45(2):202-205,2004

PUBLIC HEALTH

Anthropometric Changes in Elite Male Water Polo Players: Survey in 1980 and 1995
Vinko Lozovina, Leo Pavii1
Split University of Maritime Studies, Split, and 1Zagreb University Faculty of Kinesiology, Zagreb, Croatia

Aim. To assess the differences in anthropometric parameters, body fat, body mass index (BMI), and body density induced by sport-specific morphological optimization (adaptation) between two generations (1980 and 1995) of male elite water polo players. Methods. The survey included a total of 160 elite male water polo players, all members of the top clubs in Croatia. The 1980s generation consisted of 95 players (71.9% of target population) aged between 18 and 32 years, and the 1995s generation included 65 players (50% of target population) aged between 19 and 29 years. Trained and qualified anthropometrists performed the measurements under standardized experimental conditions and in accordance with the procedures described by the International Biological Program. They measured 23 anthropometric variables reflecting basic human body characteristics described by skeletal bone lengths (total leg length, total arm length, hand length, foot length, and height), breadths (hand at proximal phalanges, foot in metatarsal area, biacromial, biiliocristal, biepycondylar femur, biepycondyar humerus, and radio-ulnar wrist breadth), girths (chest, arm, forearm, thigh, and calf girth), skinfold thickness as a measure of subcutaneous adiposity (triceps, subscapular, axillary, calf, and abdominal skinfold thickness), and mass. Additionally, estimates of body mass index (BMI), body density, and percentage of body fat were calculated from the primary measures. Results. Comparison between anthropometric measures of the two generations of water polo players revealed a positive trend in body skeletal measures and negative trend in body adiposity measures. Most noteworthy differences (d) were an increase in height (d=37.3 mm, p0.001), decrease in estimated body fat (d=-1.65%, p0.001) accompanied by higher body density (d=0.01, p0.001), with no significant difference in body mass (d=-0.74kg, p=0.518). Conclusion. Anthropometric characteristics of elite water polo players have changed over the analyzed 15 years. Body shape changed in terms of greater height and more elongated limbs, with thinner waist and broader shoulders. Body mass remained unchanged. Muscle-to-fat mass ratio increased. The observed changes may be a consequence of population secular trend and sport morphological adaptation (optimization).
Key words: anthropometry; exercise; longitudinal studies; sports; sports medicine

Variations in body size due to environmental influences are much larger than those resulting from genetic differences (1). A trend of increasing body size and faster growth rate has been noted in industrialized countries since the middle of the 19th century, especially in the first half of 20th century (2,3). This positive secular trend has largely been attributed to improving living conditions, nutrition, and control of infections (4-6). The secular trend of increased stature observed during the last century amounted to 1.3 cm per decade by the end of childhood, 1.9 cm in mid-adolescence, and 0.6 cm at young adult age (7). Different effects of sport activities (sport training) on growth and development have been summarized different publications and textbooks (8-10). The athletes anthropometric dimensions, reflecting body shape,

proportionality, and composition (11,12), play a significant role in determining the potential for success in sport (13). Distinctive anthropometric characteristics come about by natural selection of successful athletes over successive generations and/or by an adaptation to the training demands within the present generation. The final body shape and composition in a given sport results from a phenomenon called sport morphological optimization (14). A number of differences in players body morphology and composition (15,16) due the environmental changes in general, and changes within the game of water polo itself (17,18) could be expected. The aim of this study was to determine the size and direction of changes in anthropometric characteristics of elite water polo players over 15-year time span.

