Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
INTRODUCTION
The Middle East holds estimated proven reserves of some 625 billion barrels (bbls) of crude and 1,720 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of natural gas, nearly 64% and 34% of the worlds reserves, respectively (IHS Energy Group, 2001). These reserves were discovered in Mesozoic and Tertiary reservoirs in a NWtrending zone from Oman to Turkey (Figure 1), starting with the discovery of the Masjid-e-Suleyman field in Iran on the 26th of May, 1908. Crude and condensate production from these reservoirs was reported to be nearly 8.0 billion barrels/year in 2000. The Paleozoic section only became prospective during the early 1970s when the enormous Permian Khuff gas reserves were delineated in the Gulf region and Zagros Mountains, and oil was discovered in Oman. Since then, frontier exploration has targeted the Paleozoic System throughout the Middle East for six reasons.
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TURKEY
tli s Bi
ur Sut
40
44
48
52
56
60
Caspian Sea
Mardin High
ul
Hi gh
Alb
36
Al ep po
Med Sea
Fault Z one
al
ra my
&
Si
nja
r rT
ou
gh
Kh
lei
ss
M ia-
os
orz
Kopeh D agh
Tehran
gh Hi
Central Iran
36
Ur
SYRIA
Za gr os
ie
Damascus 32 Amman
Baghdad
Fo ld
IRAQ
Be lt
Sa na nd aj Z
Do kh ta r
IRAN
M ag
ma
tic
ag
ro
Su
Ra ng es
Ar
c
32
tu
re
Dead Sea
JORDAN
Az ra q
KUWAIT
ra be n
Sirj
an
28
Blo
ck
Ar
SAUDI ARABIA
28
ab
ian
26
G QATAR ulf
Doha
Makran
24
Arabian Shield
Na
Riyadh
Oma
Gul f of
Mo
Zone
24
Abu Dhabi
Om an
Muscat
UAE
jd
Fa ult
u nt
ain s
Tre nd
20
OMAN
20
16
a Fr a cture
N
Sanaa 0 Km 36 40 44 500
YEMEN
Ma rib Gr ab en
Arabian Sea
fo Gul
48
52
56
Ow
60
f Ad
en
LEGEND
Fold/thrust belts Intraplate inversion zone Tertiary basins Hercynian mobile zone Ophiolites Calcarenite alkaline volcanics Alkaline basalts Crystalline basement Main structural high Extension, normal fault Oil fields Compression, thrust or reverse fault Gas fields Spreading axis
Figure 1: Location and major tectonic elements of the Arabian Plate and Iran. The present-day Arabian Plate is bordered in the north by the collision zones of the Zagros and Bitlis sutures, and by subduction along the Makran zone. To the south, southwest and west, the Arabian Plate boundary is defined by the Owen-Sheba transform fault, the rift systems with sea floor spreading in the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea, and the Dead Sea transform fault zone. The Makran and Zagros convergence zones separate the Arabian Plate from the microplates of interior Iran.
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Re d Se a
1) Non-associated gas is required to meet the growing domestic demand for electrical power, desalination and to fuel petrochemical plants. 2) Gas and condensates, unlike crude oil production, are not regulated by OPEC quotas thereby providing incentives for substituting gas for oil. 3) Exploration is required to replace produced reserves in order to guarantee future income and maintain OPEC production quotas. 4) Exploration is needed to replace lower value crude reserves with better quality crudes. 5) Some of the producing fields have reached a high level of maturity, and revitalizing producing fields is often more cost beneficial than developing remote resources. Enhanced recovery programs may therefore stimulate the search for cheap local gas to optimize ultimate recovery. 6) The growing market demand continues to offer an incentive to direct frontier exploration towards increasingly more complex geological settings and, during the last decade in the Middle East, towards deeper Paleozoic targets. In this paper we describe the Paleozoic frontier exploration opportunities of the Middle East. At present, these sequences are only lightly explored, except in Oman and central Saudi Arabia. Therefore, the discussion of the basin evolution and the hydrocarbon habitat of the Paleozoic sequences at the scale of the Arabian Plate and interior Iran remains speculative. Throughout this paper all ages are based on the most recent geological timescale of Gradstein and Ogg (1996) for the Paleozoic, and Harland et al. (1990) for the Precambrian. Also for ease of reference between this paper and the sequence stratigraphic study by Sharland et al. (2001) we have placed in square brackets equivalent surfaces with dates referred to in their publication. These consist of their interpreted Maximum Flooding Surfaces (MFS) identified by Period: for example [Silurian MFS S10 dated at 440 Ma]; and Arabian Plate (AP) Tectonostratigraphic Megasequences: for example [TMS AP3].
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-6
-5
-9
-5 -6 -5 -3
-15
48
-9
52
56
60
TURKEY
-5
-3
-4 -5
Caspian Sea
DEPTH
(km sea level)
-7
-4
-4
-5
-6
-5
-6
-9 -8
36
-4
-4
-8
-15
-7
-6
-5
-9
-7
-4
-8 -5 -6
-6
-6
-5
-7
-8
-9 -10
-10 -9
-8
Tehran
-7
-8
-7
-6
-5
-8
-6
IRAQ
-10 -9
Med Sea
32
-7 -6
-12
-7
-13
-8
-6
-5
-7
-7
-9
-12
-9
-8 -11
-7
Damascus
-4
SYRIA
-5
Baghdad
-10
-9
-8
-15
-7
IRAN
-7 -6
-7 -10
-9
-10
Amman
-8
-3
-7
-5
-4
-6
-7
-10
-10
-10 -9 -8 -7
-5
-15
-11
-10
-9
-7
-7
-8
-8
-9
-8
-3
-15
-10
-7 -9
-9
36
-6
-10
-7
-6
-5
-10
-5
-10 -9
-8
-5
32
-5
-6 -5 -4
-5
-3
-6
-10
-9
-9
-6 -7 -8 -9
0
-7
1 -1 10 -
-6 -5
JORDAN
-4
-3
-3
-4
KUWAIT
-11
-10
-10
-5
-9
-8
-6
-8
-8 -7
-10
-9
-10
-8
-6
-5
-9
-10
-3
-8
28
0
-1
SAUDI ARABIA
-5
-4
-9
-1
-7 0
-7
-1 -11 4
-11
-5
-13
-7
-8
Ar
-8
-8
-10
-6 -5
-5 -7 -10-9 -10 -1 2
-5 -7
-7
-8
-7
QATAR
-5
-8
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-8
-9
-6 -7
-2
28
-5
-6
-6 -7
ab
ian
-5
-7
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-5
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-10
-7
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Gu
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-3
lf
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26
24
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Riyadh
Gul
Abu Dhabi
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f of
Om
an
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Arabian Shield
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UAE
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-8 -7
Muscat
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OMAN
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YEMEN
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Sanaa
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Figure 2: This tentative basement depth map of the Arabian Plate basin is partly compiled from published data (Best et al., 1993; Buday and Jassim, 1987; Loosveld et al, 1996). The basin is asymmetrically pronounced. In the west it is shallow and bounded by the exposed Precambrian Arabian Shield. The basin deepens gently in an easterly direction and reaches its maximum depth of several kilometers in the foredeep of the Zagros collision zone. The Precambrian Arabian Shield consists of accreted island-arc and microcontinental terranes (Stoeser and Camp, 1985; Brown et al., 1989), overlain by post-cratonic sediments and volcanics. The final Precambrian Amar collision (about 640620 Ma, Brown et al., 1989) fused together the Arabian Plate along the N-trending Amar suture that bisects the Arabian Peninsula at about E45 (Al-Husseini, 2000). The main structural elements in the Arabian Platform indicate the existence of a number of inherited mechanically weak trends. These are defined by: (1) N-trending highs as exemplified by the En Nala
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(Ghawar) anticline and the Qatar Arch; (2) NW-trending systems like the Azraq (Wadi Sirhan and Jauf) and Marib grabens of Mesozoic age; and (3) NE-trending systems like the south Syria Platform, Khleissia and Mosul trends. These trends are expressed in the basement structural map (Figure 2), and suggest that rejuvenation of mechanical basement discontinuities played an important role in the evolution of the basin. Earlier work suggests that during most of the Paleozoic, the microplates of interior Iran, Anatolia (Turkey), together with the Arabian Plate formed part of the continental margin of Gondwana (Beydoun, 1993); however, geological information indicates that interior Iran started to follow its own tectonomagmatic evolution separate from Gondwana at least since the Early Silurian (Konert et al., in press).
