History

A Ridiculously Brief History of Electricity and Magnetism Mostly from E. T. Whittaker's A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity... 900 B ! Magnus" a #reek she$herd" %alks across a field of &lack stones %hich $ull the iron nails out of his sandals and the iron ti$ from his she$herd's staff 'authenticity not guaranteed(. This region &ecomes kno%n as Magnesia. )00 B ! Thales of Miletos ru&s am&er 'elektron in #reek( %ith cat fur and $icks u$ &its of feathers. *+)9 ! ,etrus ,eregrinus of ,icardy" -taly" disco.ers that natural s$herical magnets 'lodestones( align needles %ith lines of longitude $ointing &et%een t%o $ole $ositions on the stone. *)00 ! William #il&ert" court $hysician to /ueen Eli0a&eth" disco.ers that the earth is a giant magnet 1ust like one of the stones of ,eregrinus" e2$laining ho% com$asses %ork. He also discusses static electricity and in.ents an electric fluid %hich is li&erated &y ru&&ing. ca. *)+0 ! 3iccolo a&eo disco.ers that electricity can &e re$ulsi.e as %ell as attracti.e. *)40 ! 5incen0o ascariolo" a Bolognese shoemaker" disco.ers fluorescence. *)46 ! Rene 7escartes theori0es that light is a $ressure %a.e through the second of his three ty$es of matter of %hich the uni.erse is made. He in.ents $ro$erties of this fluid that make it $ossi&le to calculate the reflection and refraction of light. The 88modern'' notion of the aether is &orn. *)46 ! #alileo attem$ts to measure the s$eed of light &y a lantern relay &et%een distant hillto$s. He gets a .ery large ans%er. *)99 ! Rene 7escartes theori0es that the magnetic $oles are on the central a2is of a s$inning .orte2 of one of his fluids. This .orte2 theory remains $o$ular for a long time" ena&ling :eonhard Euler and t%o of the Bernoullis to share a $ri0e of the ;rench Academy as late as *<94. *)=< ! ,ierre de ;ermat sho%s that the $rinci$le of least time is ca$a&le of e2$laining refraction and reflection of light. ;ighting %ith the artesians &egins. 'This $rinci$le for reflected light had &een antici$ated anciently &y Hero of Ale2andria.( *))= ! ;rancesco Maria #rimaldi" in a $osthumous re$ort" disco.ers and gi.es the name of diffraction to the &ending of light around o$a>ue &odies.

*))< ! Ro&ert Hooke re$orts in his Micrographia the disco.ery of the rings of light formed &y a layer of air &et%een t%o glass $lates. These %ere actually first o&ser.ed &y Ro&ert Boyle" %hich e2$lains %hy they are no% called 3e%ton's rings. -n the same %ork he gi.es the matching!%a.e! front deri.ation of reflection and refraction that is still found in most introductory $hysics te2ts. These %a.es tra.el through the aether. He also de.elo$s a theory of color in %hich %hite light is a sim$le distur&ance and colors are com$le2 distortions of the &asic sim$le %hite form. *)<* ! -saac 3e%ton destroys Hooke's theory of color &y e2$erimenting %ith $risms to sho% that %hite light is a mi2ture of all the colors and that once a $ure color is o&tained it can ne.er &e changed into another color. 3e%ton argues against light &eing a .i&ration of the ether" $referring that it &e something else that is ca$a&le of tra.eling through the aether. He doesn't insist that this something else consist of $articles" &ut allo%s that it may &e some other kind of emanation or im$ulse. -n 3e%ton's o%n %ords" 88...let e.ery man here take his fancy.'' *)<= ! ?laf Roemer re$eats #alileo's e2$eriment using the moons of @u$iter as the distant hillto$. He measures mAs.

*)<6 ! hristiaan Huygens introduces his famous construction and $rinci$le" thinks a&out translating his manuscri$t into :atin" then $u&lishes it in the original ;rench in *)90. He uses his theory to discuss the dou&le refraction of -celand B$ar. His is a theory of $ulses" ho%e.er" not of $eriodic %a.es. *<*< ! 3e%ton sho%s that the 88t%o!ness'' of dou&le refraction clearly rules out light &eing aether %a.es. 'All aether %a.e theories %ere sound!like" so 3e%ton %as rightC longitudinal %a.es can't &e $olari0ed.( *<+6 ! @ames Bradley sho%s that the or&ital motion of the earth changes the a$$arent motions of the stars in a %ay that is consistent %ith light ha.ing a finite s$eed of tra.el. *<+9 ! Bte$hen #ray sho%s that electricity doesn't ha.e to &e made in $lace &y ru&&ing &ut can also &e transferred from $lace to $lace %ith conducting %ires. He also sho%s that the charge on electrified o&1ects resides on their surfaces. *<44 ! harles ;rancois du ;ay disco.ers that electricity comes in t%o kinds %hich he called resinous'!( and vitreous'D(. *<9+ ! Thomas :e Beur and ;rancis @ac>uier" in a note to the edition of 3e%ton's Principia that they $u&lish" sho% that the force la% &et%een t%o magnets is in.erse cu&e. *<99 ! A&&e @ean!Antoine 3ollet in.ents the t%o!fluid theory electricity. *<9= ! ,ieter .an Musschen&roek in.ents the :eyden 1ar" or ca$acitor" and nearly kills his friend unaeus. *<9< ! Ben1amin ;ranklin in.ents the theory of one!fluid electricity in %hich one of 3ollet's fluids e2ists and the other is 1ust the a&sence of the first. He $ro$oses the $rinci$le of

