Universities in Ancient India Education and Psychology Extension Series2

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Êducation and Psychology Extension Series

No.
11
^FfR
Universities in Ancient India
fo r
D. G.
FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY

Haharafa Sayajirao University of Baroda
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Education and Psychology Extension Series

No.
II
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D. G.
ra
Universities in Ancient India
APTE
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di
tio
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FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY '4;

Maharaja Sayajirao University of Barod^
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ca
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tio
The
tine
tio
original of
na
tiiis
book
the United States on the use of the
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There are no known copyright
ra
di
Cornell University Library.
Ce nt
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924005633130
re
fo
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is in
restrictions in
text.
ca
tio
Cornell University Library
Editor's
to
Note
Ce nt
The Muslim universities had taken a broad sweep including in their curriculum not only the liberal arts, but also medicine, philosophy and theWhen they were closed, Christian Europe ology. felt the need for universities of their own and established them during the middle ages. The oldofficial among them which received recognition est were the Universities of Paris and Bologna founded
re
fo
rT
ra
fairly be said have possessed universities in which all the higher learning' of the time was imparted. Such institutions existed during 200 B.C. in Alexandria, Athens and Constantinople and later at Berut, Bordeaux, Lyons, etc. But the growth of Christian sjipernaturalism and mysticism, and the inroads of the barbarians from the north and south had mostly put an end to these before 800 A.D. After that the Eastern Muslims founded universities in Bagdad, Basra, Cairo and other places, but most of these centres of learning came to an end early in the twelfth century. Then arose in Spain at Cordova, Toledo, Sevilla, the universities of the Western Muslims which after lasting for about a century were suppressed by orthodox fanaticism about 1200 A.D.
The ancient western world may
di
tio
in
the twelfth century.
It
that the University of Oxford dates back to the

its
ninth century and
foundation has been attributis
ed to King Alfred.
claim
is
This
not substantiated by sufficient documentary
na
is,
not unlikely though the
lE du
however, claimed
ca
tio
evidence.
in
The majority Europe and America The

universities
of the present universities
are the offsprings of the
medieval universities of Europe.

of
ancient
India
have a
prouder history than that of their counterparts in the ancient western world. At least one of them,
viz.,
Takshaiila, flourished several centuries before
the Universities of Alexandria, Athens and Con-
di
The universities of ancient India had more impressive teaching and research programrne. The teachers who taught in the hallowed precincts of Takshaiiia, Nalanda and Vikramaîla were scholars of high eminence and repute. This is not all. The cordial relationship that existed between them and their students was indeed sublime. Such ideal teacher-student relationship has no
stantinople.
also a
tio
na
parallel in the long history of educational
and
practice.
rT
Today we have
Ce nt
knowledge of the universities in ancient India, their teachers and students and the studies pursued in those centres of learning. This brochure dealing with these aspects of universities in ancient India
is
It is
general reader.
T. K. N.
re
meant primarily for our own university students. hoped that it would be useful also to the
fo
with an enrolment of about 400,000 students. It is doubtful whether our university students have any
ra
in India over thirty universities
lE du
Dean,
ca
thought
Menon,
tio
re
tio
re
tio
tJniversities in Anciefit India

Introduction
The brochure contains a brief account of the famous universities in Ancient India. The term!
" university " as used here simply means a centre
dents.
It
does not connote
all
the different features
possessed by the universities in the East and the
West to-day.
parallel in our
There were a number of important
features in these universities, which do not find a
modern
institutions going under the
name.
The
following brief account of these univer-
education imparted in these institutions during the

long period of about 2,000 years beginning with the
loth century B.C. and ending with the
rT
ra
di
sities will
enable the reader to have some idea of
tio
na
A.D.
will
It is
hoped that a perusal
enable him to compare our present institutions
with those of ancieiit India and realise that the

centres of higher learning in ancient India were
Ce nt
unique in their organization and scholarship during

those distant times
re
fo
when elsewhere
lE du
I2tli
where higher education was imparted to aspiring
of this booklet
in the
very few had thought of organised, education at the
university level.
ca
century
world
tio
stu-
'Takshasila
History
is
i.ooo 6.C, to 500 A.t).
in ancient India.
It
was well known as a centre
learning as early as during 700 B.C.

activities at this place
few centuties
rates
earlier.
from Taksha, a son of Bharata. The Ramayana nar-
how Bharata,
after defeating the
Gandharva Deia
tlie
for
Taksha and Pushkalavata
na
founded the two famous
cities
Takshaiila
lE du
in
it
The educational must have started at least a The place derived its name
Gandharvas,
other son Pushkala in the Gandhara.
tio
also the place
where king Janamejaya performed
famous
serpent-sacrifice * to
di
avenge the death of
ra
his father tarikshita.
Until very lately
ed out that the place was situated at a distance of
fo
about
fifty-five miles to the east of the river
rT
possitile to locate
the place exactly. Pliny has point-
Witli the help of the
numerous Stupas, Viharas

exactly located.
city covered
re
temples as found out by Cunningham, the situation
Ce nt
of the city has
now been
logical findings
show that the
ol six square miles.
A copper-plate inscription bearis
ing the
name
site.
of Takshalila has also been unearthed
from the
The place
situated twenty miles
to the west of Rawalpindi, somewhere near Shah*
Sarpasatra
ca
the
for
is
This
was not
Sindhu.
iand
Archaeo-
an area
tio
of
his
Takshasila
the oldest
among
the universities
re
tio
re
tio
dheri at a distance of one mile to the south-east of
Kalaksarai.
Administration
centre of higher education because several learned teachers
who were
recognised as authorities on vari-
of their excellence that they could attract

of students
from distant parts of the sub-continent,
in spite of the long
and dangerous journey which
of co-ordination of the
was there any external authority

the local leaders to direct their
tio
na
of
they had to undergo.
There was nothing by way work done by teachers nor

like the
activities.
lE du
the
ous subjects resided at the place.
It
was because
hundreds
teacher was an institution in himself and enjoyed
complete autonomy in his work. His authority was
directing the courses of studies, in selecting or reject-
rT
final in fixing
ra
up the duration
di
course,
the day-to-day work.
authority on the subject of his specialisation, there
re
Ce nt
was
little
fo
ing students and in laying
down rules for guiding As each teacher was an
scope for any conflict of interests or com-
petition
among them.
The knowledge
in
of all these
teachers put together represented everything that
was worth knowing
those days.
The
terminated when the teacher was satisfied with the
achievement
of his student
and there was no
regulation of any sort to regiment the duration of the
ca
king or
Each
studies
rigid
tio
in
Takshasila came to be
known
as
famous
10
course.
Normally specialisation
in
in various subjects
of study took eight years, but the period could
be
of
reduced or lengthened
accordance with the iatel-
lectual capacity of the students
and the amount
energy and application shown by them.
There were
leave their studies, because they could not

selves in the social, intellectual or
of their schools,
which were invariably located in the
teachers' private houses.
The completion
Examinations were treated as superfluous, because

the procedure of teaching subjects was critical and
ra
mastered by the student, he was not allowed to

proceed to the succeeding portions.
who completed
written certificates or
fo
rT
their
di
thorough and unless one unit was very thoroughly
lieved that knowledge

it
was
tio
The students studies did not receive any diplomas because it was beits
na
was not marred by any formal examination nor was there any convocation for conferring degrees.
own reward and
for earning
bread or for achieving any
lE du
moral atmosphere
of studies
selfish
was a
Ce nt
Only higher education was imparted
re
sacrilege.
As has already been pointed out
before, only
higher courses were taught in these institutions.
These institutions therefore took students to the end of the knowledge of some particular subjects^
taking
it
up from the secondary stage which the
ca
fit
also some cases where teachers advised students to
them-
using
tio
end
ir
student had already finished elsewhere before joining these institutions.
The process
of
education
which began at home with primary education and widened

in extent in the education in the to
A'ramas
which imparted what corresponded

education reached
its
secondary
which imparted education at the university

According to the system prevalent
primary education was imparted to children upto

the age of eight and secondary education covered
from eight to twelve years more.
who came
to learn in ancient Indian universities
were approximately sixteen to twenty years of age.