Paleo-Plate Positions
During late Precambrian (about 600 Ma) the Arabian Plate was located close to the Equator (Figure 3), and had an E-W orientation with Iran in the north. During the early Paleozoic, the plate moved to southern latitudes, and rotated anti-clockwise. By the latest Ordovician (about 445 Ma) the plate reached its maximum low-latitude position (about 55 south) and a major polar glacial pulse covered western Arabia (McClure, 1978; Vaslet, 1990). During the Silurian to Late Carboniferous the plate underwent a major clockwise rotation of about 100 without significant latitudinal translations. As a result of the rotation, Oman was located on the southern edge of the Plate. By the Late Carboniferous (about 305 Ma), a second glacial phase affected Oman, Yemen and southwest Arabia. During the Permian the Plate moved rapidly to the north.
PROTEROZOIC 15 N
CAMBRIAN ORDOVICIAN
DEVONIAN
CARBONIFEROUS PERMIAN
TRIASSIC
JURASSIC 15 N
Hercynian Orogeny
165 Ma 0 600 Ma
Equator
210 Ma
560 Ma 15 S
235 Ma
15 S
LATITUDE
270 Ma 30
45
Permo-Carb. Glaciation
60 150
Figure 3: Paleolatitude positions of the Arabian Plate during the Paleozoic. During the Paleozoic the Arabian Plate reached its most southerly position of about 55 S in the Late Ordovician to Permian-Carboniferous. This southerly Plate position coincides with two periods of glaciation affecting the western and southern margin of the Arabian Plate. Note the over 90 rotation of the Plate orientation between Ordovician and Carboniferous.
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MESOZOIC
245 250
Drifting
Konert et al.
245 250
260
Umm Irna
Artinskian
PERMIAN
270
Sakmarian
280
Moscovian
310
Bashkirian
320
Thermal Doming
290 300
Sepukhovian
CARBONIFEROUS
Visean
330
340
Tournaisian
350
Frasnian
370
Givetian
Kayayolu Hazro
380
Eifelian
390
DEVONIAN
Emsian
400
Pragian
410
PALEOZOIC
IRAQ
Dadas
SILURIAN
430
Llandeilo Llanvirn
470
Arenig
ORDOVICIAN
480
Tremadoc
490
Umm Sahim
500
510
Disi
500
CAMBRIAN
530
540
Saleb
Sadan
PRECAMBRIAN
560
570
Oil
580
600
Figure 4a: Stratigraphic summary diagram from Jordan through Syria to southeast Turkey.
Rifting Intermittant
590
Gas
Source Rock
Najd Faulting
550
Thermal Sag
460
Dubeidib
Glacial
412
Llandovery
440
Ashgill
Caradoc
450
Hercynian Orogeny
Famennian 360
Glacial
Asselian Gzelian
290
Kasimovian
300
Doubayat
MESOZOIC
260
Artinskian
Faraghan Unayzah-A/B
280 290 300 310 270
260
PERMIAN
270
Sakmarian
280
Asselian
Moscovian
310
Bashkirian
320
Unayzah-C
320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430
Thermal Doming
?
440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 500 530 540 550 560
Sepukhovian
CARBONIFEROUS
Visean
330
340
Berwath
Tournaisian
350
Frasnian
370
Givetian
380
Jubah
Eifelian
390
DEVONIAN
Emsian
400
Pragian
Jauf
410
PALEOZOIC
SILURIAN
Llandovery
430
440
Qusaiba
Llandeilo Llanvirn
470
Arenig
Zardkuh
ORDOVICIAN
480
Tremadoc
490
500
Saq Mila
Ilebeyk
510
520
CAMBRIAN
530
540
Lalun
?
Hormuz Soltanieh
PRECAMBRIAN
560
570
580
Oil
600
Source Rock
Figure 4b: Stratigraphic summary diagram Saudi Arabia to Iran. For colour legend, see Figure 4a.
Rifting Intermittant
590
Gas
Najd Faulting
550
Thermal Sag
460
Qasim
Glacial
Ashgill
Caradoc
450
Hercynian Orogeny
Famennian 360
Glacial
Gzelian
290
Kasimovian
300
Drifting
245 250
Khuff
Kangan Dalan
245 250
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MESOZOIC
Southwest
OMAN
Northeast
Drifting
245 250
Konert et al.
260
Artinskian
PERMIAN
270
Sakmarian
280
Gharif Al Khlata
Asselian
290
Moscovian
310
Bashkirian
320
Unayzah-C
320 330
Thermal Doming
?
340 350 360 370 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 470 480 490 500 510 500 530 540 550
Sepukhovian
Visean
330
Oil
CARBONIFEROUS
340
Gas
370
Givetian
380
Jubah Misfar Jauf Tawil Sharawra Qusaiba Sahmah Hasirah Qasim Saih Nihayda Ghudun Andam Miqrat Mahwis Amin Nimr Group Sarah/Zarqa Quwarah
Eifelian
390
DEVONIAN
Emsian
400
Pragian
410
PALEOZOIC
Kish Sha
SILURIAN
430
Llandovery
440
Mudawwara
Arenig
ORDOVICIAN
480
Tremadoc 490
Disi Saq
Umm Sahm
500
510
520
CAMBRIAN
Burj
540
Saleb
560
Jubaylah
? ? ?
Murdama / Shammar
PRECAMBRIAN
? ? ? ?
Huqf Supergroup
?
METAMORPHIC BASEMENT
Figure 4c: Stratigraphic summary diagram from Jordan through Saudi Arabia to Oman. For lithological legend, see Figure 4a.