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Subjects and Methods

Subjects The sample consisted of 160 elite male water polo players from the top Croatian clubs. Anthropometric measures of 95 players (71.9% of the target population) were taken in 1980 (generation of 1980), and of 65 players in 1995 (generation of 1995). The age range of the generation of 1980 at the time of measurement was 18-32 years (meanstandard deviation, SD, 21.24.0 years), and the age range of the generation of 1995 (50% of the target population) was 19-29 years (meanSD, 21.83.8 years) All participants were clinically healthy without morphological aberrations. The only inclusion criterion was participation in at least one official game as a member of the top national division in the year of measurement. There was no overlap between the two groups, ie, none of the players was measured in both years. Outcome Measures Trained and qualified investigators performed all the measurements, using standardized procedures recommended by the International Biological Program (19). A medical balance was used with a precision of 0.1 kg, Martin anthropometer with a precision of 1 mm, pelvimeter with precision of 1 mm, skinfold caliper (John Bull) with a compression of 10 g/mm2 with accuracy of 0.1 mm, small sliding caliper with accuracy of 1 mm2, and synthetic length measuring tape with accuracy of 1 mm. Anthropometric status of subjects was determined on the basis of 23 anthropometric measures. Katch and McArdle formulae were used to estimate the body fat percentage on the basis of measurements performed (20). Statistical Analysis Data for each sample were presented as meanstandard deviation (SD). Analysis of variance was used to test the differences between the two generations. Differences were also calculated as z-scores (z2). Measures of the 1995 generation were rescaled to the 1980 generation according to the formula: z2=(r2x1)/sd1, where r2 was the result of 1995 and x1 and sd1 were meanSD for 1980s generation. SPPS statistical software, Version 11.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), was used for all statistical analyses.

indices (Table 1, Fig. 1) except chest girth, arm girth, mass, foot length, and foot breadth. Comparison of length measures between the generation of 1980 and that of 1995, ie, the leg length, arm length, and height, showed statistically significant positive trends. An exception was the hand length, where a significant decrease in the mean value was observed. Breadth measures, including biiliocristal breadth, biepcondylar femur, biepycondylar humerus, and wrist breadth, significantly decreased. Only the biacromial breadth increased in the 1995 generation. The measures of soft tissues, such as girths and skinfolds, generally decreased. There were significant decreases in forearm girth, thigh girth, and calf girth. In skinfolds, estimators of the amount of subcutaneous adipose tissue measures of triceps, subscapular, axillar and abdominal skinfolds showed significant decreases, and only the calf skinfold was increased. Body mass index (BMI) and estimated body fat percentage decreased significantly, whereas body density increased. While the mean height significantly increased, body mass remained statistically unchanged. Discussion Our study showed that body morphology and composition of male elite water polo players significantly changed from 1980 to 1995. The players measured in 1995 had longer limbs, and smaller breadth and girth of most anthropometric parameters measured. Their bodies were taller but more slender, with wider shoulders and thinner waist. It seems that a change in the body composition of water polo players has been accompanied by changes in the body shape. Body adiposity estimate, based on the skinfolds, was significantly lower. In the 1995 generation, estimated percentage of body fat and BMI was lower, and body density higher. Since there was no difference in the

Results The two generations, 15 years apart, significantly differed in almost all anthropometric measures and

Table 1. Analysis of variance of differences in 26 anthropometric measures, body mass index (BMI), body density, and body fat between two generations of elite male water polo players 15 years apart
Parameter (mm) Leg length Total arm length Hand length Foot length Height Hand breadth (proximal phalanges) Foot breadth (metatarsalis) Biacromial bredth Biiliocristal bredth Biepycondilar femur Biepycondilar humerus Wrist breadth (radio-ulnar) Chest girth Arm girth (relaxed) Forearm girth Thigh girth Calf girth Triceps skinfold Subscapular skinfold Axilar skinfold Calf skinfold Abdominal skinfold Mass (kg) Body mass index (BMI) Body density (against water) Body fat (%)
*Difference of means.

Anthropometric measures (meanSD, range) of water polo players in the year 1980 (n=95) 1995 (n=65) 1,056.341.8 (967-1,168) 1,073.338.4 (986-1,177) 802.930.9 (704-884) 831.534.5 (748-907) 200.38.9 (172-227) 186.28.1 (167-204) 280.511.0 (258-312) 280.310.6 (251-296) 1,858.652.7 (1,741-2,000) 1,895.950.2 (1,789-2,018) 81.95.6 (69-96) 84.14.1 (76-93) 102.86.2 (87-118) 101.35.3 (91-115) 420.619.5 (372-468) 437.313.3 (401-462) 297.114.9 (265-353) 285.215.8 (256-330) 99.35.2 (90-115) 96.54.5 (88-108) 73.13.4 (65-80) 65.75.8 (54-79) 60.62.8 (53-68) 58.12.6 (51-63) 1,030.545.5 (932-1,154) 1,039.451.1 (942-1,156) 328.320.8 (282-385) 324.917.3 (293-381) 282.111.4 (256-312) 273.412.3 (241-300) 601.328.3 (533-682) 565.026.2 (507-631) 389.115.9 (354-431) 375.714.2 (341-413) 9.32.8 (4.8-19.3) 8.22.7 (4.35-16.52) 11.03.2 (7.2-22.8) 9.02.3 (6.28-16.70) 9.13.7 (4.3-20.3) 7.32.8 (4.38-20.87) 8.02.2 (3.8-14.8) 10.63.1 (5.78-20.20) 13.45.6 (5.5-27.5) 10.64.5 (5.22-29.60) 85.27.3 (65.6-107.2) 85.96.9 (73.0-104.0) 24.71.7 (20.0-30.1) 23.91.4 (21.31-28.91) 1.070.01 (1.06-1.1) 1.080.01 (1.06-1.08) 11.13.0 (6.9-19.2) 9.42.4 (6.4-17.5)