Takshaila was so well
tio
known
di
hundreds of students went to

of their
na
for its teachers that

this place in search
home.
them to this place was indeed great, particularly when one takes into consideration the risk involved in long journeys in those days when travel was slow, dangerous and uncertain. Numerous references
re
fo
rT
show that students
Ce nt
city
from distant places

in
ra
of knowledge, leaving aside the comforts
Their parents' sacrifice in sending
in hundreds used to flock to this

like Banaras,
Mithila, Ujjain, Koiala,
Madhya Desa and from

Takshasila
lE du
affiliated'
in ancient India,
So the students
and safety
Rajagrha,
the
Kuru Kingdoms
the north.
thus the intellectual capital of India, a central

All the other centres of learning
university that exercised suzerainty over the world

of letters in India.
in diêrent parts of the country
were
ca
to
culmination in these places

level.
tio
was
it.
12
Courses taught
There was a wide variety of courses offered at
nical subjects.
types of courses were the Vedas and the Silpas.
The number
the fourth
of
yedas studied
but
in this university is
should have been dropped from the
Veda and most probably the Atharvaveda list. It was

less secular in
so perhaps because the content of the Atharvaveda
treated" therein were also included in the various
other branches of study.
tio
In fact
na
of
its
was more or
nature and the topics
drop the Atharvaveda, because the minister for

religious affairs
the
di
Purohita
according to Manu
The them
Smrti had to be an expert in Atharvaveda.
propagation of the Hindu culture.
fo
study of the Vedas probably meant learning by heart for that was the most important service the Brahmanas rendered to the preservation and
rT
ra
that the study of the Vedas also included the inter-
Ce nt
pretation and exposition of the content of these
re
sacred books.
A number
this
books had already

the com-
been written by
time to facilitate
prehension of the content of the Veda and as the
author of Nirukta, a treatise on Vedic etymology

says a
man who knew
merely the chanting of the
Veda but did not know
meaning
lE du
it is
mentioned as
three,
it is difficult
to explain
impossible to
It is
very likely
was
ca
tio
why
like
The terms used
to denote these
two
Taksliasila,
both
in literary
and
scientific or tech-
T3
a
pillar
merely carrying the burden and
that
all',
prosperity attended upon those \vho

ing.
knew the mean-
Probably the term Veda also included the

its six
auxiliary sciences, the Science of
correct pronunciation, Aphoristic literature guiding
the performance of various
rites
and
sacrifices,
to precede the comprehension of the mcaningof the
Vedas.
Silpas were, indicating a craft or vocation based on
na
(
There
is
no precise mention
of.
ary subjects.
According to one source, the Silpas
di
or crafts were as follows cular law,

(
tio
practical skill as contrasted with religious
lE du
and
Logic
),
(
Grammar, Astronomy, Prosody and Etymology. The study of these auxiliary sciences had necessarily
what the eighteen

liter-
Holy tradition and
Medicine, four Vedas, Puranas
rT
Atomic theory of creation
ra
Sankhya, Nyaya
),
Vaiseshika
Arithmetic, Music,
Antiquities
),
fo
hasas
History), Military Art, Poetry and Convey-
ancing.
But
this list includes the
Vedasand many
study of various
re
other subjects which cannot be termed aa crafts and
seems to be very loosely given.
Ce nt
references
taught in this university
shows that the following crafts were Conveyancing or Law,

:
Mathematics, Accountancy, Agriculture, Commercej Cattle breeding, Smithy, Carpentry, Medicine arid
arts.
Surgery, Archery and allied Military

norriy, Astrology., Diviiiation, Maîc,
Snake
ca
Astro?
clâfti^r
tio
seIti-
study of
14
ing,
Art of finding hidden treasures, Music, Dancing

It
is
'
and Painting.
obvious
that
the
number
eighteen need not be taken too literally.
throughout the period of existence of the university.

of subjects taught
There were certainly some additions made to the

list
whenever a need was
the same as a result of religious, political and social
changes which came during

fifteen
its
hundred years.
The place was conquered
century B. C.
trians,
it
was conquered by the Indo-Bac-
who were
to decide
finitely
Ce nt
re
ing places, the Greek language could be understood
by a number of people. The teachers* at the place had no objection to collecting knowledge from whatsoever source it was available and they were sufficiently
fo
what these subjects were, but it has debeen ascertained that the Greek language began to be taught and that even among neighbour-
rT
This must have brought about some additions to the courses taught at the university. It is difficult
broad-minded
ra
The place was overrun by the Sythians in the first century B. C. and by the Kusans in the first century A. D. Both these had no culture
like Rshis.
di
the inheritors of the Greek culture.
tio
which the Brah mi script that was in vogue was replaced by the Kharoshtri script. In the second
of
to
honour even foreign savants
na
by the Persians
in the sixth century B. C. as a result
lE du
existence of about
ca
felt for
tio
These courses must have remained unchanged
t5
and
civilization
worth the name and the curficulum
in the university
Was
little
affected as a result of
their invasions.
In the
fifth
century A. D., the
the University was situated.
It
is
not possible to
affected
One
other influence which was mainly religious
in nature
must
in
also
have affected the curriculum at
Takshasila. It was the influence of
was born
B.C.
about the middle of the sixth century
sila,
which continued to be the stronghold of Vedic
ra
learning.
But
di
The place of the birth and development of Buddhism was, however, far removed from Takshaas the
tio
number
na
of students
rT
from the Eastern parts

siderable,
of the country
the prin<:ipal tenets of

in
thte
fo
have found place
curriculum.
lE du
It
by their invasion, because the met with its ruin in the same century.
university
Buddhism which
was very conalso
Buddhism must
is
probable that the study Of Buddhist tenets must
have received more
re
critical attention, particularly
Ce nt
Mahayana Buddhism The object in including Buddhism as a subject must obviously have been not to support the spread of Buddhism
after the birth of the assertive
in
about the second century A. D.
bt to justify
its tenets,
but Chiefly to enable the
scholars studying at the place to disprove effectively
Buddhist teaching.
ca
ascertain the extent to which the curriculutti
coming
tio
was
Huns
also overran the part of the country
where
i6
In sciences, arts and crafts, both the theory and
practice of the different subjects
had
to be studied.
Usually every theoretical discussion followed a practical
performance leading to a more

of the student.
skilful
attempt
fulness to find out these.
In special sciences like
medicine where incompleteness of knowledge could

result in a disaster, special care
it
that the student had become a thorough master
Finance
di
tio
of the science.
na
In
All the necessary financial assistance
ra
plied
by
the society to teachers
students.
rT
rule provided free boarding
and lodging to
lE du
who
is
But actual practice of every art reveals certain important principles and as such these had to be postponed and the student had to be left to his own capacities and resourceon the part
was taken to see to
was supall
as a general
No
student was required to pay any fees

basis.
never resulted in expulsion from the institution nor
re
in
any
fo
on a compulsory
The non-payment
differential treatment.
fact, stipulation
Ce nt
that fees should be paid was vehemently condemned.
Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for money and Hindu scriptures contain specific
against
injunctions
students.
those
salaried
who charge money to teacher, i. e., a teacher who

to be treated,
unfit
for
charges fees on a compulsory basis
according to the scripture of Manu, as
ca
of fees
tio
the
17
company
at
the table.
There were, however, no
financial difficulties that affected the
smooth work-
ing of institutions for higher learning, because every-
thing that was necessary became easily available.
The
spiritual
standing,
renunciation
and
knowledge of
the
persons to give voluntary help in various ways to
gave generous monetary help.