conser.ation of charge and calls the fluid that e2ists and flo%s 88$ositi.e''. This educated guess ensures that undergraduates %ill al%ays &e confused a&out the direction of current flo%. He also disco.ers that electricity can act at a distance in situations %here fluid flo% makes no sense. *<96 ! Bir William Watson uses an electrostatic machine and a .acuum $um$ to make the first glo% discharge. His glass .essel is three feet long and three inches in diameterE the first fluorescent light &ul&. *<=0 ! @ohn Michell disco.ers that the t%o $oles of a magnet are e>ual in strength and that the force la% for indi.idual $oles is in.erse s>uare. *<=+ ! @ohann Bul0er $uts lead and sil.er together in his mouth" $erforming the first recorded 88tongue test'' of a &attery. *<=9 ! ;rancis Flrich Theodore Ae$inus sho%s that electrical effects are a com&ination of fluid flo% confined to matter and action at a distance. He also disco.ers charging &y induction. *<)+ ! anton re$orts that a red hot $oker $laced close to a small electrified &ody destroys its electrification. *<)9 ! @ose$h :ouis :agrange disco.ers the di.ergence theorem in connection %ith the study of gra.itation. -t later &ecomes kno%n as #auss's la%. 'Bee *6*4(. *<)) ! @ose$h ,riestly" acting on a suggestion in a letter from Ben1amin ;ranklin" sho%s that hollo% charged .essels contain no charge on the inside and &ased on his kno%ledge that hollo% shells of mass ha.e no gra.ity inside correctly deduces that the electric force la% is in.erse s>uare. ca *<<= ! Henry a.endish in.ents the idea of ca$acitance and resistance 'the latter %ithout any %ay of measuring current other than the le.el of $ersonal discomfort(. But &eing indifferent to fame he is content to %ait for his %ork to &e $u&lished &y :ord Gel.in in *6<9. *<<< ! @ose$h :ouis :agrange in.ents the conce$t of the scalar $otential for gra.itational fields. *<60 ! :uigi #al.ani causes dead frog legs to t%itch %ith static electricity" then also disco.ers that the same t%itching can &e caused &y contact %ith dissimilar metals. His follo%ers in.ent another in.isi&le fluid" that of 88animal electricity''" to descri&e this effect. *<6+ ! ,ierre Bimon :a$lace sho%s that :agrange's $otential satisfies .

*<6= ! harles Augustin oulom& uses a torsion &alance to .erify that the electric force la% is in.erse s>uare. He also $ro$oses a com&ined fluidAaction!at!a!distance theory like that of Ae$inus &ut %ith t%o conducting fluids instead of one. ;ighting &reaks out &et%een single and dou&le fluid $artisans. He also disco.ers that the electric force near a conductor is $ro$ortional to its surface charge density and makes contri&utions to the t%o!fluid theory of magnetism.

*<94 ! Alessandro 5olta makes the first &atteries and argues that animal electricity is 1ust ordinary electricity flo%ing through the frog legs under the im$etus of the force $roduced &y the contact of dissimilar metals. He disco.ers the im$ortance of 88com$leting the circuit.'' -n *600 he disco.ers the 5oltaic $ile 'dissimilar metals se$arated &y %et card&oard( %hich greatly increases the magnitude of the effect. *600 ! William 3icholson and Anthony arlisle disco.er that %ater may &e se$arated into hydrogen and o2ygen &y the action of 5olta's $ile. *60* ! Thomas Houng gi.es a theory of 3e%ton's rings &ased on constructi.e and destructi.e interference of %a.es. He e2$lains the dark s$ot in the middle &y $ro$osing that there is a $hase shift on reflection &et%een a less dense and more dense medium" then uses essence of sassafras '%hose inde2 of refraction is intermediate &et%een those of cro%n and flint glass( to get a light s$ot at the center. *604 ! Thomas Houng e2$lains the fringes at the edges of shado%s &y means of the %a.e theory of light. The %a.e theory &egins its ascendance" &ut has one im$ortant difficultyE light is thought of as a longitudinal %a.e" %hich makes it difficult to e2$lain dou&le refraction effects in certain crystals. *60< ! Hum$hrey 7a.y sho%s that the essential element of 5olta's $ile is chemical action since $ure %ater gi.es no effect. He argues that chemical effects are electrical in nature. *606 ! :a$lace gi.es an e2$lanation of dou&le refraction using the $article theory" %hich Houng attacks as im$ro&a&le. *606 ! Etienne :ouis Malus" a military engineer" enters a $ri0e com$etition s$onsored &y the ;rench Academy 88To furnish a mathematical theory of dou&le refraction" and to confirm it &y e2$eriment.'' He disco.ers that light reflected at certain angles from trans$arent su&stances as %ell as the se$arate rays from a dou&le!refracting crystal ha.e the same $ro$erty of polarization. -n *6*0 he recei.es the $ri0e and em&oldens the $ro$onents of the $article theory of light &ecause no one sees ho% a %a.e theory can make %a.es of different $olari0ations. *6** ! Arago sho%s that some crystals alter the $olari0ation of light $assing through them. *6*+ ! Biot sho%s that Arago's crystals rotate the $lane of $olari0ation a&out the $ro$agation direction. *6*+ ! Bimeon 7enis ,oisson further de.elo$s the t%o!fluid theory of electricity" sho%ing that the charge on conductors must reside on their surfaces and &e so distri&uted that the electric force %ithin the conductor .anishes. This surface charge density calculation is carried out in detail for elli$soids. He also sho%s that the $otential %ithin a distri&ution of electricity satisfies the e>uation

*6*+ ! Michael ;araday" a &ook&inders a$$rentice" %rites to Bir Hum$hrey 7a.y asking for a 1o& as a scientific assistant. 7a.y inter.ie%s ;araday and finds that he has educated himself &y reading the &ooks he %as su$$osed to &e &inding. He gets the 1o&. ca. *6*4 ! :a$lace sho%s that at the surface of a conductor the electric force is $er$endicular to the surface and that .

