Transformer Basics

Good Transformer

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A Not Good Transformer

Classic teaching model

The way they are

actually built

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 Core formed 3
phase 3 legged
transformer

Shell formed
Transformer

Rh Xh RL XL

Rm Xm

Ideal Transformer
Transformer Model

Simplified to this as Rm and Xm are high

compared to Winding impedance

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Which evolves to this in Load flows and fault studies
as no load losses don’t contribute to fault currents and
Rw is small as we want low loss transformers

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 21.88/12000*100=.1823% 7.78%

.42%
.437%
42075%
54844%

No 2 Copper Loss=52410W %R=52.410/12000*100=.437%

No 3 Core Loss= 21880W %RC=1*12000/21.880*100=54844%
No 6 Exciting current= %XC=1*100/(0.0042-(21.88/12000))
0.42%
No 8 impedance= 7.79%. %X=(7.79**2-0.437**2))**1/2=7.78%

The turns ratio is determined by the voltage ratio but you have to be
careful as we have to consider the transformer connection delta
delta, delta wye, wye wye. More to come on this

Transformer design

„ Ep= primary voltage

„ Np= number of turns in the Ep = 4.44x( f • A • B • Np ) x 10-8 volts
primary
„ F = frequency in cycles per
second
„ A = cross sectional area of Es = 4.44x(f • A • B • Ns )x 10-8 volts
magnetic core steel
„ B = flux density
„ Es = secondary voltage
„ Ns = number of turns in the Ep N p
primary =
Es N s

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 What is Transformer Noise
„ We have have heard the humming of a transformer
„ It is cause by the alternating current cause the core
steel to expand and contract 2 times during one
cycle of AC.
„ Therefore the fundamental frequency of the noise
at 60 Hz is 120 Hz.
„ Because the steel is not well confined in some
areas you can get multiple vibrations producing
3,5,7 harmonic also.
„ Fans and pumps also produce transformer noise.

Transformer Cooling

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Cooling Methods & Descriptions
„ Radiators – open air OA
„ Fans – forced air FA
„ Pumps – forced oil FOA
– Non-
Non-directed oil flow
– Directed oil flow
„ Coolers – forced oil
– Oil to air FOA
– Oil to water FOW
„ Dry Type
– Open air AA
– Forced air FA

Radiators – Open Air Cooling

„ Tube Type
„ Plate Type
„ Permanently Attached
„ Removable
„ Banked
„ Remote

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 Radiators

Fans – Forced Air Cooling

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 Pumps – Forced Oil Cooling

Directed Oil
Flow
Core-form
Transformer

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 Oil Flow in Core-form Windings
Non-Directed Directed

Directed Oil
Flow
Shell-form
Transformer

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 Coolers – Forced Oil Cooling

Special Cooling Situations

„ Water Cooling – oil-water heat exchangers
are used to cool the transformer. Typically
used in industrial applications such as arc
furnace transformers.
„ Dry Type – air is used to cool the windings.
Typically used in industrial or commercial
applications where oil filled units are not
permitted.

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 New Cooling Descriptions

New Cooling Class Designations

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 Temperature Rise Limits

System Temp. Rise (°C) 55 65

„ Average Winding Rise (°C) 55 65

„ Top Oil Rise (°C) 55 65
„ Hot Spot Rise (°C) 65 80

Transformer Construction

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 2 Basic Types of Construction

„ Core-form
„ Shell-form

Core-form Transformer

„ A transformer whose core typically consists of

two or more vertical legs surrounded by
concentric cylindrical windings and connected by
common yokes at the top and bottom.

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 Core-form Coils

„ Concentric-
Cylindrical

Core-form Coils

„ Concentric-
Rectangular

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 Core-form Cores
Vertical legs with yokes at top and bottom

Rectangular Cross-
Cross-section Circular Cross-
Cross-section

Core-form Cores
Stacked vs. Wound

Stacked Core Wound Core

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 Core-form
Transformer
Assembly
3-Phase

Complete 3-Phase Core & Coils

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3-Phase Core-form Transformers

Common 3-Phase Configurations

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Single-Phase Core-form Transformer

Single-Phase Core Configurations

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Single-phase Core-form Schematic

Shell-form Transformer

„ A transformer whose core typically consists

of multiple horizontal legs and inter-
connecting yokes that surround the axially
interleaved groups of pancake coils.

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 Shell-form Coil

„ Rectangular-
Pancake
„ Can also be
Circular

Shell-form Coils

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Shell-form Coils and Insulation

Shell-form Phase Package

Being Lowered into Tank

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 Shell-form
Transformer
Assembly
3-Phase

Shell-form Core Stacking

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Complete 3-Phase Core & Coils

Core-form
vs.
Shell-form
Comparison

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3-Phase Core vs. Shell Comparison

Single-Phase
Core-form /
Shell-form
Comparison

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 Transformer Winding Insulation

„ Oil – used for both insulation and cooling

„ Paper – used to insulate strand-to-strand and
turn-to-turn
„ Pressboard – used for insulation and
mechanical support

Core Insulation & Grounding

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 Transformer Application

Transformer Application
„ Regulation
„ Autotransformers
„ Tertiary Windings
„ Loading

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Voltage Regulation Definition

Regulation is defined as the change in

secondary (output) voltage, expressed in
% of rated secondary voltage, which
occurs when the rated kVA output at a
specified power factor is reduced to zero,
with the primary impressed terminal
voltage maintained constant.