of their children.
either at the beginning or at the
Those who had no convenience
could without any restraint, conduct their studies

as long as they liked
privileges
and enjoyed the same
na
work
and duties as those who were monetarily
di
better placed.
completely democratic
tio
lE du
end
these institutions.
Some
well-to-do
parents also
This was given

of the studies
spirit
reigned in these sacred places.
The number
dents studying with every guru was large enough
rT
ra
to be counted in hundreds, yet all
monetary conof the teachers,
veniences were'supplied in various ways by people
who
of
appreciated the
fo
selfless
for balanced
development
in
morals and attainment

of the country.
Ce nt
Kings also helped the cause by direct and indirect
monetary help without exercising any control over The teacher's authority was these institutions. It is true that every complete and absolute. student at the termination of his studies paid something to his teacher by way of Dakshina, but the sum thus paid was never sufficient to qoyer the
re
knowledge of the capable youths
ca
teachers inspired
many
rights,
of stu-
tio
deep
rich
thus
i8
expenses of his education.
Many
times
it
was only a
turban, a pair of sandals, an umbrella or an upper
debt of gratitude that the student owed to the guru.
The community
often used to
lE du
of its
simply an indication of the recognition of the deep
also
was conscious
the students
tion.
all
throughout^ their courses of educa-
Sometimes kings of various places sent students
di
tio
to the university for education
na
to the cause of education.
Moneyed people very make arrangements for the food of
and made
necessary arrangements for boarding and lodging
ra
a money-monger, even poor families considered
rT
for
them
at State expense.
As the teacher was not

it
fo
their duty to maintain students studying under him
by
regularly offering
him some part
of their cooked
food.
re
There were certain occasions when money

to the
Ce nt
was offered
of learning
and knowledge
Brahmanas who were custodians for enabling them to conPoor students

after
tinue their charitable work.
finishing their education
approached kings for get-
ting
money
for the
Dakshina to be offered to the

in this respect is
guru and their requests were always granted by

kings.
One well-known example
ca
all
The dominating idea was that every qualified student had a right to free education and that it was unholy to associate knowledge with any monetary gift as the price of knowledge and conveniences received. The Dakshina offered was
garment.
duty
tio
the
19
that of King
Raghu
of
Ayodhya who,
to
in spite of hiS
having
crores
renounced
of
everything,
coins
supplied fourteen
disciple
golden
Varatantu's
for
Failure to help a student in need of
paying the teacher's honorarium was regarded aa

the greatest slur on a king's reputation.
occasion of the performance of various sacrifices, the
teachers were offered ample money.
lE du
was
They were
given exemption from payment of taxes.
means
facilitated the
work
of giving free education,
na
lodging and boarding to every student

learn in this university.
who came
Admission
Admission was
Chandalas
(
di
tio
free
to all castes
).
except the
restric-
the fifth caste
rT
tion about the choice of subjects which

left
ra
There was no
fo
the pupil learnt at the university was based on the dictum " Knowledge
to students.
for knowledge's sake".
What
The accomplishment had

was a problem
find a complete
in ancient
livelihood which never
Ce nt
re
not to be used as an instrument for earning one's
democracy The different classes and castes merged in the democracy of learning. The democracy was strengthened by the existence of a common code of rules and observances prescribed
India.
This
is
how we
reigning in this university.
for students irrespective of their social or
ca
On
All these
entirely
economic
tio
for
money
the
also
to
Kautsa,
who had approached him
money.
26
status.
The students could be admitted freely to any course provided they had the necessary background. Although we have no record of instances
Takshasila
must have forced the aspirants
admission to
make
ar
very serious scrutiny of their
knowledge imparted at the place.
became a problem
site qualifications,
for
those
who had
namely, freedom from jealousy,
ers
were thirsting for pupils and offering prayers for
receiving such pupils.

lated stands thus, "
tio
One such prayer when

months pass
na
we
straightforwardness and self-control. In fact, teach-
to the lower level, just as
di
Creator, just as water flows

incessantly,
so
may Brahmacharins (young
ra
lE du
pupils)
are
(
own
capacity to comprehend
the
high
Admission never
the requi-
Some famous
fo
rT
me.
students
that
It in
is
unfortunate
completely
Ce nt
re
the dark
about the names of the renowned
teachers
who adorned the hallowed precincts of Even the Jatakas which have supplied Takshasila.
to us most of the information regarding this univer-
sity are conipletely silent
on
this point.
Traditions
of
rnention that Panini, the greatest grammarian
the Sanskrit language, was a student of this uniyersity

;
so also
was Chanakya,
known
ca
level
trans-
come
also
tio
for
without admission, the very fame of the teachers of
of
to
as
where incompetent students were asked to return
21
Kautilya) the minister of Chandra Gupta Mourya,
who reduced
ashes.
the
Nanda dynasty
of
Magadha
is
to
jTvaka, the famous physician,
also de-
scribed as a student of this university.
He was an
'
expert in medicine and had studied under a
world-
It is said that
Jivaka cured Emperor Bimbisara of
lE du
known
it
his fistula and, as a result,
was appointed a physi-
cian to the King and to the Buddhist saiiigha.

is
also said to
have cured King Pradyota
of Ujjayini
of jaundice.
He was very
well
for his sur-
gical operations.
In the case of one rich merchant
who was
suffering
from a head disease,
na
The
pointed out that he tied him fast to his bed, cut
rT
on each side of the incision, pulled two worms out of the wound, then closed up the sides of the wound, stitched up the skin on the head and anointed it
with salve.
He
ra
di
through the skin of the head, drew apart the
tio
is
also said to
have successfully
cured cases of twisted intestines.
re
The end
fo
Ce nt
It has already
been pointed out before that
the Kusans conquered that part of the country in the first century A. D. and ruled over it upto about
250 A. D. As these people were little cultured, those times must have been most unfavourable for the
propagation of education.
followed by that of the
little
Kusans was They also yuch-chis.

rule of
ca
renowned physician
'
for a period of seven years.
has been
flesh
tio
He
22
were foreign to any kind of culture and learning. The
final
blow was struck by the Hunas
in the
middle
of the 5th century. A.D.

this
when
the dying embers of
proud seat
of learning got completely exting-
uished.
Ce nt
re
fo
rT
ra
di
tio
na
lE du
ca
tio
re
tio
Pl|t4
Ce nt
re
fo
rT
ra
di
tio
na
Sftar^JTST*!??!^
MONKSwww.cteindia.weebly.com IN BUDDHIST UNIVERSITIES
lE du
ca
tio
Nalanda
History
425 A. d. to 1205 A. D.
significance of the
name given
to the place.
Accord-
ing to one theory Naiatida was the

{
of a
cobra
who
lived in a tank near the mango-tree
to the south of a Sangharama.
says that the

charity given
name was
the result of the incessant
given sufSciently.
di
Its ptOsperity as described later

is
tio
by Bodhisattva who was living at The third explanation is based on an etymological analysis of the word which means that endowments incessantly flowed to the institution, but donors had not had the satisfaction of having
na
)
this place.
Long before the
rT
than the remaining two.

Christian era the place
ra
shows that the third explanation
lE du
A
second accouht
more acceptable
noted as a religious centre.
which was sanctified by the stay of Buddha and
fo
This was the place

his
re
disciples
( 523 B. C.
477 B, C.
and had witnessed

Buddhist doctrines.
Ce nt
a number of discussions
on
This was also the place where Mahavira, the Jain
Tirthankara, met Gosala.

discussion carried on
This was the place of by Nagarjuna and others in the early centuries of the Christian era. ASoka had built a temple and a Vihara at this place, because it
was only a
little
way from
thickly populated Raja*
ca
name
Naga
tio
Was
There are various fexplanations showing the
M
grha and therefore convenient for religious practices.
the course of his pursuit of Narasinhagupta, in 500
A.D.
But
after this destruction the place flourished
with greater radiance and prosperity.
lE du
built
'
Thus
though the place had been a great
religious
educational centre in the days of Nagarjuna in the
Buddha,
throughout the whole period of existence of this

university,
it
Buildings at Naianda
The
fo
(415-455 A.D.).
re
ianother
Sangbarama
rT
royal patronage.
first
Sangharama was built by Sakraditya His son Buddhaguptaraja built

to the south.
ra
had the
di
tio
half of the fifth century
became a university only in the earlier when a stream of scholastic pilgrimage began to flow towards the place. Almost
it
rare privilege of enjoying
na
)
second century A.D. and even earlier in the days of
Tathagatagupto the east of
Ce nt
taraja, his successor, built one

this.
more
Baladitya
468-472 A.D.
one more to
erected
the north-east.
He
also built another great Vihara,
three hundred feet in height, which was

as
if
with a view to seeing the Kailasa mountain

'.
surpassed
His son Vajra built another Sangharama
to the west. Later a king of Central India, Srib'arsha
ca
tio
al-
The University was founded by Sakraditya his son, Buddhaguptaraja, and his successor, Tathagataguptaraja. This was followed by the destruction of the place by Mihirakula in
and extended by
and
25
built another
Sangharama
to the north of
it
as well
as a high wall round these edifices with one gate.
buildings " were majestic in their size and height
pearing like pointed hill-tops, and observatories
were of four stages.

