarter.
in a given situation. It prescribes the tools A disturbance upsets an existing convention.
qu
s
they can use, even what they can think. This is a root cause of innovation. This poster proposes a model for innovation. It takes the form of a
d c ru
an rd g
on
es r th as e
s c d-o nin
. R - o h lac
concept map, a series of terms and links forming propositions.
be er
ult ir te
. ce nd fit,” p
ne est
ti
ed an co “ ne
Every innovation has a precedent in a A disturbance has variety of its own.
nd v e eir o
la
te ad s, s th n in
previous convention. Unless a community has corresponding variety to cancel it, The model is built on the idea that innovation is about changing
insight
nin le in ue uce tio

re
lan e d
the variety in a disturbance will overwhelm the community. paradigms. The model situates innovation between two conven-
s u ab tin d ova
tions. Innovation transforms old into new. It is a process—
ce w on y re n
Variety cancels variety.
in
str on e
en no c a . In
de luti “th
ing s
np iv
qu t k cle d m re
oy ize
a process in which insight inspires change and creates value.
e.” tly vo as
se no cy an ltu
ce
on re the ns f cu
on san y re tion
(u reat
d c ts a s tio b o
ew es ntl uc
n
The process begins when external pressure or internal decay
a n , inc ssa str

an ec n. A ven we
la
ng in ce de
disturbs the relation between a community and its context, a
ing eff tio on a
ati ith in ve
ris ct va c in
ba
c
relation maintained by a convention.
re w at ati
rp ire no d ist
su ind er in late s ex
y c om n th re
m
ntl fr o s c
or rth ts re on
sa re tati be
The existing convention no longer “fits.” Perhaps the context
fu ec enti
i
es ctu mu cri
is
inc stru ial des

aff onv
changed. Or the community. Or even the convention. Someone
tr r
on ic us te
notices the misfit. It causes stress. It creates enough friction,
ld nom ind pe
e o o of um
enough pain, to jump into people’s consciousness. Perception of
th e ec ss ch
misfit almost simultaneously gives rise to proposals for change,
th ce ph S
context 1 misfit (pain) variety for reframing. These proposals compete for attention. Most fail to
pro se
Jo
e,
inspire, are ignored, and fade away.
The changes that survive are by definition those a community finds
A misfit arises when a convention no longer maintains effective. They spread because they increase fit (gain) and lower

a desired relation between a community and its context. pain or cost (delivering value).
in
Misfit manifests itself as pain. It exacts a cost— We rarely recognize innovation while it’s happening. Instead,
cr
Every community exists within a context. physical, mental, social, or financial—on members W. Ross Ashby describes variety as a measure of information. innovation is often a label applied after the fact, when its value is
e
of the community. Variety describes a system’s potential to respond to clear and a new convention has become established.
as
Context is the environment in which a community lives. disturbances—the options it has available. Applied to communities,
e
To survive, a community must have a stable relationship variety describes the experiences—the richness of language and Ethnography and other research techniques may help identify
st
with its environment. Maintaining that stable relationship range of cultural tools—they can bring to bear on problems. opportunities for innovation. Design methods may increase the
he
is the purpose of conventions. speed of generating and testing new ideas. But new ideas are still
In a stable environment, increasing efficiency makes sense. subject to natural selection (or natural destruction) in the political
ike l
Do what you’ve been doing, but do it better and at a lower cost. process or the marketplace.
That means narrowing language—decreasing variety.
ih l
Innovation remains messy. Even dangerous. Luck and chance,
oo
In an unstable environment, pursuing efficiency may actually be being at the right place at the right time, still play a role. But
heightened sensitivity and persistent alertness may increase luck.
d
dangerous. You may get better at doing the wrong thing—at doing
of
something that no longer matters.
This model is not a recipe. At best it suggests ways to increase
The key is to make sure what you produce is valuable, before you the probability of innovation. Our goal is for it to spur discussion.
worry about making it more efficiently. Increasing effectiveness Our hope is that increased understanding will spur innovation
calls for increasing variety—changing perspective, bringing new and increase the greater good.
people, new experience, and new language into the conversation
and expanding the field of action.
Recognition of misfit comes from observation and experience.
als ss
Research methods—such as ethnography—help.
s th f a
go roce
en o
e
op ing
But identifying a problem requires definition.
ing am
)
fin e fr
Definitions are constructed—agreed to.
r re t th
ing p
They have constituencies.
s. g o ou
he in ab
fin ing
Thus, definition is a political act,
ac fram ons
an exercise of power.
pro Re sti
ap ls. ue
(re arn
er oa e q
oth of g rais
ing n ay
le
try itio m
to fin pe
ity r de ty
ibil o roto
possess
ss m p
po ble ng a
pro sti
Te
(a bit of luck)
Each innovation is a link between two conventions:
the one it replaces and the one it becomes. (immersion) Insight begins a process of restoring fit. Insight remains the most
mysterious part of the innovation process. It may be irreducible, but
Individuals who are prepared to innovate possess:
motivates
n)
An innovation is a pivot; it transforms one period into the next. it can be aided. Immersion within the context is almost always Optimism
olu s
ev es
change
essential. Experience with other domains helps (by increasing Belief they can improve the world
tio
Some organizations have processes by which their members build variety). For example, applying patterns from other domains can Openness to change
ial oc
(or buy) new ideas at a small scale. The organizations vet (or select help solve new problems. This is the promise of Genrich Altshuller’s Confidence to make it so
system known as TRIZ.
fic pr
or destroy) ideas, moving a few to the next stage. They “incubate” Tenacity, persistence to see it through
y
orl
Passion, desire, even obsession
d d on po
new ideas in “hothouses” long enough to launch them into the
an sec ing
rti n
world. Examples include (perhaps most notably) Royal Dutch Shell, Insight is a type of hypothesis, a form of abduction.
es d
n— e ard
(a esig
.
ign
Insight may come from juxtaposition Variety
tio is th isc
some religions (such as Catholicism), venture capital firms, and
olu s) ., d
technology companies such as Google. and pattern matching. Experience, skill, and talent
ev on . e
of riati on (i
Domain expertise
ism va cti