*6*4 ! Garl ;riedrich #auss redisco.ers the di.ergence theorem of :agrange. -t %ill later &ecome kno%n as #auss's la%. *6*= ! 7a.id Bre%ster esta&lishes his la% of com$lete $olari0ation u$on reflection at a s$ecial angle no% kno%n as Bre%ster's angle. He also disco.ers that in addition of unia2ial cystals there are also &ia2ial ones. ;or unia2ial crystals there is the faint $ossi&ility of a %a.e theory of longitudinal!ty$e" &ut this a$$ears to &e im$ossi&le for &ia2ial ones. *6*) ! 7a.id Bre%ster in.ents the kaleidosco$e. *6*) ! ;rancois Arago" an associate of Augustin ;resnel" .isits Thomas Houng and descri&es to him a series of e2$eriments $erformed &y ;resnel and himself %hich sho%s that light of differing $olari0ations cannot interfere. Reflecting later on this curious effect Houng sees that it can &e e2$lained if light is trans.erse instead of longitudinal. This idea is communicated to ;resnel in *6*6 and he immediately sees ho% it clears u$ many of the remaining difficulties of the %a.e theory. Bi2 years later the $article theory is dead. *6*< ! Augustin ;resnel annoys the ;rench Academy. The Academy" ho$ing to destroy the %a.e theory once and for all" $ro$oses diffraction as the $ri0e su&1ect for *6*6. To the chagrin of the $article!theory $artisans in the Academy the %inning memoir in *6*6 is that of Augustin ;resnel %ho e2$lains diffraction as the mutual interference of the secondary %a.es emitted &y the un&locked $ortions of the incident %a.e" in the style of Huygens. ?ne of the 1udges from the $article cam$ of the Academy is ,oisson" %ho $oints out that if ;resnel's theory %ere to &e indeed correct" then there should &e a &right s$ot at the center of the shado% of a circular disc. This" he suggests to ;resnel" must &e tested e2$erimentally. The e2$eriment doesn't go as ,oisson ho$es" ho%e.er" and the s$ot &ecomes kno%n as 88,oisson's s$ot.'' *6+0 ! Hans hristian ?ersted disco.ers that electric current in a %ire causes a com$ass needle to orient itself $er$endicular to the %ire. *6+0 ! Andre Marie Am$ere" one %eek after hearing of ?ersted's disco.ery" sho%s that $arallel currents attract each other and that o$$osite currents attract. *6+0 ! @ean!Ba$tiste Biot and ;eli2 Ba.art sho% that the magnetic force e2erted on a magnetic $ole &y a %ire falls off like *Ar and is oriented $er$endicular to the %ire. Whittaker then says that 88This result %as soon further analy0ed"'' to o&tain

*6+0 ! @ohn Herschel sho%s that >uart0 sam$les that rotate the $lane of $olari0ation of light in o$$osite directions ha.e different crystalline forms. This difference is helical in nature. *6+* ! ;araday &egins electrical %ork &y re$eating ?ersted's e2$eriments. *6+* ! Hum$hrey 7a.y sho%s that direct current is carried throughout the .olume of a conductor and esta&lishes that for long %ires. He also disco.ers that resistance is increased as the tem$erature rises. *6++ ! Thomas @ohann Bee&eck disco.ers the thermoelectric effect &y sho%ing that a current %ill flo% in a circuit made of dissimilar metals if there is a tem$erature difference &et%een the metals. *6+9 ! ,oisson in.ents the conce$t of the magnetic scalar $otential and of surface and .olume $ole densities descri&ed &y the formulas He also finds the magnetic field inside a s$herical ca.ity %ithin magneti0ed material. *6+= ! Am$ere $u&lishes his collected results on magnetism. His e2$ression for the magnetic field $roduced &y a small segment of current is different from that %hich follo%s naturally from the Biot!Ba.art la% &y an additi.e term %hich integrates to 0ero around closed circuit. -t is unfortunate that electrodynamics and relati.ity decide in fa.or of Biot and Ba.art rather than for the much more so$histicated Am$ere" %hose memoir contains &oth mathematical analysis and e2$erimentation" artfully &lended together. -n this memoir are gi.en some s$ecial instances of the result %e no% call Btokes theorem or as %e usually %rite it . Ma2%ell descri&es this %ork as 88one of the most &rilliant achie.ements in science. The %hole" theory and e2$eriment" seems as if it had lea$ed" full!gro%n and full!armed" from the &rain of the 83e%ton of electricity'. -t is $erfect in form and unassaila&le in accuracyC and it is summed u$ in a formula from %hich all the $henomena may &e deduced" and %hich must al%ays remain the cardinal formula of electrodynamics.'' *6+= ! ;resnel sho%s that com&inations of %a.es of o$$osite circular $olari0ation tra.eling at different s$eeds can account for the rotation of the $lane of $olari0ation. *6+) ! #eorg Bimon ?hm esta&lishes the result no% kno%n as ?hm's la%. VIIR seems a $retty sim$le la% to name after someone" &ut the im$ortance of ?hm's %ork does not lie in this sim$le $ro$ortionality. What ?hm did %as de.elo$ the idea of .oltage as the dri.er of electric current. He reasoned &y making an analogy &et%een ;ourier's theory of heat flo% and electricity. -n his scheme tem$erature and .oltage corres$ond as do heat flo% and electrical current. -t %as not until some years later that ?hm's electrosco$ic force 'V in his la%( and ,oisson's electrostatic $otential %ere sho%n to &e identical.

*6+< ! Augustin ;resnel $u&lishes a decade of research in the %a.e theory of light. -ncluded in these collected $a$ers are e2$lanations of diffraction effects" $olari0ation effects" dou&le refraction" and ;resnel's sine and tangent la%s for reflection at the interface &et%een t%o trans$arent media. *6+< ! laude :ouis Marie Henri 3a.ier $u&lishes the correct e>uations for .i&ratory motions in one ty$e of elastic solid. This &egins the >uest for a detailed mathematical theory of the aether &ased on the e>uations of continuum mechanics. *6+< ! ;. Ba.ery" after noticing that the current from a :eyden 1ar magneti0es needles in alternating layers" con1ectures that the electric motion during the discharge consists of a series of oscillations. *6+6 ! #eorge #reen generali0es and e2tends the %ork of :agrange" :a$lace" and ,oisson and attaches the name potential to their scalar function. #reen's theorems are gi.en" as %ell as the di.ergence theorem '#auss's la%(" &ut #reen doesn't kno% of the %ork of :agrange and #auss and only references ,riestly's deduction of the in.erse s>uare la% from ;ranklin's e2$erimental %ork on the charging of hollo% .essels. *6+6 ! Augustine :ouis auchy $resents a theory similar to 3a.ier's" &ut &ased on a direct study of elastic $ro$erties rather than using a molecular hy$othesis. These e>uations are more general than 3a.ier's. -n auchy's theory" and in much of %hat follo%s" the aether is su$$osed to ha.e the same inertia in each medium" &ut different elastic $ro$erties. *6+6 ! ,oisson sho%s that the e>uations of 3a.ier and auchy ha.e %a.e solutions of t%o ty$esE trans.erse and longitudinal. Mathematical $hysicists s$end the ne2t =0 years trying to in.ent an elastic aether for %hich the longitudinal %a.es are a&sent. *64* ! ;araday sho%s that changing currents in one circuit induce currents in a neigh&oring circuit. ?.er the ne2t se.eral years he $erforms hundreds of e2$erments and sho%s that they can all &e e2$lained &y the idea of changing magnetic flu2. 3o mathematics is in.ol.ed" 1ust $icture thinking using his field!lines. *64* ! ?strogradsky redisco.ers the di.ergence theorem of :agrange" #auss" and #reen. *64+ ! @ose$h Henry inde$endently disco.ers induced currents. *644 ! ;araday &egins %ork on the relation of electricity to chemistry. -n one of his note&ooks he concludes after a series of e2$eriments" 88...there is a certain a&solute >uantity of the electric $o%er associated %ith each atom of matter.'' *649 ! ;araday disco.ers self inductance. *649 ! @ean harles ,eltier disco.ers the fli$ side of Bee&eck's thermoelectric effect. He finds that current dri.en in a circuit made of dissimilar metals causes the different metals to &e at different tem$eratures.