Rifting Intermittant
Saramuj
Najd Faulting
530
Safiq Gp
Llandeilo Llanvirn
470
Hiswa
Khafah Hanadir
Thermal Sag
460
Dubeidib
Raan
460
Glacial
414
Ashgill
Caradoc
450
Hercynian Orogeny
Tournaisian
350
Source Rock
Berwath
Glacial
Gzelian Kasimovian
300
Early Cambrian
Following the extensional Najd Rift phase, massive post-rift, continental clastics of late Early Cambrian age were deposited over most of the plate (Figure 4). These were sourced from interior Gondwana to the south and west, and are bounded below by a regional unconformity that represents a stable platform [base of AP2 at 520 Ma]. In Jordan, the post-rift Lower Cambrian Salib Formation (Powell, 1989) consists of continental clastics that were deposited in a system of alluvial fans grading into braid plains and braid deltas. South of Jordan and north of the Arabian Shield, in the Tabuk outcrops of Saudi Arabia, the Lower Cambrian Siq Sandstone unconformably overlies the irregular surface (pre-Siq unconformity) of the Precambrian basement. It consists of a basal alluvial conglomeratic sandstone overlain by a mixed sand-flat-eolian sandstone complex (D. Janjou, P. Razin, M. Halawani, and W. Roberts, written comm., 2000). Lateral time equivalents in the south may include the Nimr Group in Oman, which consists of alluvial fan deposits, in addition to playa lake deposits. In southwest Iran, the post-rift Zaigun and Lalun formations appear, on the basis of sedimentary structures such as cross-bedding, to be non-marine. These lack age-diagnostic fossils (R. Jones, written comm., 2000); however, the formal Lalun Formation of northeast Iran, has been dated as Early Cambrian. In northern plate areas, in Syria and southeast Turkey, the Zabuk and Sadan formations correspond to the basal post-rift continental clastics.
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Caspian Sea
?
Evaporites Clastics and Carbonates
36
Tehran
36
? ?
IRAQ
?
IRAN
Med Sea
32
?
Damascus SYRIA Amman Baghdad
? ?
?
Shallow Marine Mainly Carbonates Shallow Marine Clastics and Carbonates
Erosion
32
JORDAN
KUWAIT
? ? ?
?
28
Contin
s ental Clastic
Khursaniyah-81
Ar
28
ab
ian Gu lf
?
Abu Dhabi UAE
26
QATAR Doha
24
Gul
f of
Om
an
24
Arabian Shield
Continental Clastics
20
Muscat
p De
os
on
ct
on
iti
al
Di
re
20
Re dS ea
16
N
0 Km 36 40 500
YEMEN Sanaa
16
Arabian Sea
44
fo Gul
f Ad
en
48 52 56 60
Figure 5: During the Middle Cambrian, a vast shallow, carbonate platform covered most of northern Arabia and interior Iran. Proximal alluvial fan deposits, interrupted by subordinate marginal marine conditions, prevail along the basin margin.
formations consist of a coarsening-upward succession of alluvial-fluvial deposits interrupted by subordinate marginal marine clastics, which correlate with the Cambrian Risha Member of the Saq Formation of Saudi Arabia (Vaslet, 1990). In the Tabuk outcrops of northwest Saudi Arabia the Burj is absent. In the subsurface of northwest Saudi Arabia, however, and in Khursaniyah-81 well in eastern Saudi Arabia, the Lower Cambrian Siq is overlain by the Burj Dolomite (Figure 4c). An MFS is identified within its upper part and is characterized by an Early to Middle Cambrian acritarch assemblage (Al-Hajri and Owens, 2000) [MFS Cm20 dated at 510 Ma].
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TURKEY
Caspian Sea
36
Tehran
36
Co nt nd s a ne tic ari as M Cl ow ll al nt ha i ne to S
IRAQ IRAN Baghdad
De
l ta
ic
Med Sea
32
?
32
w lo al Sh e in ar M
JORDAN KUWAIT
y nl ai M es al Sh
28
Ar
SAUDI ARABIA
28
ab
ian Gu lf
?
Abu Dhabi UAE QATAR Doha
BAHRAIN
24
Riyadh
Gul
f of
Om
an
24
Muscat
De lta ic to
Sh all ow M ar ine
20
Re dS ea
OMAN
16
N
0 Km 36 40 500
Sanaa Sanaa
YEMEN
16
Arabian Sea
Aden
44
fo Gul
f Ad
en
48 52 56 60
Figure 6: In northern Arabia, increased clastic influx in the Late Cambrian terminated carbonate deposition, and a prograding clastic apron was deposited conformably over the Middle Cambrian carbonates. These clastics grade eastward into distal shale dominated marine environments.
In the salt basin province of south Oman, the Angudan unconformity separates the Cambrian-Silurian Mahatta Humaid Group from the underlying syn-rift Precambrian-Lower Cambrian Huqf Supergroup and Nimir Group (Droste, 1997). This unconformity may mark the onset of subsidence driven by thermal relaxation. The oldest Amin Formation of the Mahatta Humaid Group consists of variably sorted, arkosic sandstones, conglomerates, and subordinate shales that were deposited in a system of alluvial fans grading into aeolian-influenced braid plains and braid deltas. The coincidence of these sediments with the underlying Ara Salt basins indicates that accommodation space was generated by halokinesis (Loosveld et al., 1996; Droste, 1997).
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The Miqrat Formation in central Oman, and the Mahwis Formation in south Oman were also deposited in a continental setting during the Middle Cambrian (Droste, 1997). All relict topography appears to have been leveled by Middle Cambrian time and relatively uniform depositional conditions persisted over large areas, which include central Saudi Arabia for the first time.
Middle Ordovician
In Oman, the Middle Ordovician Saih Nihayda Formation is separated by a major unconformity from the Lower Ordovician Ghudun Formation (Droste, 1997). A thin sandy unit locally overlies this unconformity, but generally a rapid transgression resulted in deposition of middle to outer neritic shales. The primary maximum flooding surface of this sequence is of Llanvirn age [MFS O30 dated at 465 Ma], and can be traced from the Saih Nihayda in Oman, to the Hanadir Member of the Qasim Formation in Saudi Arabia, to the Hiswa Formation in Jordan (Figures 4 and 7). In Jordan, Powell (1991) renamed the lower part of the Hiswah as the Sahl as Suwwan Formation (Middle Ordovician, Llanvirn). Locally, the shales may be rich in organic matter, indicating restricted water circulation in the basin for the first time. During the remainder of the Middle Ordovician, the Arabian Plate was covered by a major marine prograding clastic sequence. These sediments were deposited in inner-neritic to estuarine or deltaic environments. Point sources can be recognized in Oman and northern Saudi Arabia (Figure 7). Basin inwards deposition of middle to outer-neritic shales continued during the Middle Ordovician (Swab and Affendi Formation in Syria, Bedinan Formation in Turkey, Zardkuh Formation in Iran).
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TURKEY
Caspian Sea
36
Tehran IRAQ
36
Med Sea
Damascus SYRIA
?
Baghdad
IRAN
32
Amman
32
28
Ar
SAUDI ARABIA
28
ab
ian Gu lf
QATAR Doha
BAHRAIN
Riyadh
Abu Dhabi
Gul
f of
Om
UAE
an
24
Muscat
Re dS ea
?
16
OMAN
N
0 Km 36 40 500
YEMEN Sanaa
16
Arabian Sea
44
Gul
f of
Ade
n
52 56 60
48
Figure 7: In the Middle Ordovician a rapid transgression resulted in deposition of middle to outer neritic shales over most of the Arabian Plate. This primary maximum flooding surface is of Llanvirn age and corresponds to MFS O30 dated at 465 Ma (Sharland et al., 2001). Locally the shales are rich in organic matter, indicating restricted water circulation. Stippled areas indicate outbuilding deltas during the subsequent regressive stage recognized in Oman and northern Saudi Arabia.