d* F (ratio) -16.98 6.801 -28.59 30.077 14.14 104.847 0.24 0.19 -37.31 0.131 -2.16 7.066 1.53 2.681 -16.70 36.174 11.91 23.408 2.80 12.428 7.38 101.413 2.48 31.925 -8.88 1.330 3.34 1.138 8.67 20.861 36.29 67.589 13.43 30.018 1.10 6.219 2.02 19.426 1.78 11.030 -2.60 38.834 2.87 12.026 -0.74 0.419 0.76 8.798 0.0038 13.781 -1.65 13.693

p 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.890 0.001 0.009 0.104 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.251 0.288 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.014 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.518 0.003 0.001 0.001

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Figure 1. Differences in 26 anthropometric variables, body mass index (BMI), body density, and percent of body fat between two generations of elite male water polo players. The cross-sectional study was based on two measurement points, in 1980 and 1995. Box-plot of measures at the 2nd measurement point (1995) are rescaled as z-scores to the 1st (1980). Full line in the box arithmetic mean, box 2 standard deviation, whiskers minimum and maximum. Zero on the x-axis denotes the mean of all 26 anthropometric variables, with up to 4 standard deviations (-4 to 4).

body mass between the two generations, it seems that the same body mass was achieved by the increase in the muscle and bone mass on account of less dense body fa, which decreased. These differences maybe explained by the changes in the game of water polo and changes in environmental conditions. In 1995, water (where the game is played) has been standardized by internationally imposed norms. The playing rules of the game over the 15 years were subject to several changes. The game duration was extended, ie, almost doubled from 45 minutes to 49 minutes. Accordingly, there are less physical contacts between opponent players during the play, the ratio of vertical to horizontal posture in the water changed in favor to the horizontal one (more swimming), and there are more goal shoots (18). Consequently, the volume and intensity of the training also considerably increased. The significantly shorter hand length in the 1995 generation in comparison with 1980 generation was most probably the consequence of the changes in playing conditions and rules of the game. Changes in rules of the game as it was played in 1995 promoted the use of technologically improved ball material allowing it to retain its stable characteristic for the full duration of the game. Conversely, earlier generation measured in 1980 played the game with a ball made of materials not resistant to water; consequently, the characteristics of the ball changed during the course of the game as it became heavier and its diameter larger. It seems that longer hand in the elite water

polo players measured in 1980 was an advantage for better manipulation and control of the ball. The secular changes, ie, a more rapid growth and development, higher mean stature, and body mass have been noticeable in European countries and elsewhere for more than a century. Coefficients of increase in the stature per decade (cm/decade) differ among European countries, from 0.3 in Norway and Sweden to 1.9 in Slovenia (6). The average secular trend coefficient for Europe is 1.2 cm/decade. Thus, the lack of differences in body mass and a greater than expected increment in height imply some other sources of variation besides the already established population secular trend. Due to similar training histories and psychological attributes, traits other than anthropometric characteristics contributing to success, such as skill level and physical fitness, will tend to optimize similarities among elite athletes. Given the possibilities of influencing body shape and body composition, it is obvious that anthropometric characteristics are of paramount importance for the selection and success of elite players. The observed trend can be only partially explained by a population secular trend. It is at least a twofold dynamic problem. The question on the one side is what makes a successful athlete, and on the other, how the training process and selection pressure, taken together, transform or change body characteristics of elite water polo players over time. Besides a secular trend, which is obviously present in any given population/nation (6,7), elite athletes are additionally influenced by the train-