*649 ! Emil :en0 formulates his rule for determining the direction of ;araday's induced currents. -n its original form it %as a force la% rather than an induced emf la%E 88-nduced currents flo% in such a direction as to $roduce magnetic forces that try to kee$ the magnetic flu2 the same.'' Bo :en0 %ould $redict that if you try to $ush a conductor into a strong magnetic field" it %ill &e re$elled. He %ould also $redict that if you try to $ull a conductor out of a strong magnetic field that the magnetic forces on the induced currents %ill o$$ose the $ull. *64= ! @ames Mac ullagh and ;ran0 3eumann e2tend auchy's theory to crystalline media *64< ! ;araday disco.ers the idea of the dielectric constant. *64< ! #eorge #reen attacks the elastic aether $ro&lem from a ne% angle. -nstead of deri.ing &oundary conditions &et%een different media &y finding %hich ones gi.e agreement %ith the e2$erimental la%s of o$tics" he deri.es the correct &oundary conditions from general dynamical $rinci$les. This ad.ance makes the elastic theories not >uite fit %ith light. *646 ! ;araday sho%s that the effects of induced electricity in insulators are analogous to induced magnetism in magnetic materials. Those more mathematically inclined immediately a$$ro$riate ,oisson's theory of induced magnetism" in.enting " " and . *646 ! ;araday disco.ers Faraday's dark space" a dark region in a glo% discharge near the negati.e electrode. *649 ! @ames Mac ullagh in.ents an elastic aether in %hich there are no longitudinal %a.es. -n this aether the $otential energy of deformation de$ends only on the rotation of the .olume elements and not on their com$ression or general distortion. This theory gi.es the same %a.e e>uation as that satisfied &y and in Ma2%ell's theory. *649 ! William Thomson ':ord Gel.in( remo.es some of the o&1ections to Mac ullagh's rotation theory &y in.enting a mechanical model %hich satisfies Mac ullagh's energy of rotation hy$othesis. -t has s$heres" rigid &ars" sliding contacts" and fly%heels. *649 ! auchy and #reen $resent more refined elastic aether theories" auchy's remo.ing the longitudinal %a.es &y $ostulating a negati.e com$ressi&ility" and #reen's using an in.ol.ed descri$tion of crystalline solids. *69* ! Michael ;araday is com$letely e2hausted &y his efforts of the $re.ious + decades" so he rests for 9 years. *69* ! @ames ,rescott @oule sho%s that energy is conser.ed in electrical circuits in.ol.ing current flo%" thermal heating" and chemical transformations. *69+ ! ;. 3eumann and Matthe% ?'Brien suggest that o$tical $ro$erties in materials arise from differences in the amount of force that the $articles of matter e2ert on the aether as it flo%s around and &et%een them.

*69+ ! @ulius Ro&ert Mayer asserts that heat and %ork are e>ui.alent. His $a$er is re1ected &y Annalen der Physik. *69+ ! @ose$h Henry redisco.ers the result of ;. Ba.ery a&out the oscillation of the electric current in a ca$aciti.e discharge and states" 88The $henomena re>uire us to admit the e2istence of a $rinci$al discharge in one direction" and then se.eral refle2 actions &ack%ard and for%ard" each more fee&le than the $receding" until e>uili&rium is restored.'' *69+ ! hristian 7o$$ler gi.es the theory of the 7o$$ler effect.

*69= ! ;araday >uits resting and disco.ers that the $lane of $olari0ation of light is rotated %hen it tra.els in glass along the direction of the magnetic lines of force $roduced &y an electromagnet ';araday rotation(. *69= ! ;ran0 3eumann uses 'i( :en0's la%" 'ii( the assum$tion that the induced emf is $ro$ortional to the magnetic force on a current element" and 'iii( Am$ere's analysis to deduce ;araday's la%. -n the $rocess he finds a $otential function from %hich the induced electric field can &e o&tained" namely the .ector $otential 'in the oulom& gauge(" thus disco.ering the result %hich Ma2%ell %rote as .

*69) ! #eorge Airy modifies Mac ullagh's elastic aether theory to account for ;araday rotation. *69) ! ;araday" ins$ired &y his disco.ery of the magnetic rotation of light" %rites a short $a$er s$eculating that light might electro!magnetic in nature. He thinks it might &e trans.erse .i&rations of his &elo.ed field lines. *69) ! ;araday disco.ers diamagnetism. He sees the effect in hea.y glass" &ismuth" and other materials. *69) ! Wilhelm We&er com&ines Am$ere's analysis" ;araday's e2$eriments" and the assum$tion of ;echner that currents consist of e>ual amounts of $ositi.e and negati.e electricity mo.ing o$$osite to each other at the same s$eed to deri.e an electromagnetic theory &ased on forces &et%een mo.ing charged $articles. This theory has a .elocity!de$endent $otential energy and is %rong" &ut it stimulates much %ork on electromagnetic theory %hich e.entually leads to the %ork of Ma2%ell and :oren0. -t also ins$ires a ne% look at gra.itation &y William Thomson to see if a .elocity!de$endent correction to the gra.itational energy could account for the $recession of Mercury's $erihelion. *69) ! William Thomson sho%s that 3eumann's electromagnetic $otential $otential from %hich may &e o&tained .ia . is in fact the .ector