tions
the roofs were covered with

light in a
rT
and ornamented,
and coloured eaves, pearl-red pillars, carved richly adorned balustrades while
tiles
ra
di
side
courts in which were the priests' chambers
The stages had dragon-projec-
tio
The upper rooms towered above the clouds and from their windows one could see the winds and clouds producing ever new forms and from the oaring eaves the sunset splendours and the moonlit glories. All the outlost
in
the mist of morning.
fo
thousand shades. "
beautified by
deep translucent ponds, with blue
re
lotuses intermingled with
Ce nt
red colour.
The place
Kanaka flowers of deep was shaded by mango groves.
Archaeological excavations carried out at this
place
amply bear out the description
na
wealth of Nalanda.
Three monasteries have so far
been unearthed along with one temple building.
The
description Qi one of these wiU suffice to give
lE du
with richly adorned towers, fairy-like turrets ap-
that reflected the
The grounds were
of the artistic
ca
tio
q,
buildings continued to be erected by Hindu and Buddhist donors down to the eleventh century. Hiuen Tsiang mentions six monasteries constituting the Nalanda establishment in his time. All these
New
26
rough idea of the vastness of the monasteries. The north wall of the most southerly of the big monastic
complexes measures 203 feet and
is
feet 6
inches thick.
The
side walls
measure
168 feet
and
are 7 feet 6 inches thick.

of
The
walls are "
admirable texture, fitted together so perfectly that

in
joints
together inconspicuous. As brickwork the construction

is
remarkable, far superior to any modern
work. "
contains
double seated one having two.
there was
common
ra
of large sizes
di
niche for
a lamp and another

messing.
Each room has one for books. Ovens that have been unearthed show that
In a corner of the
courtyard of each monastery a well has betn unearthed.
rT
Excavation
tio
Each
single
seated cell has one stone bench, a
has
na
shown
The rectangle formed by the main walls 12'. cells measuring 9'-6", lo'-ii" and
lE du
that
at
its
some places the
between the bricks are
thirteen monasteries stood at this spot during different periods.
Ce nt
re
least
ings being arranged according to a preconceived
fo
The university covered an area at one mile long and half a mile broad, all buildThe
central college
plan.
to
it
had seven
halls attached
with three hundred rooms for teaching work.
Admission
Nalanda,
like
other universities of
an
institution
which imparted only higher education
ca
most
superior bricks, of a light yellowish tint
composed and
leeist
type was
tio
al-
2?
and acGordingly admission was restricted to th&s& who had the necessary background to follow post-'
graduate studies.
In particular the institution was
known
as a place where learned
men from
all
parts
of the country as well as from neighbouring nations
gaining mastery in the aft of disputation.

scholars
China, Korea, Tibet and Tokhara.

of the scholars
lE du
Although
It
Came
in
large
nurtibefs
from Morigotia,
soffie
dri
Came
for securing
manuscripts
na
in
Buddhism, there were many Who cartie' to get a stamp of approval idt their doctrines from the
authorities in the University.
this that those
was because
who
waflted to get entrance to the
per cent of those
ra
Hiuen
Tsfaiig has
who came
go
di
university had to undergo a very strict examiriafiOri.
pointed out that only twenty

seekifig for admiission
came out
rT
tio
successful at the examination

to
remaining had
back
disappointtrtenf.
Those who examined the candidate^ seeking adniis-
re
were experts in religious controversies and were always ready with difificult problems to try the
sion
fo
Ce nt
competence of aspirants
than twenty.
for admission.
The
ble age of admission, therefore,

less
must have been not
mentioned that the' uni^êfsity conducted a department for secondary and primary education where young pupils were For all these students a very high freely admitted. standard of morality was prescribed and students
It
is
also
ca
gathered for getting their doubts solved and for
Such
and the
ptdba.-
tio
of
28
at
Nalanda were taken as models of morality, and

been reported.
during the long existence of seven centuries not a

single case of guilty rebellion has
In
all
Buddhist institutions boarding and lodg-
ing were offered free except in such institutions as
Inasmuch as there is much that is common to Hinduism and Buddhism, it is natural that in
this respect also, things should
have been much the
di
Vihara.'
ers
This should apply only to Buddhist teachin the earlier
tio
same as in Hindu institutions. It has been pointed out in some places that the teacher as he took no fees, made the student work in his Asrama or
'
and that too
when donations were not pouring
ra
na
it is
rT
perhaps fees were not insisted upon
preferential treatment given to students

rich
fo
and paid
of
fees.
There were periods

every
lE du
in.
;
were intended for imparting education to the
days of Buddhism
In later days
nor was any
who were
in
history
Buddhist education when

offered
facility
Viharas
monasteries
re
because
Ce nt
owned
excessive wealth
and
impossible to speak
basis.
of fees being charged
on a compulsory
Buddhist students were required to go for begging

institu-
alms does not indicate the poverty of the
tions
where they received their education.
institutions
êre
rich in wealth
there must have been
and materials. So some other reason behind it.
ca
laity.
they
That
tio
the
or
Boarding and lodging arrangements for students
The
2g
Begging was prescribed because of
advantages as was the case
the support of his school.
in the fact that
it
its
educational
institutions.
for
in
Hindu
There the student begged not for himself but

produced in the pupil a
"
Its educative value lay

spirit of
humility and renunciation.
But
its
moral
effects
may
be examined more
his
closely.
First the contrast
brings
home
to
organisation of the personality, a deeper loyalty to

his
system.
Further the daily duty of begging
makes the ego

all
tio
na
less
and
less assertive,
lE du
is
life.
between
life and that of the world at large him the value of the scheme for which he stands, which he will now all the more try to consolidate. This makes for a more complete
own
and with
di
unruly desires and passions which do not shoot
forth as their roots wither.
Thus there
ra
a greater balance of the inner
rT
balance and harmony further brings out the contrast
between the behaviour of
his
own group and

or order.
fo
of the
men
of the world,
his
and
this further confirms
his faith in
own group
Again an
life
re
acquaintance through begging with worldly
Ce nt
its trials
of his
feel
make him realise more vividly the security own life. Lastly, begging makes the pupil how unaffected he is to any ties and a sense of
independence contributing to a sense of selfhood. It is like a ritual for the cultivation of impersonal
relations in
life.
The contact
of the recluse with
the world
is
a valuable corrective to the exaggerated
ca
sense
reached
of
tio
it
that
and
sbbjectivity of isîkted meditative Hfe in the hermitage.
Isolation
and
intercourse
thus lead to a
higher synthesis of the inner and the outer, Purusha
and Prakrti,
self
and the world."
Courses of study
The curriculum
of
the
all
university
was
well as non-Buddhist,
Mahayana
Study
yana.
Only a few
of these
many
of
treated as compulsory.
all
dhism were prescribed as

IVtahayanists
'
ra
di
propounded the doctrines of Sunyavada and Vijnanavada. The doctrine of Skyflower which means that all objective phenomena
'
tio
are,
like
sky-flowers,
unreal and
na
of
acquaintance with
the eighteen schools of
Mahayana and Budcompulsory subjects. The
lE du
vanishing
exhaustive and embraced
subjects, Buddhist as
as well as Hina-
subjects were
rT
popular
among
the Mahayanists but was held in con-
tempt as a heresy by the Hinayanists.
Among
fo
subjects that were taught on a voluntary basis Logic
played an important part.
Yet looking
to the im-
portant place that dialectics occupied during those
re
Ce nt
days,
it
the university.
must have played a very important role in The systems of logic acceptable
other
schools
to various
studied.
thought were
Astronomy was taught and for this purpose an observatory and a clepsydra were specially maintained by this university. According to Hiuen Tsiang this clepsydra gave correct time for
ca
very
tio
was
the
also
31
all
Magadha.
Tantra was a very popular subject
at this university because we hear oi

others copying and translating
many
them
scholars
writing works on Tantra, others studying them

still
and
into the
languages of the north.