Late Ordovician
In the Late Ordovician a transgressive-regressive cycle [includes MFS O40 dated at 453 Ma] is recognized in the Kahfah, Raan and Quwarah members of the Qasim Formation in Saudi Arabia, and the Hasirah Formation in Oman. Basinwards, the cycles are difficult to recognize as the section consists of an undifferentiated package of essentially middle to outer-neritic graptolitic shales (Zardkuh Formation in Iran, and Bedinan Formation in southeast Turkey).
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TURKEY
Caspian Sea
36 36
Tehran
IRAQ
IRAN
Med Sea
32
Baghdad
ow all Sh
e rin Ma
JORDAN
s si pre e lf D he s ra nt
on
Erosion
KUWAIT
Erosion
28 28
Ar
ab
ian Gu
QATAR Doha
BAHRAIN
lf
Abu Dhabi UAE
Riyadh
Gul
f of
Om
an
24
Muscat
s sio n
20
ea dS Re
16
N
0 Km 36 40 500
YEMEN Sanaa
16
Arabian Sea
44
Gul
f of
Ade
n
52 56 60
48
Figure 8: With the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the Ordovician global sea level rose and resulted in widespread flooding of the Arabian platform [MFS S10 dated at 440 Ma]. In the Early Silurian, shallow to open-marine environments were established in marginal areas, whilst deeper marine environments covered the inundated platform and extended southward along a subsiding intrashelf depression located in central Saudi Arabia. Anoxic water bottom conditions in the sediment-starved basin resulted in the preservation of organic-rich shales, the principal source rock for Paleozoic hydrocarbons in Saudi Arabia.
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Time equivalent deposits are absent in most of interior Iran, and only local remnants have been preserved (Reitz and Davoudzadeh, 1995), possibly due to erosion. They are also absent in the Mardin area of southeast Turkey, where the entire Ordovician section has progressively been removed by preSilurian erosion (Figure 4). Whether this is due to tectonic processes, or shelf-edge erosion associated with the fall in sea level during the close of the Ordovician, remains to be resolved.
Silurian
With the retreat of the glaciers, a major phase of global warming developed during the Llandovery. Sea level rapidly started to rise and flooded [S10 dated at 440 Ma] the Arabian Platform (Figure 8). Shallow to open marine environments were established in marginal areas, whilst deeper marine environments covered the inundated platform, and extended southward along a subsiding intrashelf basin located in central Saudi Arabia (Husseini, 1991; Mahmoud et al., 1992; Jones and Stump, 1999). Anoxic water bottom conditions in the sediment-starved basin resulted in the preservation of organic rich shalesthe prolific Silurian hot shale. These are the Qusaiba shale in Saudi Arabia, Mudawwara Formation in Jordan, Sahmah Formation in Oman, Abba Formation in Syria, Dadas Formation in southeast Turkey, and Ghakum Formation in Iran. The Qusaiba is the principal source rock for Paleozoic hydrocarbons in Saudi Arabia (Abu-Ali et al., 1991; Mahmoud et al., 1992). A second, younger source rock of possibly Wenlock age occurs in the northern parts of the basin (Aqrawi, 1998). The initial transgression was followed by a thick (>1,000 m) coarsening-upward sequence of shales and sandstone of Llandovery to Pridoli age (e.g Qalibah in Saudi Arabia), which prograded basinward (Mahmoud et al., 1992). However, middle to outer neritic environments persisted in the north (Abba Formation in Syria, and Dadas Formation in southeast Turkey) and east (Gahkum Formation in Iran) during the remainder of the Silurian.
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?
36
Continental Clastics
(age determination uncertain)
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ab
ian Gu lf
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Gul
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Re dS ea
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0 Km 36 40 500
YEMEN Sanaa
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Arabian Sea
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Gul
f of
Ade
n
52 56 60
48
Figure 9: A large delta front developed in Saudi Arabia, which in the north is replaced by mixed marine siliciclastics and carbonates. Continental environments became established in central Arabia, Syria and Iraq, whilst marginal marine environments developed in Turkey and Oman.
During the Middle and Late Devonian, continental clastics were deposited in Saudi Arabia (Jubah Formation), which in the north are replaced by mixed marine siliciclastics and carbonates (Hazro and Kayayolu formations in southeast Turkey). During this period, continental environments became established in central Arabia, Syria and Iraq, whilst marginal marine environments persisted in Turkey and Oman. The age determination of specifically the deposits in Syria and Iraq is highly uncertain; these sediments may represent the latest Devonian (Aqrawi, 1998).
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Hercynian Subcrop
36 40 44 48 52 56 60
TURKEY
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rb lm Ca -Pa
in Pr oto
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?
IRAN Baghdad
Med Sea
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Dev on
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ian
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Carb.
KUWAIT
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O rd ov ic ia n
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Ar
ab
ian Gu lf
QATAR Doha
BAHRAIN
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Riyadh
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Om
an
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Basement
Dev
onia
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Re dS ea
Carboniferous
Silurian
OMAN
ro n mb icia a C dov Or
Devonian
16
Basement
16
N
0 Km 36 40 500
YEMEN Sanaa
Arabian Sea
44
Gul
f of
Ade
n
52 56 60
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Figure 10: Isolated occurrences of Lower Carboniferous sequences are preserved under the Hercynian unconformity (e.g. in the NE-trending proto-Palmyra trough in Syria and in isolated wells in Saudi Arabia). In other areas of the Plate, the Carboniferous is largely missing due to widespread uplift and erosion during the Hercynian Orogeny, and older Paleozoic rocks subcrop under the unconformity.
The return of marine environments, especially during the latest Devonian in the northern region (or their preservation), suggest differential downwarp of the northern margin of Gondwana. Similar relationships can be observed in interior Iran. Uppermost Devonian strata rest directly on Cambrian or Lower Ordovician sequences in the Alborz Mountains in Iran, whilst a more continuous Paleozoic section including older Devonian, is preserved in the basin south of the Mountains (Figure 8, Wensink, 1991). These relationships suggest that the northern margin of Gondwana became tectonically unstable, and herald the onset of the Hercynian Orogeny (see later).
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al ion sit n o p o De ecti r Di
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ea dS Re
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Gul
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Ade
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Figure 11: In Saudi Arabia the Lower Permian deposits are continental. Towards the southeast, marine influence is evident with shallow-marine carbonates being deposited in Oman. Arrows in Saudi Arabia indicate the location and depositional direction of the main channel complexes in the overlying basal Khuff clastics.