Some communities (some ecologies) seem to have the variety and György Polya suggests asking: Knowledge of other domains
an g tru
ch rmin es
structures needed to raise the probability of innovation (within What is the unknown? Understanding of the process
me rfo ral d
certain domains). For example, Silicon Valley, Route 128 around What are the data? Methods and techniques
pe atu
What is the condition? (What are the constraints?) Management, rhetorical, and political skills
N
Boston, Austin, Research Triangle, and Seattle all currently enjoy
this advantage. What is the connection between data and unknown? Practice (Doing it a few times helps.)
What is a related problem?
How could you restate the problem? They also know what is not known but necessary
What could you draw to represent the problem? for progress; they understand how to find it; and they
recognize who can provide that knowledge.
For insight to matter, it must be
r) n

articulated—given form.
ro io
er at
It might be a
& iter
Hypothesis
Model or diagram
ate a multip
ism
Outline
may prompt a new

ial e
an
Script or story
ch
(tr mpl
me
Sketch
ign rst
Mock-up
es e fi
.
d d th
si
helps improve
Prototype
an n is
n— tio
Pilot
tio aria
may create
olu v
ev ng
of reati
C

value Of course, the convention resulting from a successful innovation No innovation arises fully formed.
differs from the convention that preceded it. Likewise, the

pr
community that exists after an innovation is likely to have changed Articulation provides a means of sharing an insight.
Dubberly Design Office prepared this concept map as a project
es
from the community that preceded it. The context, too, is likely Demonstration proves (or disproves) the insight’s value.
to have changed beyond the change which created the misfit Demonstration provides a basis for adoption; of the Institute for the Creative Process at the Alberta College of
er
leading to an innovation. it is a key to creating change. Art and Design. The Institute exists to focus and organize activities,
ve
enterprises, and initiatives of ACAD with regard to the cultivation

Demonstration enables evaluation. of dialogue, research, and special projects that directly address
s
Testing discloses errors, increases understanding, the nature of the creative process and design thinking. ACAD is
st
and provides a basis for improvement. a leading centre for education and research, and a catalyst for
at
creative inquiry and cultural development.

us
Iteration is always necessary.

Please send comments about this model to icp@acad.ca
qu
o
beliefs
by
Acknowledgements
re
Writing and design by

si
Hugh Dubberly, Nathan Felde, and Paul Pangaro

st
Additional design by
may lead to
in
Sean Durham and Ryan Reposar

Research by
g
Satoko Kakihara, ACAD faculty Chris Frey, Wayne Giles,
convention 2 adoption (counter-change) actions

and Darlene Lee
leads to new
creates new
Copyright © 2007
The scale of change varies.
may lead to
Many people have proposed models, for example: Dubberly Design Office
2501 Harrison Street, #7

g
San Francisco, CA 94110

on
Michael Geoghegan:
fo
artifacts
- Recognizing a new domain of invention 415 648 9799
am
- Creating new opportunities for discovery within the domain

sit
- Improving the efficiency with which the discoveries are applied Institute for the Creative Process
n
ns
at the Alberta College of Art + Design

pe
Horst Rittel: 1407-14 Ave NW

tio
ro
- Simple problems, where the goal is defined Calgary, AB Canada

la
- Complex problems, where the goal remains unclear T2N 4R3

re
of
- Wicked problems, where constituents cannot agree on the goal 403 284 7670
all deliver
re
in
Parrish Hanna:
su
e
- Tactical or incremental
nc
ea
- Strategic or punctuated
la
- Cultural or process-oriented
m
Sponsorship
ba
a
is
EPCOR, a founding partner of the Institute for the Creative

is
Process, generously provided funding for this project.
context 2 fit (gain) is reflected as increased value Printed in Canada

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a model of innovation

may fail to recognize pressure (external)

may fail to recognize pressure (external)

may fail to recognize pressure (external)

disturbs relations creating

context 1 misfit (pain)

that is large enough gains

(a bit of luck) frames possibilities for

innovation requires preparation aids insight (seeing opportunity)

frames possibilities for

must be shared through

cha articulation (prototyping)

must be shared through

must be proved through

reduces risk, encouraging

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

adoption (counter-change) leads

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

must be shared through

must be proved through

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

fit (gain) is reflected as increased value

must be proved through

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

fit (gain) is reflected as increased value

that is large enough gains

frames possibilities for

disturbs relations creating

context 1 misfit (pain) variety

if strong, raise calls for efficiency, dangerously reducing

disturbs relations creating

context 1 misfit (pain) variety

if strong, raise calls for efficiency, dangerously reducing

disturbs relations creating

context 1 misfit (pain) variety

that fails may lead to new

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

that fails may lead to new

may prompt a new

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

multiplier effectt leading to more

that fails may lead to new

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

se calls for efficiency, dangerously reducing

that is large enough gains

multiplier effectt leading to more

that fails may lead to new

adoption (counter-change) leads to new actions

agrees on & is shaped by

if strong, raise calls for efficiency, dangerously reducing

disturbs relations creating

if strong, raise calls for efficiency, dangerously reducing

insight (seeing opportunity)

multiplier effectt leading to more

that fails may lead to new

convention 2 creates new

multiplier effectt leading to more

that fails may lead to new

convention 2 creates new

benefit from (increase efficiency by) sharing skills within a

multiplier effectt leading to more