of mystic syliables
Tantras deal with the use
popular, because they allowed
which was forbidden by early Buddhism to the

followers of the
new
cult.
in this University were the
tio
na
Other subjects studied
Vedas and
lE du
liberty
of
The practice cf Mudras, Mantras, Dharanis, Yoga and Samadhi were not there in primitive Buddhism, nor did it prescribe any worship of Buddha or di&rerat gods and goddiesses. The Tantras became specially
re
sacred and and practical, sciences and arts. There were some institutions for primary education run by the university where six-year olds were admitted. Such students learnt Sabdalearning,
secular, philosophical
Ce nt
fo
vidya or
Grammar of
of
rT
Brahmanical and Buddhist,
ra
Grammar, Sankhya, Philology, Law, Philosophy and other miscellaneous subjects. The subjects were drawn from different fields of
knowledge
di
auxiliaries. Medicine,
the Sanskrit language because
Sanskrit
was
essential
both
Buddhists and Hindus who were studjdng at the university. After studying elementary course in
for six
Grammar
months, the student was required
to study the
Sutrapatha
and Dhatupatha from
Panini's graniniar.
At the age of ten he was taught
ca
their
and words
as well as magic.
action
tio
six
for
32
the book on three Khilas which gave a thorough
knowledge of grammar.
this in three years.
This was followed by

of
The student could master more The book used

for this
generally lasted five years.
of subjects other than
Grammar comprising
All this
thing under the sun ".
hari's Sastra.
Kshatriya students could learn the
art of archery along with other Sastras like Medicine,
ra
Veda, Vedangas, Sankhya, Nyaya

Vaiêshika
before.
(
di
tio
to be learnt by heart. This was by study of prose and verse, logic and metaphysics. At the advanced university stage some students followed advanced courses in Grammar and learnt Churni of Patau jali and Bhartr-
memory and was
followed
na
lE du
was
(
for training of
Logic )
)
Atomic theory
of the world
mentioned
Ce nt
was a Bhikkhu and seniority, who was elected by the various Sanghas comprising the This Bhikkhu controlled and directed federation.
At the head
fo
Administration of the University

of the university
re
possessing character, scholarship
the work of administering the affairs of the univer-
sity,
academic and otherwise through two councils
rT
appointed for the purpose.

affairs like
The former looked
admitting students to the university,
regulating the courses in various subjects, distribn-
ca
purpose was Vrtti-sutra which contains a discussion
" every-
tio
and
to
subtle
and abstruse studies
Grammar which
33
tion of
work amohg
teachers, holding of examina-
tions at proper intervals, looking after the securing
and maintenance
of manuscripts
and the arrange-
pairs of buildings, securing
and supply
of food to
allocation of
rooms to students and teachers accord-
ing to their standing
and the distribution among
the residents of the menial work connected with the
working of the university.

belonging to the Sanghas.
di
farmers, collecting and storing of corn received from
was an important duty

this
ra
tenants and the distribution
tio
ed to pay meticulous attention to the landed estates

Leasing out the land to
na
his
This council was requir-
among
of the council.
re
were individual teachers, each with a group of students of his
fo
method of control on federated basis the independence and efificiency of each constituent group was maintained. The constituents of the federation
rT
own
living
under
Ce nt
lE du
the inmates, arrangements of clothes and medicines,
various messes
In spite of
guardianship and
responsible for the health
and
studies, tnanners
morals and the spiritual progress of his students. These students, because they formed a part of larg-
er federation, could partake of a wider academic and collective life with its own advantages. Unlike Hindu institutions which were isolated and independent of each other and which depended upon ideal
ca
tended to the financial aspect, construction and
tio
re-
ment for copying manuscripts which were greatly in demand in those days. The other council at-
and
34
succession of teachets and disciples, these schools
had federated themselves

Viharas or monasteries.
efficiency of
into larger
units
called
and
relations
between the constituent groups were
Rules for both the teachers and the taught were
framed by the federation

of relations,
for
for
maintaining harmony
preventing controversies
professors
and
for maintaining
academic etiquette.
ment upon
his pupils directly only in the case of
di
tio
of discipline
and the federation could

life,
na
in
Every teacher Upajjihaya or Achariya was indepen-' dent of the federation in regard to the maintenance
inflict
lE du
stealing,
serious offences like destroying
Buddha,
trines
Dhamma and
ra
mitting impurity, lying, drinking,
defaming
Sangha, holding
false doc-
nuns).
and misconducts with Bhikkhunis ( Buddhist Thus there was a judicious mixture of inrestrictions.
dependence and
Ce nt
re
Finance
Buddhism was strictly speaking an order of ascetics and mendicants and no Bhikkhu was allowed to receive gold or silver or any gift in cash. The violation of this interdict was regarded as a
serious offence.
fo
rT
Things offered
kind could be
accepted.
This rule was observed very rigorously
in the earUer days, of
Buddhism and the
ca
adjusted by means of rules provided for the purpose.
among
punish-
comthe
rigour of
tio
The independence and each constituent school was maintained
33
renunciation
which
alone
could save one from
worldly contamination was maintained in its pristine

purity.
But the Buddha, during
his
life-time
allowed the Sanghas to grow rich by permitting
them
to receive benefactions
from lay well-wishers
even under Buddha's direct encouragement.

the
gifts
accepted for the Sangha
pavilions,
ponds, buildings and Viharas with

life,
lE du
were
oil,
appurtenances for healthful

ings
materials for build-
and property by bequests
for the dead.
Buddha encouraged such donations by
na
tio
them as meritorious deeds.
Sometimes standing
invitations for meals were given to Bhikkhus.
molasses and sugar.
425 A.D. endowments for the university were pour-
The list of such donors contains the names of kings Kumaragupta I, Buddhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, Vajra and Harsha Vardhana. Like the Guptas and Vardhanas, Varmans, also showed interest in the university. It is stated that Purnavarman and Yasovarmadeva donated
ing
in.
Ce nt
re
The name meant, "however much one may

feels satisfied '\
fo
Even from its beginning the place was rich in money as its very name indicates.* Right from
rT
ra
Sanghas in the form of ghee, butter,
di
devotees
many
times
supplied provisions to the
honey and
never
ca
give,
which kept continuously flowing to the monasteries

parks,
all
Among
declaring
tio
The
Lay
one
sa
of such bountiful benefactions, the university never
experienced any financial difficulty and could develop to

its fullest
capacity.
Teachers and students

It
is
stated that at one time there were 10,000

at Nalanda.
monks staying
tio
na
Of
of
It
lE du
these, 1,510
for the upkeep and repair of monasteries. The kings of the far-off Suvarnadwipa and Yavadwipa (Sumatra and Java) had also patronised these institutions. On account
di
teachers and the remaining 8,500 were
belonging to various levels
attainments
ra
studying various subjects.
has been pointed out
that there were on an average a hundred lectures or discussions every day.
rT
On an
average the
ber of students per teacher was seven or eight and

it
must have been very convenient
fo
to give individual
attention to students.
Ce nt
Libraries
re
The
university had a large collection of
scripts
on various subjects in various languages
stored
up
in three splendid buildings appropriately
called Ratnasagara,
Ratnodadhi and Ratnaranjaka.
This was greatly helpful in the dissemination of knowledge, because we find numerous mentions of
ca
were
students
num-
manu-
tio
and
assembly of venerable Bhikkhus and
money equal to the price of the whole Nalanda institution. The Pala King of Bengal, Devapala by name is said to have donated five villages for the
37
scholars from abroad copyirjg oyt manvscfipts in
hundre4s from these

their countries.
5,00,000 verses.
over the country.
They defeated many Panditas

the
list
belonging to other faiths and converted them to
Buddhism.
university
Among
the
Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsiang
knowledge
na
of
we may ei-Iso include the who acquired in this

the
doctrines
of
Bhutas, Nirgranthas, Kapalikfis, Jtjtikas, Sankhyas
Panditas of this place were accepted as authorities
even on Hinayana doctrines of Buddhism although

the university championed the cause of the Maha-
re
fo
rT
and Vaiseshikas over and above those of Buddhism, The fact that a distinguished king hke Sri Harsha sent for Panditas from Nalanda bears ample testimony to the depth of their learning. The
yana doctrine.
Ce nt
from Nalanda University were present at the assembly held at Kanyakubja ( Kanoj ) by Sri Harsha
to investigate the treatise of
ra
It
is
di
said that one thousand Panditas
We
give below
about famous teachers who lived at or were assoqi^t-
ed with Nalanda.
tio
Hiuen Tsiang.
some important information
lE du
Learried
men from
Nalanîa were farnous
ca
Teachers at Naianda
tio
all
and taking thern to is said to have got copied from Nalanda, 400 Sanskrit works amounting to
libraries
It-sing
3S
The names
Rahulabhadra,
of Nagarjuna,
Vasubandhu, Din-
naga, Padmasaihbhava, Shantarakshita, Aryadeva,
famous university.
have detailed information
only about some of them.