*69< ! We&er $ro$oses that diamagnetism is 1ust ;araday's la% acting on molecular circuits. -n ans%ering the o&1ection that this %ould mean that e.erything should &e diamagnetic he correctly guesses that diamagnetism is masked in $aramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials &ecause they

ha.e relati.ely strong $ermanent molecular currents. This %ork rids the %orld of magnetic fluids. *69< ! Hermann .on Helmholt0 %rites a memoir 88?n the onser.ation of ;orce'' %hich em$hatically states the $rinci$le of conser.ation of energyE 88 onser.ation of energy is a uni.ersal $rinci$le of nature. Ginetic and $otential energy of dynamical systems may &e con.erted into heat according to definite >uantitati.e la%s as taught &y Rumford" Mayer" and @oule. Any of these forms of energy may &e con.erted into chemical" electrostatic" .oltaic" and magnetic forms.'' He reads it &efore the ,hysical Bociety of Berlin %hose older mem&ers regard it as too s$eculati.e and re1ect it for $u&lication in Annalen der Physik. *696!9 ! #usta. Girchoff e2tends ?hm's %ork to conduction in three dimensions" gi.es his la%s for circuit net%orks" and finally sho%s that ?hm's 88electrosco$ic force'' %hich dri.es current through resistors and the old electrostatic $otential of :agrange" :a$lace" and ,oisson are the same. He also sho%s that in steady state electrical currents distri&ute themsel.es so as to minimi0e the amount of @oule heating. *699 ! A. ;i0eau re$eats #alileo's hillto$ e2$eriment '9 km se$aration distance( %ith a ra$idly rotating toothed %heel and measures mAs.

*699 ! #eorge #a&riel Btokes studies diffraction around o$a>ue &odies &oth theoretically and e2$erimentally and sho%s that the .i&ration of aether $articles are e2ecuted at right angles to the $lane of $olari0ation. Three years later he comes to the same conclusion &y a$$lying aether theory to light scattered from the sky. This result is" ho%e.er" inconsistent %ith o$tics in crystals. ca. *6=0 ! Btokes o.ercomes some of the difficulties %ith crystals &y turning auchy's hy$othesis around and letting the elastic $ro$erties of the aether &e the same in all materials" &ut allo%ing the inertia to differ. This gi.es rise to the conce$tual difficulty of ha.ing the inertia &e different in different directions 'in anisotro$ic crystals(. ca. *6=0 ! @ean ;oucault im$ro.es on ;i0eau's measurement and uses his a$$aratus to sho% that the s$eed of light is less in %ater than in air. *6=0 ! Btokes la% is stated %ithout $roof &y :ord Gel.in 'William Thomson(. :ater Btokes assigns the $roof of this theorem as $art of the e2amination for the Bmith's ,ri0e. ,resuma&ly" he kno%s ho% to do the $ro&lem. Ma2%ell" %ho %as a candidate for this $ri0e" later remem&ers this $ro&lem" traces it &ack to Btokes and calls it Btokes theorem. *6=0 ! William Thomson ':ord Gel.in( in.ents the idea of magnetic $ermea&ility and susce$ti&ility" along %ith the se$arate conce$ts of " " and . *6=* ! Thomson gi.es a general theory of thermoelectric $henomena" descri&ing the effects seen &y Bee&eck and ,eltier.

*6=4 ! Thomson uses ,oisson's magnetic theory to deri.e the correct formula for magnetic energyE . He also gi.es the formula and gi.es the %orld the $o%erful" &ut confusing" analysis %here the forces on circuits are o&tained &y taking either the $ositi.e or negati.e gradient of the magnetic energy. Gno%ing %hich sign to use is" of course" the confusing $art. *6=4 ! Thomson gi.es the theory of the R: circuit $ro.iding a mathematical descri$tion for the o&ser.ations of Henry and Ba.ery. *6=9 ! ;araday clears u$ the $ro&lem of disagreements in the measured s$eeds of signals along transmission lines &y sho%ing that it is crucial to include the effect of ca$acitance. *6=9 ! Thomson" in a letter to Btokes" gi.es the e>uation of telegra$hy ignoring the inductanceE " %here R is the ca&le resistance and %here C is the ca$acitance $er unit length. Bince this is the diffusion e>uation" the signal does not tra.el at a definite s$eed. *6== ! ;araday retires" li.ing >uietly in a house $ro.ided &y the /ueen until his death in *6)<. *6== ! @ames lerk Ma2%ell %rites a memoir in %hich he attem$ts to marry ;araday's intuiti.e field line ideas %ith Thomson's mathematical analogies. -n this memoir the $hysical im$ortance of the di.ergence and curl o$erators for electromagnetism first &ecome e.ident. The e>uations " " and a$$ear in this memoir.

*6=< ! #usta. Girchoff deri.es the e>uation of telegra$hy for an aerial coa2ial ca&le %here the inductance is im$ortant and deri.es the full telegra$hy e>uationE E " %here L and C are the inductance $er unit length and the ca$acitance $er unit length. He recogni0es that %hen the resistance is small" this is the %a.e e>uation %ith $ro$agation s$eed " %hich for a coa2ial ca&le turns out to &e .ery close to the s$eed of light. Girchoff notices the coincidence" and is thus the first to disco.er that electromagnetic signals can tra.el at the s$eed of light. *6)* ! Bernhard Riemann de.elo$s a .ariant of We&er's electromagnetic theory %hich is also %rong. *6)* ! Ma2%ell $u&lishes a mechanical model of the electromagnetic field. Magnetic fields corres$ond to rotating .ortices %ith idle %heels &et%een them and electric fields corres$ond to elastic dis$lacements" hence dis$lacement currents. The e>uation for no% &ecomes " %here is the total current" conduction $lus dis$lacement" and is conser.edE . This addition com$letes Ma2%ell's e>uations and it is no% easy for him to deri.e the %a.e e>uation e2actly as done in our te2t&ooks on electromagnetism and to note that the s$eed of %a.e $ro$agation %as close to the measured s$eed of light. Ma2%ell %rites" 88We can scarcely a.oid the inference that light in the trans.erse undulations of the same medium %hich is

the cause of electric and magnetic $henomena.'' Thomson" on the other hand" says of the dis$lacement current" 88'it is a( curious and ingenious" &ut not %holly tena&le hy$othesis.'' *6)9 ! Ma2%ell reads a memoir &efore the Royal Bociety in %hich the mechanical model is stri$$ed a%ay and 1ust the e>uations remain. He also discusses the .ector and scalar $otentials" using the oulom& gauge. He attri&utes $hysical significance to &oth of these $otentials. He %ants to $resent the $redictions of his theory on the su&1ects of reflection and refraction" &ut the re>uirements of his mechanical model kee$ him from finding the correct &oundary conditions" so he ne.er does this calculation. *6)< ! Btokes $erforms e2$eriments that kill his o%n anisotro$ic inertia theory. *6)< ! @ose$h Boussines> suggests that instead of aether &eing different in different media" $erha$s the aether is the same e.ery%here" &ut it interacts differently %ith different materials" similar to the modern electromagnetic %a.e theory. *6)< ! Riemann $ro$oses a sim$le electric theory of light in %hich ,oisson's e>uation is re$laced &y .