Regulation Formula
% Regulation = 100 x (Vp
(Vp – Vs) / Vs (Eq.
Eq. 1)
(pX – qR)2 / 200
= pR + qX + (pX (Eq.
Eq. 2)

Vp = primary voltage (per unit of rated)

Ip = primary current (per unit of rated)
Vs = secondary voltage (per unit of rated)
Is = secondary current (per unit of rated)
Ir = rated secondary current at the operating tap position = 1.0 pu
cosθ
p = per unit power factor = cosθ
sinθ; negative for leading pf
q = per unit reactive factor = sinθ
Z = % impedance at rated kVA
R = % resistance = 100 x kW Load Loss at rated kVA / rated kVA
X = % reactance = sqrt[(Z)2 – (R)2]
θ = angle between secondary voltage current = θVs - θIs, in degrees

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 Regulation Vector Diagram

Vp
I sZ
IsX
Vs
I sR
Is

p = cos Øs q = sin Øs

Regulation Example
Transformer Type: Substation Step-
Step-Down
55°C Rise
kVA Ratings @ 55° 40000 / 53333 / 66667
65°C Rise
@ 65° 44800 / 59733 / 74667
Cooling Class: OA / FA / FA
Temperature Rise: 65°C
55 / 65°

Primary Volts & Connection: 230000 Delta

Secondary Volts & Connection: 67000 GrdY with LTC
Core Loss @ 100% Voltage 23.7 kW
Load Loss @ 40000 kVA 94.9 kW
@ 74667 kVA 331 kW
Impedance @ 40000 kVA 9.5%
@ 74667 kVA 17.75%
Resistance @ 40000 kVA 0.237%
@ 74667 kVA 0.443%
Rated Amps @ 74667 kVA Primary: 187
Secondary: 643

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 Regulation Calculations
Quantity Primary Secondary with LTC
Voltage Drop 10% 10%
Load Power Factor 91.5%, lag 91.5%, lag
Tap Position Rated Rated 11% Boost
Rated Volts 230000 67000 74430
Measured Volts 230000 60300 67000
Per unit Measured 1.00 0.90 0.09
Rated Amps 187 643 579
Measured Amps 208 715 643
Per unit Measured 1.111 1.111 1.111
Rated kVA 74667 74667 74667
Measured kVA 82960 74667 74667
Per unit Measured 1.111 1.00 1.00
Effective kVA 82960 82960
Per unit Effective 1.111 1.111

Consequences of Regulation
1. Rated voltage is not maintained on the secondary of the
transformer
2. The measured kVA on the primary (input) terminals will
not equal the measured kVA on the secondary (output)
terminals.
3. The measured kVA on the secondary terminals will not
equal the effective kVA load on the transformer.
4. The effective per unit kVA load on the transformer will
equal the per unit secondary current.
5. The kVA loading capabilities derived from loading
programs cannot be applied to the measurements on the
secondary terminals.
6. The application of LTC switches to compensate for the
secondary voltage drop does not negate the conclusions
listed above.

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 Remedies for Regulation

„ Use Load Tap Changers

„ Improve the Load Power Factor
„ Use Lower Impedance Transformers

Autotransformers

A transformer
in which at
least two
windings have
a common
section.

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 Autotransformer Properties

„ Lower cost than 2-winding transformers

„ 3-Phase units or banks must be Y-connected
„ No phase shift from primary to secondary
„ No electrical isolation between windings

Equivalent kVA Calculation

Equivalent kVA = Rated kVA x ((HV – LV) / HV)
= 2400 kVA x ((240V – 200V) / 240V)
= 2400 kVA x 0.167
= 400 kVA

= Rated kVA x (series / (series + common))

= 2400 kVA x (40V / 240V)
= 2400 kVA x 0.167
= 400 kVA

Autotransformer Co-
Co-ratio = series / (series + common)

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 Tertiary Windings
An additional winding in a transformer that can be used for one
or more of the following purposes:
„ To stabilize voltages to neutral during unbalanced system
conditions, when delta connected
„ To reduce the effects of 3rd harmonic currents and voltages,
when delta connected
„ To reduce the zero-
zero-sequence impedance of the transformer
„ To carry load at a 3rd voltage
„ To apply power factor correction capacitors or reactors
„ To provide a location for detecting zero-
zero-sequence currents for
relaying purposes

Transformer Loading
Limited by temperature rises in the following components:

„ Windings & Oil

„ Tanks, Internal Structures and Shielding
„ Cables and Buss Bars
„ Bushings
„ Tap Changers
„ Auxiliary Transformers
„ Current Transformers

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 Temperature Rise Limits
All Temperatures are in Degrees C

System Temp. Rise 55 65

„ Average Winding Rise 55 65
„ Top Oil Rise 55 65
„ Conductor Hot Spot Rise 65 80
„ Metallic Hot Spot Rise --- 100

Ambient Temperature Limits

„ Average Over 24 Hours = 30°C

„ Maximum = 40°C

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 Other Causes of Transformer Heating

„ High Ambient Temperatures

„ Over-excitation
„ Geomagnetic Currents
„ Harmonics
„ Loss of Cooling

Other Transformer Loading Limitations

„ Insulation Loss-of-Life
„ Bubble Formation in the Insulation

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