(
the third century.

(
rT
Aryadeva He was one of the scholars of Nalanda who lived in the 4th century A.D. He was the author of three works; all of
:
ra
di
tio
Nagarjuna He was a colleague of Aryadeva. Both of them discovered a deeper meaning in Buddha's preaching and founded and popularised a new form of Buddhism called Mahayana and gave it a philosophy named Madhyamika. This occurred in the later half of the second and the earlier part of
:
na
fo
these were translated into Tibetan.
lE du
out
the
work known as Madhyamika-bhramaghatawritten at the request of the king
re
nama was
Ce nt
of Jariibudwipa
Tibetan
Jnana.
by
and was translated into Upadhyaya Dipankara Sri

the follower of Nagarjuna
He was
and
assailed the Sankhyas, Vaiseshikas
twenty other doctrines.

(
Vasubandhu Vasubandhu
Anecdotes point
composed
Paramartha-
ca
His
We
that
tio
last
Asanga, Jayadeva, Chandrakirti, Dharmapala, Gunamati, Sthiramati, Prabhamitra and Jinamitra are traditionally associated with this
and
39
saptati to oppose the doctrine of Sankhyas
contained in the Sankhya-saptati and reconverted
king
Baladitya
Narasinhagupta
from Sankhya to Buddhism.
upon a number
A.D.
(
of
flourished between the years
completely evolved the doctrine

It
is
of Yogachara.
he
who
Mahayana the practices of Yoga, union

individual
lE du
spirit
Asanga
He
grafted on the
of the
na
It
is
mystical
and the and other
universal
practices
of
meditation.
He
wrote three works on Maha-
yana.
(
Sthiramati
di
Hiuen Tsiang speaks
tio
ra
the founder of
describes
him as a monastery at Valabhi and

of
him
as a person the streams
whose superior knowledge spread about even

now.
ing
fo
rT
He
played an important role in spreadto Tibet,
Buddhism
He
is
supposed to
Ce nt
re
have written a number of books on Mahayana. He flourished between the years 460
and 550 A. D,
He was the son of a high Dharmapala at Kanchipura in the South but embraced Buddhism even in his youth. His services to the cause of Buddhism are Of
:
official
inestimable
value.
said
that
ca
and
abstract
of
420 and 500
tio
he
He commented works on Mahay ana. He
40
vanquished a heretic adversary who had defeated
all
the Buddhist Panditas and con-
dhism.
After coming to Nalanda he became
author of a grammatical work called Varnasutra-vrittinama.
He
wrote four Buddhist

all
works in Sanskrit which are

into
Tibetan.
He
flourished between 550
tio
Shilabhadra
of
He became
na
his
and 650 A.D.
Nalanda
caste.
after
Dharmapala.
lE du
caste.
translated
the head Pandita
He was
knowledge he renounced his regal honour
and comfort as well as
rT
ra
by
In pursuit of newer realms of
di
son of a king in East India and a
Brahmana
course of his wanderings he
came
to
Nalanda
fo
which was not
far off
from his place where
he was initiated into the principles of Bud-
re
dhism by Dharmapala.
thirty,
At the
early age of
heretic
Ce nt
he defeated a reputed
his
South India by
arguments.
profound and subtle
Much
against his will he
to accept the donation of a village from the
king of the land as an appreciation of this

victory.
gift
From out
of the proceeds of this
he built a magnificent monastery.
ca
the
the chief Pandita of the place.
He was
the
In the
had
tio
of
one hundred champions of Hinayana Bud-
As
verted them to Buddhism.
He
also defeated
4t
the head of Nalanda,
he received
Hiuert",
Tsiang and appointed Jayasena to teach
Yogasastra to the Chinese

at his insistence that
visitor.
It
was
Hiuen Tsiang
Buddhism.
viz.,
visited
Kamarupa Assam
(
for converting
KumaraOnly one
written
many
:
books.
lived
(8)
Santideva
695-743
He
between
the
na
of
in
A. D,
He was
Manjuvarman.
go to
the
His mother advised him to
tio
lE du
the
Arya buddhabhumi-vyakhyana although he must have

is
work
assigned to him
son of King
country
Bodhisatvas.
di
entered the Nalanda University where, as a

result of his sobriety
and solemnity he was
ra
given
the
name
(
Santideva.
He
rT
three Pitakas
at that place.
religious
books of Buddhists
fo
Santarakshita
He was
the
first
re
who was
ofificially
invited to Tibet by king
Ce nt
Khri-son-den-tsan.
His presence there was
not welcomed by the people, so he was sent

to Nepal. Later along with Padmasaiiibhava,
he erected a monastery
Tibet of which
he was the
the cause of
first
head.
After propagating
in Tibet for a period
Buddhism
of thirteen years
he died in 762 A.D,.
ca
years
raja
and
his family to
studied
Pandita
tio
He
43
(
10
PadmaSaHibihava
Se was
of
th son of Indra-
bodhi, the king of Udayatia.

profninertt
He was
of the king.
arid is deified
hirtiselt.
He founded
Laitiaism in Tibet
like
and worshipped
magic
atid sorcery in Tibet kflowfi as the roof
of the world.
contemporary of ântai'akshita and
na
He
is
11
KitoasTla
He was
gr^t
lE du
disciple
is
He
spread Taiitristn that deals with
written a cotnmetary on TatVasaiigraha.

It
Was becaffse of his unique scholarship that
di
adversary named Hcel^Mg
from China atid taught doctrines contrary

to those taught
rT
ra
Saiitarakshita invited
fo
easily defeat
Hoshang.
re
\t2)
tio
betweea 720-780 A.D.
said to
him to vanqQish an who was a Pandita
by Santarakshita. He could
CawdtdgOftita
written
sastra.
He
SiappOSfed
Ce nt
liO tess
than sixty books on Tantraalso a distinguished scholar
He was
of
literature,
gram'mar, logie, astronomy,

the science of medicine.
tftuSie, fine arts afld
He Was
the
first
from the Bengal school of

the attention of
the
togfeians
to
attract
literary world.
ca
to
Buddha
lived
have
have
tio
and
school artd went to Tibet at the invitation
expoiindf
the
Yogachara
43
(
13
Buddhaklrti
He was
the connecting link
between Nalanda and Vikramasila.
He was
the last great scholar produced by Nalanda.

flourished towards the end of the ele-
venth century and the beginning of the

twelfth century.
Decline and
fall of
the university
1 100
The university worked with great vigour upto A.D. when its greatness began to be eclipsed
Ce nt
re
fo
rT
by Vikramasila which began to receive a greater share of royal patronage. The university received the final tragic blow at the hands of the Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khilji at the end of the twelfth century and not one of the monks remained The to narrate the sad tale of its destruction. also wantonly priceless library of the university was set on fire and destroyed.
ra
di
tio
na
lE du
ca
tio
He
Valabhi
History
{600 a.d, to 1200 a.d.)
Valabhi was the capital of Maitraka kings during

benefactions of these kings.
shore,
it
tional trade.
Courses
Although Valabhi championed the cause
ra
di
tio
was then an important port
na
the period 480-775 A. D. and was born from the
Situated on the seafor interna-
lE du
in the also
The place is identical with the old Wala State. It. was an important centre of Buddhist learning, and championed the cause of Hinayana Buddhism. For some time it had become a rival of Nalanda in the academic field,
Saurashtra in Western
Iiidia.
rT
Hinayana Buddhism,
parochial.
it
was not exclusive and

Buddhist
to
Along with instruction
re
taught at this place. We find references to Brahmana students coming from the Gangetic plains to
learn at this university.
fo
doctrines Brahmanical sciences
used
Over and above

instruction
Ce nt
subjects,
there
was
(
also
imparted
subjects like Niti
Political science. Statesmanship),
logy,
Varta (Business, Agriculture), Administration. TheoLaw, Economics and Accountancy. In some
cases students, after studying at this university were employed by kings for assisting in the government of their kingdom,
ca
religious
in
tio
of
The University
of
Valabhi was situated
in
be
45
Fame
had spread over the whole northern India to such an extent that the Kathaof Valabln
The fame
of
preferred to send his son to Valabhi rather than to
certain that the
stamp
of approval of the doctrines
Panditas of Valabhi was

assemblies.
much valued
na
preached by various scholars by the authoritative

in learned
Students
In about the middle of the 7th century when
Hiuen Tsiang
ra
di
tio
visited the place,

in the university.
rT
monks studying
were provided for them.