*6)< ! :ud%ig :oren0 de.elo$s an electromagnetic theory of light in %hich the scalar and .ector $otentials" in retarded form" are the starting $oint. He sho%s that these retarded $otentials each satisfy the %a.e e>uation and that Ma2%ell's e>uations for the fields and can &e deri.ed from his $otentials. His .ector $otential does not o&ey the oulom& gauge" ho%e.er" &ut another relation no% kno%n as the :oren0 gauge. Although he is a&le to deri.e Ma2%ell's e>uations from his retarded $otentials" he does not su&scri&e to Ma2%ell's .ie% that light in.ol.es electromagnetic %a.es in the aether. He feels" rather" that the fundamental &asis of all luminous .i&rations is electric currents" arguing that s$ace has enough matter in it to su$$ort the necessary currents. *6)6 ! Ma2%ell decides that gi.ing $hysical significance to the scalar and .ector $otentials is a &ad idea and &ases his further %ork on light on and . *6)9 ! Ma2%ell $resents the first calculation in %hich a dis$ersi.e medium is made u$ of atoms %ith natural fre>uencies. This makes $ossi&le detailed modeling of dis$ersion %ith refracti.e indices ha.ing resonant denominators. *6)9 ! Hittorf finds that cathode rays can cast a shado%. *6<0 ! Helmholt0 deri.es the correct la%s of reflection and refraction from Ma2%ell's e>uations &y using the follo%ing &oundary conditionsE " " and are continuous. ?nce these &oundary conditions are taken Ma2%ell's theory is 1ust a re$eat of Mac ullagh's theory. The details %ere not gi.en &y Helmholt0 himself" &ut a$$ear rather in the inaugural dissertation of H. A. :orent0.

*6<0!*900 ! The hunt is on for $hysical models of the aether %hich are natural and from %hich Ma2%ell's e>uations can &e deri.ed. The $hysicists %ho %ork on this $ro&lem include Ma2%ell" Thomson" Girchoff" B1erknes" :eahy" ;it0 #erald" Helmholt0" and Hicks. *6<+ ! E. Mascart looks for the motion of the earth through the aether &y measuring the rotation of the $lane of $olari0ation of light $ro$agated along the a2is of a >uart0 crystal. 3o motion is found %ith a sensiti.ity of .

*6<4 ! Ma2%ell $u&lishes his reatise on !lectricity and Magnetis"" %hich discusses e.erything kno%n at the time a&out electromagnetism from the .ie%$oint of ;araday. His o%n theory is not .ery thoroughly discussed" &ut he does introduce his electromagnetic stress tensor in this %ork" including the accom$anying idea of electromagnetic momentum. *6<= ! @ohn Gerr sho%s that ordinary dielectrics su&1ected to strong electric fields &ecome dou&le refracting" sho%ing directly that electric fields and light are closely related. *6<) ! Henry Ro%land $erforms an e2$eriment ins$ired &y Helmholt0 %hich sho%s for the first time that mo.ing electric charge is the same thing as an electric current. *6<) ! A. Bartoli infers the necessity of light $ressure from thermal arguments" thus &eginnning the e2$loration of the connection &et%een electromagnetism and thermodynamics. *6<9 ! @. Btefan disco.ers the Btefan!Bolt0mann la%" i.e." that radiant emission is $ro$ortional to . *6<9 ! Ed%in Hall $erforms an e2$eriment that had &een suggested &y Henry Ro%land and disco.ers the Hall effect" including its theoretical descri$tion &y means of the Hall term in ?hm's la%. *6<9 ! Bir William rookes in.ents the radiometer and studies the interaction of &eams of cathode ray $articles in .acuum tu&es. *6<9 ! :ud%ig Bolt0mann uses Hall's result to estimate the s$eed of charge carriers 'assuming that charge carriers are only of one sign.( *660 ! Ro%land sho%s that ;araday rotation can &e o&tained &y com&ining Ma2%ell's e>uations and the Hall term in ?hm's la%" assuming that dis$lacement currents are affected in the same %ay as conduction currents. *66* ! @. @. Thomson attem$ts to .erify the e2istence of the dis$lacement current &y looking for magnetic effects $roduced &y the changing electric field made &y a mo.ing charged s$here. *66* ! #eorge ;it0 #erald $oints out that @. @. Thomson's analysis is incorrect &ecause he left out the effects of the conduction current of the mo.ing s$here. -ncluding &oth currents makes the se$arate effect of the dis$lacement current disa$$ear.