Carboniferous
The Carboniferous is largely missing due to widespread uplift and erosion during the Hercynian Orogeny. However, in Syria, Lower Caboniferous sequences (Doubayat Formation) were deposited and preserved in a NE-trending proto Palmyra trough (Figure 10). The base of the Doubayat is a regional unconformity, becoming angular adjacent to Hercynian uplifts. The basal part of the Doubayat section in Syria comprises Tournasian to lowermost Visean shallow marine shale, with subordinate sandstone and siltstone, and bioclastic carbonates. Incomplete biozones 424
are indicative of intraformational depositional hiatuses. These are followed by fully marine carbonates of Visean age, reflecting the maximum extent of the transgression. The overlying sequences are part of a regressive complex made up of near shore to deltaic clastics. These sediments range in age up to the Stephanian. Thinning and pinching out of the carbonates, and variations in sand/shale ratios of especially the Middle to Upper Carboniferous sequences suggest that deposition occurred in a shallow, land locked, SW-trending depression. This implies a major change in basin geometry, which may be attributed to the Hercynian Orogeny (see below). Isolated occurrences of Carboniferous siliciclastics have been penetrated in Saudi Arabia (Al-Hajri and Owens, 2000). They consist of poorly dated, syn-Hercynian continental sandstones of the Berwath and Unayzah-C member, which were deposited in low regions. Upper Carboniferous deposits outside the proto-Palmyra depression are known from southern Arabia. Here glaciogenic and periglacial deposits of the Al Khlata in Oman (Braakman et al, 1982) and Juwayl Formation (Helal, 1966) have been preserved (Figure 4). The deposits are related to uplifted areas located southeast of Oman (Al-Belushi et al, 1996). Deposition in glacial environments in Oman continued during the Early Permian.
Early Permian
The first extensive deposits following the Hercynian Orogeny are the Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian clastics that rest with angular unconformity (Hercynian unconformity) on older Paleozoic rocks and basement. They were partly deposited coeval with rift tectonics along the eastern and northern margins of the Arabian Plate. These sediments appear to be missing in Yemen and over the Central Arabian Arch (Figure 11). Generally the section is made up of braided plain, channel fill, and eolian sandstones and siltstones (Unayzah A and B members in Saudi Arabia) that were deposited in semi-arid conditions (Senalp and Al-Duaiji, 1995). They are replaced basinward by braid plain deposits overlain by shallow-marine near-shore sediments to essentially shallow marine sands in the Zagros mountains (Faraghan Formation; Szabo and Kheradpir, 1978). The thickness of these clastics is variable due to onlap on the Hercynian structures. The Lower Permian section in Oman embraces shallow marine carbonates (Haushi Limestone of the Lower Gharif Member) of Sakmarian age (Figure 11). The initial transgression is witnessed in the deeper part of the basin by a transgressive lag and marine mudstones (Maximum Flooding Shale, Guit et al., 1995) [MFS P10 dated at 272 Ma], which grade laterally into alluvial and fluvial deposits. They are followed by fine clastics, which may include lacustrine and playa deposits (Middle Gharif member), suggesting diminishing basin topography. The later Artinskian documents a sudden increase in sand content brought in by rivers, probably in response to uplift in the source areas associated with incipient rifting that preceded the formation of the Neo-Tethys margin (Le Mtour et al., 1995).
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R Damascus Baghdad R
IRAN
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Evaporites
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ab
ian Gu
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Doha RG Abu Dhabi UAE
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lf
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ulf o
f Om
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N
0 Km 36 40 500
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16
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Figure 12: The Upper Permian (Kungurian to Tartarian) is characterized by the deposition of carbonates and anhydrites over the entire Arabian shelf in shallow-marine to tidal- flat environments (modified from Al-Jallal, 1995). Deeper marine carbonate deposits occur at the eastern tip of the plate in Oman and Iran.
The Khuff Formation includes at least four depositional sequences. During maximum transgression, carbonates oversteped the clastic realm and rested on basement over the Central Arabian Arch. During regressions, restricted evaporitic environments became established on the western part of the platform protected by shoals from open seas in the east (Figure 12). In the High Zagros and Oman Mountains deep-marine environments were established.
426
HERCYNIAN OROGENY
The Hercynian Orogeny affected the Arabian Plate from the Late Devonian to the Early Carboniferous. Fission track studies, combined with organo-chemical studies in Turkey to Oman, indicate the removal of several kilometers of sediments over uplifted areas. Changes in basin geometry, regional uplift, basement-cored uplifts, and the evidence of folding and inversion tectonics, suggest that the Arabian Plate underwent multiple phases of compression during this orogeny. The structural observations are consistent with a NW-directed principle compressive stress. The Carboniferous, synorogenic sequences were deposited in continental to shallow-marine environments, embracing Visean carbonates in Syria. The Carboniferous clastics were mainly derived from the erosion of older clastics in uplifted areas. The Hercynian Orogeny resulted in a major change in basin geometry as revealed by the Hercynian subcrop (Figure 10). This map shows a NE-trending basement high protruding into the basin in central Arabia, the Central Arabian Arch. Facies patterns and thickness variations in Devonian-Silurian and older sequences suggest that the Arch either formed or was rejuvenated during the Hercynian Orogeny, and persisted into the Mesozoic. This high is overprinted by N-trending basement-cored uplifts (e.g. Ghawar anticline), which juxtapose various rock units. The NW-trending faults in the Azraq (Wadi Sirhan and Jauf) graben were also activated, and are associated with large uplifts accompanied by deep erosion (Figure 13). The proto-Palmyra and its northeasterly extension occur just south of a zone where uplift and erosion exposed Ordovician strata in the area of the Aleppo and Mardin highs. Northward, younger rock units have been preserved in the Diyarbakir basin, implying the uplift of a regional, ENE-trending foreland bulge, running parallel to the Central Arabian Arch. Additional evidence for Hercynian tectonism stems from structural observations. Figure 13 illustrates the structural and stratigraphic relationships in the northern Arabian Plate. The section shows that the Cambrian to Silurian rocks form a single structural entity. The Lower Devonian hiatus (Figure 4a) may be due to vertical movements. The Ordovician-Silurian sequences are truncated and folded at a regional-scale prior to the deposition of the Carboniferous resulting a major angular unconformity (below the Berwath Formation in Saudi Arabia). The axial zone appears to coincide with the south Syria Platform (compare with Figure 2). Folded Ordovician-Silurian rocks can also be observed below the base Triassic and younger unconformities farther south. Finally, the distribution of the Carboniferous sequences suggests that the area was affected by a phase of differential uplift prior to deposition in the Triassic. The cross-section shown in Figure 14 follows the trend of the Central Arabian Arch and extends from the Arabian Shield across several large structures in central and eastern Saudi Arabia to the Qatar Arch. Pre-Permian strata are clearly truncated by erosion below the Hercynian unconformity. This extensive erosion, particularly of the Devonian section, demonstrates that the structures were uplifted by thousands of meters during the Carboniferous (Figure 10). The NS-trending Hercynian uplifts, such as Ghawar, are bounded by reverse faults, suggesting that the uplift was due to a regional compressive stress field. In general, post-Hercynian pre-Permian erosion reduced the relief, but not completely, as indicated by thickness and facies variations in the Unayzah Formation. Many of the Hercynian faults bounding the major N-S uplifts were reactivated during the Triassic and especially during the Late Cretaceous, as indicated by the dramatic thickening of the Aruma Group on the flanks of these uplifts. Not all the structures shown on Figure 14, however, are Hercynian in origin. For example, the Harmaliyah anticline, located immediately east of Ghawar, preserves the most complete Devonian section in Saudi Arabia and is clearly post-Hercynian in origin. Figure 15 highlights the geological relationships in the southern Arabian Plate. Here the post-Hercynian Carboniferous sequences generally rest on Ordovician or older deposits. Devonian rocks are only locally preserved. No folding or reverse faulting is known in Oman, suggesting that Hercynian events were essentially vertical in nature. 427
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A
1,000
South
JORDAN
Azraq Graben
Basalt Plateau
Carb. Silurian Depositional Thinning
Tertiary 0 Silurian
Jurassic
Triassic
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U.- M. Ordovician
DEPTH (Meters)
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MSL
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Dilam
SAUDI ARABIA
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QATAR
Southern Gulf Salt Basin
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ta c eo us
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cti o
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an
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ea dS Re
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10,000
500
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INDEX MAP
Figure 14: Geologic traverse through Saudi Arabia to Qatar (see also Alsharhan and Nairn, 1994). For location of section see index map.