Finance
were made available by the citizens of the place,
Ce nt
re
The funds necessary

of
fo
for
running the University
many
whom
lE du
there were 6,000
100 monasteries
were very rich and generous.
Maitraka kings
who
ruled over the country from
480 to 775 A.D. were the patrons of this university and gave bountiful grants for the working of the
University as well as for equipping the libraries of
the institutions.
ca
is
Nalanda or Banaras. Very
known to us about the famous teachers and scholars who lived at the place, excepting names of two of its Panditas, viz. Gunamati and Sthiramati. Yet it is
httle,
however,
tio
The
saritsagara narrates the story of a
Brahmana, who
Closure of Valabhi
The
in
patroQb kings
succumbed
to
an Arab attack
university, however, continued unabated even after-
wards, because the successors of the Maitraka kings
continued to patronize
doaations.
the university with rich
But nothing much
lE du
is
known about
university after this period.

o-J
Probably the defeat
the patron kings must have given a death-blow
upto the twelfth century.
Ce nt
re
fo
rT
ra
di
tio
na
to all
its
educational activities which continued
ca
tio
the
775 A.D. as a result o wliich, the university received a temporary set-back. The work of the
Vikramas'ila
History
(800 a.d. to 1203 a.d.)
Bihar
).
The place was
just near
Nalanda although
with
the exact location of the Vihara cannot be ascertained.
Dr. S. C. Vidyabhiishana identified
Sultanganj in Bhagalpur district and Cunningham,
lE du
liberal
faunded by king Dharmapala in the eighth century

(circa 775-800).
ments to the university so as to provide
tio
A.D.
He
na
gave
i. e.,
with the village Silao near Badagaon.
boarding and lodging to resident and non-resident
monks studying
when
its tragic
ra
di
at the place.
All throughout the
to the institution.
Buildings
Ce nt
re
fo
Diharmapala continued to give bountiful donations
rT
existence of the university,
upto 1203 A. D.
end came, the successors of King
The buildings
at Vikramasila were well planned
and accoramodativ*. There were one hundred and eight temples and six college buildings, spread out like lotus-petals, with a beautiful Mahabodhi temple
in the centre with its six gates leading to the six
colleges.
Each
of those six buildings
had
ca
it
was a famous seat of learning situated on a hillock on the banks of the Ganga in northern Magadha
It
endowfor free
spaci(iis
tio
was
The Vikramaiila Vihara ( Buddhist monastery)
48
halls for lectures.
AH
these buildings were surround-
ed by a strong wall.
Like the other universities, this university also
were to preach Buddhist gospel
these branches of
here.
rT
ra
the same,
Buddhist text-books belonging to both
Buddhism must have been taught

all
di
Mahayana form of Buddhism, a more assertive cult as the name itself As the Mahayana form, however, preindicates. supposes the Hinayana and is a development of
The
institution represented the
Along with these
of
Hindu
learning were also taught, although they
could not be classified as Buddhist in nature.
fo
tio
na
the important branches
lE du
its
The standard of attainment expected of the alumni must have been very high, because admission was restricted only to those who aspired to become Buddhist monks who
jects at the collegiate level. in far-off lands.
can be explained by the fact that Buddhism
Ce nt
an entirely new religion as some believe. merely a phase of Hinduism and in most
re
religious
faith.
and
social
aspects resembles
Some
of the details
common
to
Buddhism
of
and
Hinduism
are
Brahmanical
of ceremonies.
practices
asceticism, begging, non-violence, insistence on right
habits
and dominance
all
did not cover
the branches of
The courses Hindu sciences
ca
is
provided only specialised instruction in various sub-
This
It is
of its
parent
tio
not
Courses taught
49
but
special
stress
was
laid
on Grammar, Logic,
Metaphysics and Ritualism.
special significance
was attached to Tantras which

for
consist of religious
doctrines teaching magical and mystical formularies
the worship of deities or the attainment of
why many
of the important subjects included in
taught in Hindu institutions covered subjects

sixty-four arts which embrace
lE du
out.
all
Hindu education were dropped
The courses
like
the fourteen Vidyas, the eighteen Silpas and the
the knowledge
na
necessary
for
house-holder.
Buddhism
or to the
life
of a house-holder.
tio
generally speaking averse to any worldly pleasure

It laid great stress
fo
on the evanescent nature of the worldly existence and believed that all existence was a mere shadow and a source of sorrow and that whatever was seen or felt was an " airy nothing ". In these circumstances, it is no wonder that they should have rejected the subjects leading to enrichment of worldly life and stressed the renunciatory
rT
ra
di
re
aspect of education.
It is significant to
that the institutions were meant for prospective
Ce nt
Bhikkhus ( Buddhist monks ) and Bhikkhunis Buddhist nuns ) and the knowledge of items that create fetters for human beings should have been
{
avoided.
It
is
not possible to decide with any amount of
precision the duration of the courses.
As
ca
in
supreme power.
It is
not
difficult to
understand
note also
Hindu
tio
was
o
schoollS,
perhaps" the
tittie
required
for"
tnastering;
the subjects depended
upon the
intelligence
it
and
erences of inteUigence and of other capacities of
length of time for learning various courses.
Hindu
institutions,
the practice of giving degree

off
parchments to students successfully finishing

their courses
was not in vogue.
its
own
reward.
The
conferring of degrees in the
rT
ra
on ancient lines and same ancient subjects, is of a very recent origin. The authorities of this university used to confer the title of Pandita on those who had finished their courses at the university. This
teach
the
di
tio
existing Pathasalas which run
na
need of the day, because knowledge was treated as
'
function was usually presided over

king.
Tibetan authorities inform us that Jetari
and Ratnavajra had received degrees
fo
re
sity at the
hands of Kings Mahlpala and Kanaka

It
respectively.
was
also
customary in
Ce nt
sity to exhibit
on walls the portraits of such of the
alumni as possessed outstanding merit.

of course
must have been to pay a grateful tribute
to their scholarship as well as to place before other
students examples worthy of emulation.
ance with this custom, two portraits of Nagarjuna
lE du
'
That was not the
by the patron
at this univer-
this univer-
The
In accord-
ca
students and did not prescribe any definite uniform
object
tio
In
twelve years.
They believed
in the inherent diff-
application of students and that
was normally
51
and Atisa were exhibited on the
versity.
walls of the uni-
Administration
connected with the day-to-day working of the uni;
of
these
various
boards.
There
was
in
academic autonomy and the teachers

various
departments
were
lE du
if
charge of
for
responsible
academic work conducted in their departments.

were admitted to the university only
various subjects.
six
na
order to ensure a high standard of learning students
they
Six erudite teachers guarded the
di
tio
the tests given
by eminent
authorities in charge of
gates leading to the university.
During the
the following
ra
reign
six
of
Chanaka
955-983 A.D.
),
eminent logicians were posted for the work.
Ratnakarasanti was placed at the east gate, Vagis-
rT
fo
varakirti at the west,
Naropa
at the north, Prajna-
karamati, at
the south, Ratnavajra at
Ce nt
Teachers and students
well
re
central gate and Jnanasrimitra at the second
The teachers working at the university were known not only in India but even beyond her
depth and the width of their learnIt
is
frontiers for the
ing.
as a result of this that the university
developed literary and cultural contacts with Tibet.