*66* ! Helmholt0" in a lecture in :ondon" $oints out that the idea of charged $articles in atoms can &e consistent %ith Ma2%ell's and ;araday's ideas" hel$ing to $a.e the %ay for our modern $icture of $articles and fields interacting instead of thinking a&out e.erything as a distur&ance of the aether" as %as $o$ular after Ma2%ell. *66* ! Al&ert Michelson and Ed%in Morley attem$t to measure the motion of the earth through the aether &y using interferometry. They find no relati.e .elocity. Michelson inter$rets this result as su$$orting Btokes hy$othesis in %hich the aether in the neigh&orhood of the earth mo.es at the earth's .elocity. *664 ! ;it0 #erald $ro$oses testing Ma2%ell's theory &y using oscillating currents in %hat %e %ould no% call a magnetic di$ole antenna 'loo$ of %ire(. He $erforms the analysis and disco.ers that .ery high fre>uencies are re>uired to make the test. :ater that year he $ro$oses o&taining the re>uired high fre>uencies &y discharging a ca$acitor into a circuit. *664!= ! Horace :am& and ?li.er Hea.iside analy0e the interaction of oscillating electromagnetic fields %ith conductors and disco.er the effect of skin de$th. *669 ! @ohn ,oynting sho%s that Ma2%ell's e>uations $redict that energy flo%s through em$ty s$ace %ith the energy flu2 gi.en &y . He also in.estigates energy flo% in ;araday fashion &y assigning energy to mo.ing tu&es of electric and magnetic flu2. *669 ! Heinrich Hert0 asserts that made &y charges and made &y a changing magnetic field are identical. Working from dynamical ideas &ased on this assum$tion and some of Ma2%ell's e>uations" Hert0 is a&le to deri.e the rest of them. *66< ! B.ante Arrhenius deduces that in dilute solutions electrolytes are com$letely dissociated into $ositi.e and negati.e ions. *66< ! Hert0 finds that ultra.iolet light falling on the negati.e electrode in a s$ark ga$ facilitates conduction &y the gas in the ga$. *666 ! R. T. #la0e&rook re.i.es one of auchy's %a.e theories and com&ines it %ith Btokes anisotro$ic aether inertia theory to get agreement %ith the e2$eriments of Btokes in *6)<. *666 ! Hert0 disco.ers that oscillating s$arks can &e $roduced in an o$en secondary circuit if the fre>uency of the $rimary is resonant %ith the secondary. He uses this radiator to sho% that electrical signals are $ro$agated along %ires and through the air at a&out the same s$eed" &oth a&out the s$eed of light. He also sho%s that his electric radiations" %hen $assed through a slit in a screen" e2hi&it diffraction effects. ,olari0ation effects using a grating of $arallel metal %ires are also o&ser.ed. *666 ! Roentgen sho%s that %hen an uncharged dielectric is mo.ed at right angles to a magnetic field is $roduced. *669 ! Hert0 gi.es the theory of radiation from his oscillating s$ark ga$.

*669 ! ?li.er Hea.iside finds the correct form for the electric and magnetic fields of a mo.ing charged $article" .alid for all s$eeds v J c. *669 ! @. @. Thomson sho%s that anton's effect '*<)+( in %hich a red hot $oker can neutrali0e the electrification of a small charged &ody is due to electron emission causing the air &et%een the $oker and the &ody to &ecome conducting. *690 ! ;it0 #erald uses the retarded $otentials of :. :oren0 to calculate electric di$ole radiation from Hert0's radiator. *69+ ! ?li.er :odge $erforms e2$eriments on the $ro$agation of light near ra$idly mo.ing steel disks to test Btokes hy$othesis that mo.ing matter drags the aether %ith it. 3o such effect is o&ser.ed. *69+ ! Hendrik Anton :orent0 $resents his electron theory of electrified matter and the aether. This theory com&ines Ma2%ell's e>uations" %ith the source terms and " %ith the :orent0 force la% for the acceleration of charged $articlesE :orent0's aether is sim$ly s$ace endo%ed %ith certain dynamical $ro$erties. :orent0 gi.es the modern theory of dielectrics in.ol.ing and " and also includes the effect of magneti0ed matter. He also gi.es %hat %e no% call the 7rude!:orent0 harmonic oscillator model of the inde2 of refraction. But :orent0's theory has a 88stationary aether''" %hich conflicts %ith the negati.e Michelson!Morley result. *69+ ! #eorge ;it0 #erald $ro$oses length contraction as a %ay to reconcile :orent0's theory and the null results on the motion of the earth through the aether. At the end of this year :orent0 endorses this idea. *699 ! @. @. Thomson measures the s$eed of cathode rays and sho%s that they tra.el much more slo%ly than the s$eed of light. The aether model of cathode rays &egins to die. *699 ! ,hili$ :enard studies the $enetration of cathode rays through matter. *69= ! ,ierre urie e2$erimentally disco.ers urie's la% for $aramagnetism and also sho%s that there is no tem$erature effect for diamagnetism. *69= ! :orent0" in his 88Bearch for a theory of electrical and o$tical effects in mo.ing &odies'' gi.es the :orent0 transformation to first order in vAc. The transformed time .aria&le he calls 88local time''. *69= ! Wilhelm Roentgen disco.ers K!rays $roduced &y &remsstrahlung in cathode ray tu&es. *69) ! Arthur Bhuster" Emil Wiechert" and #eorge Btokes $ro$ose that K!rays are aether %a.es of e2ceedingly small %a.elength.

*69) ! @. @. Thomson disco.ers that materials through %hich K!rays $ass are rendered conducting. *69) ! Henri Bec>uerel disco.ers that some sort of natural radiation from uranium salts can e2$ose a $hotogra$hic $late %ra$$ed in thick &lack $a$er. *69) ! ,. Leeman disco.ers the s$litting of atomic line s$ectra &y a magnetic field. *69) ! :orent0 gi.es an electron theory of the Leeman effect. *69< ! @. @. Thomson argues that cathode rays must &e charged $articles smaller in si0e than atoms 'Emil Wiechert made the same suggestion inde$endently in this same year(. -n res$onse ;it0 #erald suggests that 88%e are dealing %ith free electrons in these cathode rays.'' *69< ! W. Wien disco.ers that $ositi.ely!charged mo.ing $articles can also &e made 'the so! called canal rays of E. #oldstein( and that they ha.e a much smaller #A" ratio than cathode rays. *69< ! @. @. Thomson deflects cathode rays &y crossed electric and magnetic fields and measures eA". *696 ! Marie and ,ierre urie se$arate from $itch&lende t%o highly radioacti.e elements %hich they name $olonium and radium. *699 ! Ernest Rutherford disco.ers that the rays from uranium come in t%o ty$es" %hich he calls al$ha and &eta radiation. *900 ! Marie and ,ierre urie sho% that &eta rays and cathode rays are identical. *900 ! Emil Wiechert sho%s that sim$ly re$lacing the distri&uted charge from :orent0's theory %ith the charge of a mo.ing $oint $article gi.es incorrect results. -nstead the :ienard!Wiechert retarded $otentials must &e used. *900 ! @ose$h :armor o&tains the second order corrections to the :orent0 Transformation. *90* ! R. Blondlot $erforms e2$eriments that sho% that :orent0's theory in %hich there is no mo.ing aether gi.es the correct result in cases %here the hy$othesis of a mo.ing aether gi.es the %rong result. *90+ ! :ord Rayleigh $erforms e2$eriments to test %hether the ;it0 #erald contraction is ca$a&le of causing dou&le refraction in mo.ing trans$arent su&stances. 3o such effect is found. *904 ! The Hagen!Ru&ens connections &et%een the conducti.ity of metals and their o$tical $ro$erties are e2$erimentally esta&lished. *904 ! :orent0 gi.es the famous s>uare root formulas for the :orent0 transformation gi.ing the effect to all orders in vAc.