428
SYRIA
Euphrates Graben Sinjar Trough
Triassic
TURKEY
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Diyarbakir Basin
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Tertiary
-0
S i l u r ia n
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Permian
0 Devonian
5 Km
100 -6,000
Figure 13: Geologic traverse from Jordan through Syria to Turkey. For location of section see index map.
South
South Oman Salt Basin
OMAN
North
Ghaba Salt Basin
Tertiary
Cretace
ous
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Devonian
Carbo n if e r o u s
Ju ras
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Or
DEPTH (Meters)
do v
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icia n
4,000
Precambrian Salt
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Pr ec
am
br
ian
8,000
8,000
Figure 15: Geologic traverse through Oman. For location of section see index map.
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DEPTH (Meters)
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Konert et al.
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IRAN
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Kahf Abu Safah
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fo Gul
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Figure 16: Geochemical studies prove the presence of Silurian and Precambrian derived fluids in many fields over a wide geographical area from Turkey to Oman, and from Saudi Arabia to Qatar. These fluids occur as mixtures or end-member crudes that have distinct chemical fingerprints.
Further evidence for Hercynian movements, though still highly speculative, is derived from the Sanandaj-Sirjan ranges of Iran (see Figure 1) and the Oman Mountains. In the former, intensely folded metamorphic Devonian complexes have been found (Figure 9, Davoudzadeh and Weber-Diefenbach, 1987; Thiele et al., 1968). These are overlain by non-metamorphic Permian. Although still sparse, radiometric dating indicates an Early Carboniferous age for the metamorphism (Crawford, 1977). In the Oman Mountains, the Permian rests unconformably on highly deformed and metamorphozed Lower Paleozoic rocks attributed to the Hercynian Orogeny (Mann and Hanna, 1990). The deformation combined with the metamorphism indicates that the future Zagros margin was possibly a zone of transpressional movements.
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PERIOD
FORMATION/ MEMBER
GAMMA RAY
(API)
0 200
RESISTIVITY
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.2
DEN/NEU POR
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3.0
TRIASSIC
SUDAIR A
D-ANHYDRITE
Hercynian Unconformity
JUBAH
QALIBAH FORMATION
SILURIAN
QUSAIBA MEMBER
SHARAWRA MEMBER
~ 150 m
SARAH
Figure 17: Composite log of the Paleozoic section in the Ghawar area in eastern Saudi Arabia. Reservoir sections are indicated in red (Jauf, Unayzah A and B, and Khuff A, B, and C reservoirs).
ORDOVICIAN
QASIM FM.
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Konert et al.
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ng
an
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GR SN
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0 ft Gas Reservoir
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Khuff-D
ah
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Abadeh
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Un
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ay
ath
za
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O rd
Fa
ov ic
ra
ia
gh
n
10
an
Q us
9 7
ai
Arabian Gulf
ba
Eq
ui
v.
Figure 18: Stratigraphic cross section from Saudi Arabia to Iran, showing reservoir development in the Khuff A to D reservoirs. Datum is the Khuff D anhydrite (modified from Al-Jallal, 1995).
approx. 5,700 ft
Khuff-C
Khuff-C
Jub
In some areas, deep Paleozoic source rocks may have generated their hydrocarbon potential prior to the Carboniferous, but these may have been lost to the surface during the Hercynian orogeny. In other areas, source rocks only reached the oil window prior to Hercynian uplift, leaving only potential for gas generation during the subsequent burial phase. Therefore, it is critical to understand the generation histories through the application of inorganic paleo-thermometer measurements. The predicted cumulative volumes of oil and gas expelled from the Silurian shale depocenter, contained within the present oil window, range from 430 to 760 bbls of oil, and 1,540 to 2,575 TCF of gas. Cumulative volumes of oil and gas expelled from the Silurian within the present-day gas window range from 3,000 to 3,600 bbls of oil and 21,595 to 39,200 TCF of gas. Assuming that about 90% of the predicted volumes were lost either due to migration losses or model inaccuracies, then between 48 billion to 83 billion barrels of oil and oil equivalents are predicted to be recoverable where the source rock is within the oil window. For the gas window, another 380 to 439 bbls of oil and oil equivalent are predicted with the same assumptions. The Paleozoic exploration frontier may, therefore, offer a Hydrocarbon-Initially-In-Place (HIIP) of 1 trillion BOE reservoired from the Silurian shale alone. Although the Silurian shale is the principal hydrocarbon source rock, recent geochemical evidence from the Shamah oil field in Oman indicates that the Unayzah condensates are derived from a different source rock, as yet unidentified. The late Precambrian rocks in Oman constitute another group of established petroleum systems (Terken and Frewin, 2000). These may also be present in the other Precambrian salt basins (Figure 1). Hydrocarbons derived from these source rocks have been found in reservoirs spanning the entire Phanerozoic. The hydrocarbons have been linked to several source-rock intervals deposited in the pre- to syn-rift sequences. They embrace carbonate source rocks, which contain mainly Type I/II organic matter with total organic carbon contents (TOC) of up to 7%. Silicilyte source rocks are found in intrasalt settings. They have variable TOCs ranging up to 10%, and may occur in massive sections up to 1,750 m thick. They are considered world class source rocks that are characterized by anomalously low activation energies. Finally, a group of hydrocarbons have been defined in Oman, the so-called Q-oils that have distinct geochemical characteristics (Grantham et al., 1987). The exact source of these hydrocarbons remains to be identified, though they appear to be Precambrian in character.
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West
WAQR
Dhru ma
East
GHAWAR TINAT
Dhruma Minjur
Jilh
Sudair
Dhruma
Jilh
A B E
Sudair
B
Khuff
Khuff
Unayzah
Jubah
C
Tawil
Sh ara
B Unayzah Hercy n
Qusaiba
Jauf Tawil
Sharawra
ian Un
conform
ity
wra
Qasim
Qusaiba
Qasim
Saq
Saq
km
Precambrian Basement
Figure 19: Schematic E-W structural cross-section across the Waqr-Ghawar-Tinat fields, showing the major Paleozoic plays. A=Khuff play; B=Unayzah structure play; C=Hypothetical Unayzah stratigraphic play; D=Jauf truncation play; E=Ordovician play.