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ing and selection dynamics (9,10). The characteristic body shape and composition of successful elite athletes, in the long run, are the result of the selection process of ever changing competitive conditions in sport. Elite male water polo players have been under pressures from intensive training and selection procedures over a number of years. Hence, the sport morphological optimization/adaptation (14) must be taken into account. Regarding the types of adaptation that have occurred, it is evident from the results in our study that the body mass of elite water polo players is in the category of absolute sports morphological optimization, whereas their height is in open upperend optimization (14). The limitation of our study was that the anthropometric measurements were performed only twice, in two generations 15 years apart. Therefore, possible extrapolations or anticipations of trends have to be made with utmost caution. Secular trends in anthropometry are the result of cross-sectional studies of populations performed on many age cohorts. Furthermore, secular trend analysis and identification in particular population of the top level athletes is additionally limited by the fact that the same athletes are usually the constituents of same population for many years (7-9 years in water polo). Our study may, nevertheless, provide a good insight into the anthropometric changes in water polo players. We used multiple anthropometric variables, rarely covered to such an extent in other similar studies. With regard to the quite large sample size of elite athletes, and especially because of range of anthropometric measures, this study is unique and may be a challenge for further investigation of the population secular trend and sport morphological optimization phenomena, with special consideration given to their possible interaction. We believe that successful prediction of future athletes body shape and form should be sought also in the domain of complex systems theory (21-24). References
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7 Meredith HV. Finding from Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America on secular change in mean height of children, youths, and young adults. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1976;44:315-25. 8 Malina RM. Research on secular trends in auxology. Anthropol Anz. 1991;48:209-27. 9 Mailna RM, Bouchard C. Growth, maturation, and physical activity. Champagin (IL): Human Kinetics Book; 1991. 10 Borms J, Hebbelinck M. Review of studies on Olympic athletes. In: Carter JE, editor. Physical structure of Olympic athletes. Part II: kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes. Medicine and Sport Science Series, XVIII. Basel: S. Karger; 1984. p. 7-27. 11 Carter JE. The somatotypes of athletes a review. Hum Biol. 1970;42:535-69. 12 Carter JE, editor. Physical structure of Olympic athletes. Part II. Kinanthropometry of Olympic athletes. Medicine and Sport Science, Vol. 18. Basel: S. Karger; 1984. 13 Battinelli T. Physique and fitness: the influence of body build on physical performance. New York (NY): Human Sciences Press; 1990. 14 Norton K, Olds T. Morphological evolution of athletes over the 20th century: causes and consequences. Sports Med. 2001;31:763-83. 15 Lozovina V. The characteristic of water polo players in the morphological space. In: Reilly T, Watkins J, Borms J, editors. Kinanthropometry III. London: E & FN Spon; 1986. p. 215-20. 16 Vujovi D, Lozovina V, Pavii L. Some differences in anthropometric measurments between elite athletes in water polo and rowing. In: Reilly T, Watkins J, Borms J, editors. Kinanthropometry III. London: E & FN Spon; 1986. p. 2733. 17 Pavii L. Some possibilities for formal definition of water polo game. In: Perl J, editor. Sport und informatik II. Kln: Bundesinstitut fur Sportwissenshaft GmbH; 1991. p. 37-45. 18 Lozovina V, Pavii L, Lozovina M. Analysis of Indicators of load during the game in activity of the second line attacker in water polo. Coll Antropol. 2003;27: 343-51. 19 Weiner JS, Lourie JA. Human biology: a guide to field methods. IBP handbook No. 9. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications; 1969. 20 Katch FI, McArdle WD. Prediction of body density from simple anthropometric measurements in college-age men and women. Hum Biol. 1973;45:445-54. 21 Forrester JW. Principles of systems. Norwalk (CT): Productivity Press; 1968. 22 Waldrop M. Complexity: the emerging order at the edge of order and chaos. New York (NY): Simon & Schuster; 1992. 23 Kauffman SA. The origins of order: self-organization and selection in evolution. Oxford: OUP; 1993. 24 Holland JH. Emergence: from chaos to order. Reading (MA): Addison Wesley; 1998.
Received: January 14, 2004 Accepted: March 20, 2004 Correspondence to: Vinko Lozovina Bihaka 12/I 21000 Split, Croatia lozovina@pmfst.hr

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