Scholars from Tibet were particularly interested in
ca
the
gate.
versity
one chief abbot worked as the president

complete
satisfied
tio
the
There were boards
in charge of different duties
In
first
had
52
the Tantras, for the teaching of which special arrange-
ments were made at the university

the four hundred years of
its
all
throughout
It
existence.
was
knowledge and
culture
religion
have practically
built
up the
scholars wrote books on various sciences in Sanskrit
and translated quite a few in Tibetan. It is said that Atisa alone wrote two hundred books, some
originals
and other
translations.
scholars coming from other parts of India also was
rT
ra
from Tibet for whom a special arrangement for boarding and lodging was made. The number of
not small.
It
has been mentioned

there were
di
ed out that when the university was started, King Dharmapala of Bengal, its first patron, had appointed one hundred and eight teachers and other specialists making up a total of one hundred and fourteen teachers. Scholars in large numbers poured in
tio
na
3,000
fo
twelfth century
re
studying at this university.

of
We
lE du
It
has been point-
that in the
scholars
list
monk
give below a
Ce nt
names have influenced Tibetan culture.

(
of selected scholars from Vikramasila
appointed
Acharya Buddha Jnanapada He was first as the priest of King Dharmapala

:
and
sila.
later as the
Acharya
for ordination at
Vikramawhich
He became
the founder of a
new
cult of
Vikramalila was the only centre in those days.
ca
and
civilisation of Tibet.
Many
of these
who
tio
He
Vikramasila scholars who, as the custodians of piety,
53
wrote nine books on Tantra in Sanskrit. But now only their translations in Tibetan are available.
(
Vairochana Rakshita
several
books
in Sanskrit
Tantrika works.
was given the

charya.
3
titles
of
Mahapandita and Maha-
Jetari
He
completed
lE du
his
title of
studies
Vikramaîla
and was given the
taught Sutra and Tantra to Ratnakarasanti,
was appointed as a gate-keeper

about 983 A. D.
tio
ra
Prajnakaramati He was one of the gate( 4 ) keepers of the Vihara and wrote several works, two
:
of
which are in Tibetan.
rT
di
fo
Ratnakarasanti
nation in Sarvastivada school at Odantapuri. Later
re
he joined Vikramaiila.
He wrote
na
He
Later he worked as a professor at Vikramaiila.
of the Vihara in
received his ordi-
thirteen works
in Ceylon,
Ce nt
in Sanskrit
and preached Buddhism
he was invited for that work.

{
school,
He first belonged to Sravaka Jnana Sri but later became a Mahayana. He wrote
:
several books
and translated one
of them, the Pra-
manaviniichayatika into Tibetan.
ca
and translated into Tibetan several Later he went to Tibet where he
Pandita.
where
tio
at
He who
He wrote
54
(
Ratnavajra
He was
resident
of
Kasmira.
After studying Buddhist Sutras, Mantras
Pandita and the honour of becoming a gate-keeper.
Tantra.
{
na
Jnana
Vagisvarakirti
He was
at Vikramasila.
He
belonged to Banaras, was a
worshipper of Tara Devi and wrote a work in Sanskrit

(
di
named Mrtyubanchanopadeia.
tio
Atisa
He was
rT
Buddhism who
at nineteen.
ra
Dipankara
Sri
one of the greatest missionaries of
lE du
alias
He returned to Kasmira and defeated in argument some Tirthajas and converted them to Buddhism. Later he went to Tibet, learned the Tibetan language and translated into Tibetan fourteen works on
a gate-keeper
travelled to foreign countries.
in a royal family in 980 A.D.,
he took the sacred vow
re
At thirty-one he received the highest ordination. He was the master of both Hinayana and Mahayana, Vaiseshika and Tantras. After com-
fo
Ce nt
pleting his education he

{
sailed
to
Suvarnadwipa
There he
Pegu
and was further
initiated into the mysteries
of
Buddhism by Acharya Chandraklrti.
studied for twelve years.
On
his return to India
he defeated
many
at Vikramasila. invitation of
and was appointed head Later he went to Nepal at the

scholars
of Tibet
King Chan Chub
ca
Acharya
Born
who was
tio
the age of thirty-six.
There he won the
title of
and
sciences,
he joined Vilcramaîla University at
55
anxious to purge Tibetan Buddhism of
tions
its
corrup-
which were many and
gross.
There he found-
ed the new religion of Lamaism.

for thirteen years
three.
Sanskrit works into Tibetan.

(
10
Viryasinha
He
helped Atisa in trans-
lating Sanskrit
(
works into Tibetan.

:
11
(
Abhayakaragupta
).
appointed by King Ramapala of Magadha
na
(
Gauda
Bengal
He was a native of He became a monk and was

(
tio
lE du
He was
)
to perform religious ceremonies at the palace.
belonged to the Mahayana school.
di
witness of the
first
Turuksha
Turks
invasion of
Magadha.
cult
He was
Tathagata Raksiita r He was born in ( 12 ) a family of physicians in Orissa. At Vikramasila he received the titles " Mahapandita " and " Upa-
fo
rT
and translated seven works into Tibetan.
ra
a great authority on Tantra
Ce nt
dhyaya " and was a professor of Tantra. slated a number of books into Tibetan.
re
13
dhyaya
",
Ratnakirti " Pandita "
He became
and
an
" Mahapandita"
Vikramasila and translated a number of books into

Tibetan.
(
14
Manjusri
He
was
Pandita
Vikramasila and a worshipper of Tara.
ca
Bihar
ascribed to him.
He
also translated twenty
an eye-
He
tran-
" Upaat
tio
two
He worked in Tibet and died at the age of seventyAbout two hundred works on Vajrayana are
He
at
56
Dharmakirti He was a native of He learnt Sanskrit at Vikramaîla and translated many Sanskrit works into Tibetan.
(
15
Tibet.
i6
Sakyastiribhadra
He was
a native of
tion of Vikramasila
by Moslems.
Destruction of Vikramasila
The
tragic
end
All
lE du
came
an
in
Khilji,
of this university
A.D. at the hands of Bakhtiyar

Kutub-ud-din.
at the place had their heads shaven and they were
tio
na
know
the Buddhist
monks
all
slain.
It
has been reported that
when the
invading Musalmans came across the library of the

university,
they wanted to
di
the contents of
rT
them the necessary information. But the carnage had been so mercilessly ^thorough that not one was availthe books and searched for some one to give
ra
fo
able for the purpose.
It is said that the

(
mistook the buildings for a fortress
and perhaps was a
re
the yellow-robed clean-shaven Bhikkhus for soldiers

of
Ce nt
war
and only
later
they realised that
Vihara.
Printed at the M.S. University of Baroda Press
Sadhana Press ),
Raopura, Baroda
ca
it
Kasmira.
He was
a witness of the tragic destruc-
1203
officer of
residing
invaders
tio
H
C".
Ce nt re fo rT ra di tio na lE du
ca
tio
Ce nt rT ra di tio na lE du ca
re
fo
tio
Cornell University Library
LA1153.A77
Universities
In
ancient India
924 005 633 130
Ce nt
re
fo
rT
ra
di
tio
na
lE du
ca
tio
re
tio

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^Education and Psychology Extension Series

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Education and Psychology Extension Series

Universities in Ancient India

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY '4;

the United States on the use of the

There are no known copyright

Cornell University Library.

Cornell University Library

The ancient western world may

the twelfth century.

that the University of Oxford dates back to the

ninth century and

foundation has been attributis

not substantiated by sufficient documentary

not unlikely though the

The majority Europe and America The

of the present universities

are the offsprings of the

medieval universities of Europe.

Takshaiila, flourished several centuries before

the Universities of Alexandria, Athens and Con-

parallel in the long history of educational

in India over thirty universities

tJniversities in Anciefit India

does not connote

the different features

possessed by the universities in the East and the

There were a number of important

features in these universities, which do not find a

institutions going under the

following brief account of these univer-

education imparted in these institutions during the

loth century B.C. and ending with the

enable the reader to have some idea of

hoped that a perusal

enable him to compare our present institutions

with those of ancieiit India and realise that the

unique in their organization and scholarship during

where higher education was imparted to aspiring

very few had thought of organised, education at the

i.ooo 6.C, to 500 A.t).

was well known as a centre

learning as early as during 700 B.C.

from Taksha, a son of Bharata. The Ramayana nar-

after defeating the

Taksha and Pushkalavata

founded the two famous

other son Pushkala in the Gandhara.

also the place

where king Janamejaya performed

avenge the death of

his father tarikshita.

Until very lately

ed out that the place was situated at a distance of

fifty-five miles to the east of the river

the place exactly. Pliny has point-

Witli the help of the

numerous Stupas, Viharas

temples as found out by Cunningham, the situation

of the city has