The Silurian hot shale forms the ultimate seal to the pre-Silurian section. The latter embraces excellent reservoirs, which may be down-charged, or side-charged by faults, from the hot shale. An example is the Abu Jifan field in eastern Saudi Arabia, in which sandstones of Ordovician Sarah and Qasim Formation are the main reservoir. The pre-Silurian section becomes an important target in addition to the Permian in those regions underlain by Precambrian source rocks. The trapping potential in the Cambrian-Ordovician basin margin sections, made up of massive coarse clastics, depends on truncation, which juxtaposes them against Permian-Carboniferous or younger seals. Seal potential increases basinward in parallel with changes in environment of deposition towards more marine settings (lower sand/shale ratios). However, reservoir quality deteriorates especially due to increased burial, and the presence of reservoirs becomes highly dependent on the diagenetic history.
ESTABLISHED PLAYS
The established frontier Paleozoic plays include the Permian Khuff, Permian-Carboniferous Unayzah and Haushi, as well as Devonian and Cambro-Ordovician targets (Figures 16 and 19). The PrecambrianCambrian Huqf plays of Oman are not discussed here.
Khuff Play
Gas was initially discovered in Permian-Triassic Khuff carbonates in the Awali field of Bahrain in 1949. Subsequent gas discoveries were made in deeper pool tests of the major structures in Abu Dhabi, Iran, Oman and Saudi Arabia. In 1971, the worlds largest gas field, the North Dome Khuff reservoir was discovered in Qatar. The Khuff is the largest non-associated gas reservoir in the world, with approximately 750 TCF of recoverable reserves (Figures 18 and 19). The quality of the Khuff gas depends upon the amounts of non-hydrocarbon gases, mainly H2S, CO2, and N2. The amount of H2S increases with temperature and depth, reflecting in situ conversion of hydrocarbons to H2S by thermochemical reduction of anhydrite sulfate. The amounts of other gases, such as N2 and CO2 contaminants, appear to increase with depth and source-rock maturity.
434
The gas accumulations occur in up to four separate reservoirs, each consisting of oolitic grainstones and intertidal dolo-mudstones that are capped by anhydrite seals (Figures 17 and 18). On a regional scale, reservoir development is, in part, related to the relative position on the carbonate shelf, and the development of higher energy facies on shoals that may straddle structural highs and shelf margin reefs (Al-Jallal, 1995). The quality of the reservoirs varies from excellent to poor, with abrupt lateral and vertical variations in porosity and permeability. These are controlled by dolomitization, leaching, fracturing, and cementation (particularly by anhydrite). Leached zones often form the better portion of the reservoir. Reservoir porosity types range from primary intergranular to secondary oomoldic. Reservoir permeability is equally variable, depending upon leaching of either matrix and cement components, or the extent of fracture development. Production may be both from the matrix and from fractures, but productivity generally improves with the presence of fractures. For these reasons, petrophysical evaluation and geologic modeling of the Khuff reservoirs is hampered by uncertainties. On the other hand, these factors suggest that the Khuff has considerable potential for stratigraphic traps, as yet unexplored. 3-D seismic data has proven to be a good approach for delineating zones of Khuff porosity. There is some uncertainty about the history and paths of hydrocarbon migration into the Khuff, particularly in areas where basal Khuff shales and tight carbonates seal the accumulation in the underlying clastics. It is likely that reactivated older faults, such as those on the west flank of Ghawar (Figure 19), provided pathways for vertical migration into the Khuff from hydrocarbon kitchens in flanking regions (Wender et al., 1998).
Unayzah/Gharif Play
Oil in the Permian Gharif sandstones was first discovered in 1972 in the Ghaba North structure in Oman, and the subsequent campaign demonstrated the economic viability of the play throughout Oman. In Saudi Arabia, the potential of the Permian Unayzah was confirmed in 1979 by a gas discovery in the Qirdi field. The Unayzah play became much more significant in 1989, when super light oil was discovered in Hawtah-1 in central Saudi Arabia. Another 16 Unayzah fields have been discovered in the past decade. The fields are structural closures along Hercynian basement-cored uplifts, that may be transpressional in origin (Simms, 1995). Moreover, the stratigraphic variability of the Unayzah, influenced by paleotopography and the continental environments of deposition, lends a stratigraphic component to entrapment (Evans et al., 1997). The Unayzah oils range from 48o to 53o API gravity and their gas/oil ratio (GOR) is less than 90 m3/m3. The low GOR is attributed to solution of methane in waters in an active hydrodynamic system driven by influx of meteoric water from outcrops along the western edge of the basin (Figure 14). The Silurian source rocks in central Saudi Arabia are immature, and the Unayzah oils were evidently generated in the deeper parts of the basin and migrated about 200 km westwards towards the basin margin (Abu Ali et al., 1991). The Unayzah and overlying basal Khuff clastics are composed of alluvial, fluvial, and eolian facies. The Unayzah includes three sandstone reservoirs, designated informally as A, B, and C, which are separated by silt- and mudstone (McGillivray and Husseini, 1992). The sandstone reservoirs are laterally discontinuous, and their quality varies depending on sorting and the amount of diagenetic quartz, kaolinite, illite/smectite cement. Intergranular porosity ranges up to 30% and permeability up to one darcy, particularly in the eolian sandstone facies. The top seal are transgressive shales at the base of the overlying Khuff Formation. The Unayzah play was extended during the last decade to target gas in the deeper basin (>3,700 m) near facilities in eastern Saudi Arabia. The gas exploration campaign has resulted in the discovery of six additional Unayzah gas/condensate fields near Ghawar field, such as Waqr and Tinat (Figure 19).
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0m
Salt
PERMIAN-CARBONIFEROUS
Figure 20: Conceptual diagram showing the Ordovician mass flow sand play in Oman. The mass flow sands were deposited in outer-shelf environments within active salt withdrawal basin. The reservoirs occur at an average depth of 3000m and the sandstones exhibit excellent reservoir qualities, with porosities of up to 32%.
The Unayzah deep gas play presents additional challenges, which include poor seismic imaging of the Paleozoic section and abrupt variation in reservoir quality due both to stratigraphy and diagenesis. The problems of deep seismic imaging and reservoir heterogeneity are both being addressed by the acquisition of high-effort, 3-D seismic surveys to reduce reservoir and trap risks.
Devonian Play
Gas in the Devonian Jauf sandstone was initially discovered in 1980 by a deeper pool test in the north Ghawar field. Subsequent tests showed that the Devonian section was mostly eroded from the crest of the structure. The discovery in 1994 of Jauf gas in a combination structural-stratigraphic trap along the flank of the Ghawar structure was a major exploration success, especially in light of the poor seismic imaging of the pre-Khuff section (Wender et al., 1998). The Jauf reservoir consists of shallow marine sandstones with relatively high porosities (up to 25%). This is unusual given their burial to over 4,300 m. Unlike other pre-Khuff siliciclastics, which have undergone extensive silica cementation, the Jauf reservoir is weakly cemented with authigenic illite that coats grain surfaces, which apparently has inhibited quartz cementation and preserved porosity. The abundant illite also lowers resistivity values due to the excess bound water and the high cation exchange capacity of illite. This can cause pessimistic water saturation estimates and lead to potentially bypassed low-resistivity pay zones (Wender et al., 1998). The cross-section in Figure 19 shows the structural relationships of the Devonian Jauf. On structures like Ghawar that were subjected to a large amount of Hercynian uplift, the Jauf is eroded from the crest and preserved along the flanks. The play is defined by the lateral truncation of the reservoir against sealing faults, or by its top truncation by the Hercynican Unconformity, with top seal provided by the basal shales of the Khuff. The Jauf may also be preserved over the crest of low relief structures like Waqr, where it is a purely structural play.