*909 ! :orent0 gi.es his electron!collision theory of electrical conduction *90= ! H. A. Wilson $erforms e2$eriments similar to those of BlondlotC again" :orent0's theory is found to gi.e the correct result. *90= ! Al&ert Einstein com$letes :orent0's %ork on s$ace!time transformations and relati.ity is &orn. -nde2 Ae$inus" ;rancis Flrich Theodore ! *<=9 Airy" #eorge ! *69) Am$ere" Andre Marie ! *6+0" *6+= Arago" ;rancois ! *6**" *6*) Arrhenius" B.ante ! *66< Bartoli" A. ! *6<) Bec>uerel" Henri ! *69) Biot" @ean!Ba$tiste ! *6*+" *6+0 Blondlot" R. ! *90* Bolt0mann" :ud%ig ! *6<9 Boussines>" @ose$h ! *6)< Bradley" @ames ! *<+6 Bre%ster" 7a.id ! *6*=" *6*) a&eo" 3iccolo ! *)+0 anton ! *<)+ arlisle" Anthony ! *600 ascariolo" 5incen0o ! *)40 auchy" Augustine :ouis ! *6+6" *649

a.endish" Henry ! *<<= oulom&" harles Augustin ! *<6= rookes" William ! *6<9 urie" Marie ! *69=" *900 urie" ,ierre ! *69=" *696" *900 7a.y" Hum$hrey ! *60<" *6+* 7escartes" Rene ! *)46" *)99 7o$$ler" hristian ! *69+ du ;ay" harles ;rancois ! *<44 Einstein" Al&ert ! *90= ;araday" Michael ! *6*+" *6+*" *64*" *644" *649" *64<" *646" *69*" *69=" *69)" *6=9" *6== ;ermat" ,ierre de ! *)=< ;it0 #erald" #eorge ! *66*" *664" *690" *69+ ;i0eau" A. ! *699 ;oucault" @ean ! *6=0 ;ranklin" Ben1amin ! *<9< ;resnel" Augustin ! *6*<" *6+=" *6+< #alileo ! *)46 #al.ani" :uigi ! *<60 #auss"Garl ;riedrich ! *6*4 #il&ert" William ! *)00 #la0e&rook" R. T. ! *666 #ray" Bte$hen ! *<+9

#reen" #eorge ! *6+6" *64<" *649 #rimaldi" ;rancesco Maria ! *))= Hagen ! *904 Hall" Ed%in ! *6<9 Hea.iside" ?li.er ! *664" *669 Helmholt0" Hermann .on ! *69<" *6<0" *66* Henry" @ose$h ! *64+" *69+ Herschel" @ohn ! *6+0 Hert0" Heinrich ! *669" *66<" *666" *669 Hittorf ! *6)9 Hooke" Ro&ert ! *))< Huygens" hristiaan ! *)<6 @ac>uier" ;rancis ! *<9+ @oule" @ames ,rescott ! *69* Gerr" @ohn ! *6<= Girchoff" #usta. ! *696" *6=< :agrange" @ose$h :ouis ! *<)9" *<<< :am&" Horace ! *664 :a$lace" ,ierre Bimon ! *<6+" *606" *6*4 :armor" @ose$h ! *900 :e Beur" Thomas ! *<9+ :enard" ,hili$ ! *699 :en0"Emil ! *649

:odge" ?li.er ! *69+ :orent0" Hendrik Anton ! *69+" *69=" *69)" *904" *909 :oren0" :ud%ig ! *6)< Mac ullagh" @ames ! *64=" *649 Magnus ! 900 B Malus" Etienne :ouis ! *606 Mascart" E. ! *6<+ Ma2%ell" @ames lerk ! *6==" *6)*" *6)9" *6)6" *6)9" *6<4 Mayer" @ulius Ro&ert ! *69+ Michell" @ohn ! *<=0 Michelson" Al&ert ! *66* Morley" Ed%in ! *66* Musschen&roek" ,ieter .an ! *<9= 3a.ier" laude :ouis Marie Henri ! *6+< 3eumann" ;ran0 ! *64=" *69+" *69= 3e%ton" -saac ! *)<*" *<*< 3icholson" William ! *600 3ollet" A&&e @ean!Antoine ! *<99 ?'Brien" Matthe% ! *69+ ?ersted" Hans hristian ! *6+0 ?hm"#eorg Bimon ! *6+) ?strogradsky ! *64* ,eltier" @ean harles ! *649

,eregrinus" ,eytrus ! *+)9 ,oisson" Bimeon 7enis ! *6*+" *6+9" *6+6 ,oynting" @ohn ! *669 ,riestly" @ose$h ! *<)) Rayleigh" :ord ! *90+ Riemann" Bernhard ! *6)*" *6)< Roemer" ?laf ! *)<= Roentgen" Wilhelm ! *666" *69= Ro%land" Henry ! *6<)" *660 Ru&ens ! *904 Rutherford" Ernest ! *699 Ba.art" ;eli2 ! *6+0 Ba.ery" ;. ! *6+< Bee&eck"Thomas @ohann ! *6++ Bhuster" Arthur ! *69) Btefan" @. ! *6<9 Btokes" #eorge #a&riel ! *6+=" *699" *6=0" *6)<" *69) Bul0er" @ohann ! *<=+ Thales of Miletos ! )00 B Thomson" @. @. ! *66*" *669" *699" *69)" *69< Thomson" William ':ord Gel.in( ! *649" *69)" *6=0" *6=*" *6=4" *6=9 5olta" Alessandro ! *<94 Watson" William ! *<96

We&er" Wilhelm ! *69)" *69< Wiechert" Emil ! *69)" *900 Wien" W. ! *69< Wilson" H. A. ! *90= Houng" Thomas ! *60*" *604 Leeman" ,ieter ! *69)