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Existing Fields
S
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In interior Oman, the Upper Ordovician (Caradoc) Hasirah was deposited in a tide-dominated, sandy deltaic (or estuarine) environment, fed by braided rivers from an overall southerly source. These pass basinward into undifferentiated marine mudstones and claystones, and interbedded, laterally discontinuous, sandy mass flows, which are deposited in outer shelf environments (Figure 20). The latter sandstones have excellent reservoir qualities, with porosities reaching 32%, due to reworking and rapid deposition. The Hasirah sediments were deposited in an active salt-withdrawal basin in ponded geometries, and occur at an average depth of 3,000 m. They constitute potential stratigraphic traps that are mapped with seismic amplitude and AVO techniques.
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Since the first Upper Cambrian Haima gas/condensate discovery in 1989, Oman has booked about 17.6 TCF of reserves. The gas occurs in the Barik Sandstone at depths exceeding 4,000 m (main objective, Figure 21). The reservoirs are found in salt-cored domes that may be compartmentalized by faults. Initial reservoir pressures are about 500 bar and temperatures are 125 to 140C, providing a considerable challenge in terms of deep-well engineering. The condensate to gas ratio varies from 0 to 950 m3/ 106m3. Hydrocarbon columns are in the order of 100 m to greater than 200 m. The Barik reservoirs represent a sandy braid delta interrupted by periodic flooding events. The latter result in the deposition of a non-reservoir heterolithic, shallow-marine faces. Eustatic changes gave rise to eight stacked flow units. Reservoir characteristics vary with overall position within the depositional system; average porosity and permeability is in the order of 8 to 10% and 1 to 2 mD. Local variations in reservoir parameters also depend on diagenetic history, and especially on the presence of an early oil charge that inhibited quartz overgrowth and dolomite cementation. The presence of higher quality thief zones complicates reservoir management through introducing a risk of early water breakthrough. In addition, reservoir performance is highly dependent on fractures. The Barik reservoir is mapped by specialized seismic acquisition and processing techniques, and its production is optimized by reservoir models that account for fractures. Hydraulic fracture stimulation of wells plays a key role in the development of the field.
CONCLUSION
The Paleozoic Arabian Plate offers major opportunities to discover and delineate new energy reserves. The system includes multiple reservoir objectives in continental and marine clastics, and in Permian carbonates. Hydrocarbons were mainly derived from the prolific Silurian hot shale that extends over most of the basin. Tectonostratigraphic relationships indicate that the platform southwest of the Zagros Suture was generally stable until the Hercynian Orogeny that started in the latest Devonian and climaxed in the Early Carboniferous. The orogeny is manifested by regional upwarps (Syria, Central Arabia and Oman) and sags (Palmyra and Rub Al-Khali), and narrow N-trending basement cored uplifts (e.g. Ghawar field). In the Early Permian, rifting along the eastern margin led to the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. The prospectivity of the Paleozoic section is largely determined, in addition to the sedimentary facies patterns, by the pre- and post-Hercynian burial and thermal histories, which dramatically impact reservoir quality and availability of hydrocarbons. A non-traditional approach is required to constrain thermal histories due to the complex burial/uplift history. Although porosity was largely destroyed during the deep burial of the section, it was locally preserved due either to the presence of an early diagenetic phase, or to early emplacement of hydrocarbons. Moreover, secondary porosity was selectively created in thin carrier beds by leaching during fluid flow. Exploration and development success will depend on significant innovations to meet the challenges posed by low acoustic contrasts between the target rock units, difficult surface conditions, tight reservoirs, and deep subsurface environments. The history of hydrocarbon exploration in the Arabian Plate has yielded a wide variety of new and often unexpected hydrocarbon plays spanning the Tertiary to Precambrian section. Exploration success in these plays, driven by creative geologists, was often much to the surprise of the established views.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is based on the work of numerous individuals who cannot all be justly mentioned. Special thanks are due to D. Evans, A. Al-Hauwaj, M. Husseini, M. Mahmoud, A. Neville, H. McClure, J. McGillivray, A. Norton, M. Rademakers, M. Senalp, and L. Wender from Saudi Aramco, and W.O. Bement, H.G. Hoetz, P.J.F. Jeans, A.T. Jones, B.K. Levell, M.P. Ormerod, M.A. Partington, J.G.M. Raven, A.N. Richardson, P. Spaak and W.G. Townson from Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) and Shell. The authors assume full responsibility for their own conclusions. The authors are grateful to Petroleum
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Development Oman LLC, Saudi Aramco, Shell International Exploration and Production B.V., the Oman Ministry of Oil and Gas, and the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources for permission to publish this paper. This paper was presented in an earlier form at the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) Pratt II Conference, San Diego, California, January 1215, 2000; and at GEO 2000, Bahrain, March 2729, 2000. The present revised version was substantially modified and makes reference to the work of GeoArabia Special Publication 2 by Sharland et al. (2001). We thank Moujahed Al-Husseini and Joerg Mattner of GeoArabia, and Peter Sharland from Lasmo for their assistance in preparing the revised version. The design and drafting of the final graphics was by Gulf PetroLink.
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Geert Konert is Principal Geologist for Shell International Exploration and Production B.V. in Research and Technical Services, Rijswijk Netherlands. He graduated from the University of Amsterdam in Geology, Structural Geology and Geochemistry in 1981 and joined Shell the same year. Geert has worked on various exploration assignments in Brunei, The Netherlands and Oman, and has been involved in E&P projects in the Middle East. His main area of interest is the tectonic evolution of the Middle East.
Abdulkader M. Al-Afifi is Chief Explorationist, Southern Area Exploration, with Saudi Aramco. He received a BSc degree in Geology from King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, an MSc from the Colorado School of Mines, and a PhD degree from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Abdulkader worked previously with the US Geological Survey Mission in Jeddah prior to joining Saudi Aramco in 1991. He is a member of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Said Al-Hajri is Chief Geologist of the Regional Mapping and Special Studies Division of the Saudi Aramco. He holds a BSc in Geology from the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran, and an MSc in Geosciences from Penn State University. Said is professionally interested in the Palaeozoic palynology and stratigraphy of northern Gondwana. He is a member of CIMP, AASP, BMS and the DGS, and has published several papers on geological and palynological subjects.
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Henk H.J. Droste joined Shell in 1984 after receiving his MSc in Geology from the University of Amsterdam. He worked as a Carbonate Geologist with Shell Research in The Netherlands and as a Sedimentologist in the Regional Studies Team of Shell Expro in London. He was transferred to PDO Oman in 1992 where has been working as a sedimentologist in the Exploration Laboratory, Geologist/Seismic Interpreter in Exploration, Production Geologist of the Yibal Field and as a Team Leader of the Regional Studies and Geological Services Team. In 2001 he was posted to the Carbonate Research Centre located in the Sultan Qaboos University of Oman.
Paper presented at 4th Middle East Geosciences Conference and Exhibition, GEO 2000. Bahrain, March 27-29, 2000.
Manuscript Received September 6, 2000 Revised March 10, 2001 Accepted March 15, 2001
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