Failure Mechanisms

Failure of a component indicates it has become completely or partially unusable or has deteriorated to the point that it is undependable or unsafe for normal sustained service. It is possible for fracture to be a result of multiple failure mechanisms or root causes. A failure analysis can provide the information to identify the appropriate root cause of the failure.

Common Causes of Failure Misuse or Abuse Assembly errors Manufacturing defects Improper maintenance Fastener failure Design errors Improper material Improper heat treatments Unforeseen operating conditions Inadequate quality assurance Inadequate environmental protection/control Casting discontinuities

Contents

FAILURE MECHANISMS...............................................................................................1 .................................................................................................................................. FATIGUE FAILURES.............................................................................................................3 !"#$!! #A"I%......................................................................................................................& '#$($)"I)* FA"I*U$ FAI+U#$..........................................................................................., FA"I*U$ FAI+U#$ A)A+-!I!................................................................................................ CORROSION FAILURES .......................................................................................................6 C%##%!I%) FAI+U#$! A)A+-!I!......................................................................................../ UNIFORM CORROSION........................................................................................................8 GALVANIC CORROSION......................................................................................................9 PITTING CORROSION........................................................................................................10 CREVICE CORROSION.......................................................................................................11 MARINE CORROSION........................................................................................................12 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING......................................................................................13 !"#$!! C%##%!I%) C#AC0I)* FAI+U#$!......................................................................... , C%)"#%++I)* !"#$!! C%##%!I%) C#AC0I)*................................................................. , DUCTILE AND BRITTLE METAL CHARACTERISTICS......................................................14 1#I""+$ F#AC"U#$!.......................................................................................................... . ........................................................................................................................................... / DUC"I+$ F#AC"U#$!......................................................................................................... / HYDROGEN EMBRITTLEMENT..........................................................................................16 2-D#%*$) $M1#I""+$M$)" FAI+U#$!............................................................................ / LI UID METAL EMBRITTLEMENT...................................................................................1! +I3UID M$"A+ $M1#I""+$M$)" FAI+U#$!...................................................................... 4 CREEP AND STRESS RUPTURE...........................................................................................18 2I*2 "$M'$#A"U#$ FAI+U#$ A)A+-!I!.......................................................................... 4 C#$$' %F M$"A+!............................................................................................................. 4 !"#$!! #U'"U#$................................................................................................................ 5 "EAR FAILURES...............................................................................................................21

Fatigue Failures
#epeated cycling of the load causes metal fatigue. It is a progressive locali7ed damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains on the material. Metal fatigue crac8s initiate and propagate in regions 9here the strain is most severe. "he process of fatigue consists of three stages: Initial crac8 initiation 'rogressive crac8 gro9th across the part

!chematic of !;) Curve< sho9ing increase in Final sudden fracture of fatigue life 9ith decreasing stresses. the remaining cross section

Stress Ratio
"he most commonly used stress ratio is #< the ratio of the minimum stress to the ma=imum stress >!min/!ma=?. If the stresses are fully reversed< then # @ ; . If the stresses are partially reversed< # @ a negative number less than . If the stress is cycled bet9een a ma=imum stress and no load< # @ 7ero. If the stress is cycled bet9een t9o tensile stresses< # @ a positive number less than .

(ariations in the stress ratios can significantly affect fatigue life. "he presence of a mean stress component has a substantial effect on fatigue failure. Ahen a tensile mean stress is added to the alternating stresses< a component 9ill fail at lo9er alternating stress than it does under a fully reversed stress.

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Preventing Fatigue Failure

"he most effective method of improving fatigue performance is improvements in design: $liminate or reduce stress raisers by streamlining the part Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from punching< stamping< shearing< or other processes 'revent the development of surface discontinuities during processing. #educe or eliminate tensile residual stresses caused by manufacturing. Improve the details of fabrication and fastening procedures

Fatigue Failure Analysis

Metal fatigue is a significant problem because it can occur due to repeated loads belo9 the static yield strength. "his can result in an une=pected and catastrophic failure in use. 1ecause most engineering materials contain discontinuities most metal fatigue crac8s initiate from discontinuities in highly stressed regions of the component. "he failure may be due the discontinuity< design< improper maintenance or other causes. A failure analysis can determine the cause of the failure.

Corrosion Failures
Corrosion is chemically induced damage to a material that results in deterioration of the material and its properties. "his may result in failure of the component. !everal factors should be considered during a failure analysis to determine the affect corrosion played in a failure. $=amples are listed belo9: "ype of corrosion Corrosion rate "he e=tent of the corrosion Interaction bet9een corrosion and other failure mechanisms Corrosion is a normal< natural process. Corrosion can seldom be totally prevented< but it can be minimi7ed or controlled by proper choice of material< design< coatings< and occasionally by changing the environment. (arious types of metallic and nonmetallic coatings are regularly used to protect metal parts from corrosion.

!tress corrosion crac8ing necessitates a tensile stress< 9hich may be caused by residual stresses< and a specific environment to cause progressive fracture of a metal. Aluminum and stainless steel are 9ell 8no9n for stress corrosion crac8ing problems. 2o9ever< all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion crac8ing in the right environment. +aboratory corrosion testing is frequently used in analysis but is difficult to correlate 9ith actual service conditions. (ariations in service conditions are sometimes difficult to duplicate in laboratory testing

Corrosion Failures Analysis

Identification of the metal or metals< environment the metal 9as subBected to< foreign matter and/or surface layer of the metal is beneficial in failure determination. $=amples of some common types of corrosion are listed belo9: Uniform corrosion 'itting corrosion Intergranular corrosion Crevice corrosion *alvanic corrosion !tress corrosion crac8ing )ot all corrosion failures need a comprehensive failure analysis. At times a preliminary e=amination 9ill provide enough information to sho9 a simple analysis is adequate.

Uniform Corrosion
Uniform or general corrosion is typified by the rusting of steel. %ther e=amples of uniform corrosion are the tarnishing of silver or the green patina associated 9ith the corrosion of copper. *eneral corrosion is rather predictable. "he life of components can be estimated based on relatively simple immersion test results. Allo9ance for general corrosion is relatively simple and commonly employed 9hen designing a component for a 8no9n environment. !ome common methods used to prevent or reduce general corrosion are listed belo9:

Coatings Inhibitors Cathodic protection 'roper materials selection

Galvanic Corrosion
*alvanic corrosion is frequently referred to as dissimilar metal corrosion. *alvanic corrosion can occur 9hen t9o dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. An illustration of galvanic corrosion 9ould be Boining t9o dissimilar metals in electrical contact in sea9ater. In a galvanic couple< one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and the other metal becomes the cathode. "he less noble material becomes the anode. "he anodic metal corrodes faster than it 9ould all by itself. "he cathodic metal corrodes slo9er than it 9ould all by itself. Many boaters use this 8no9ledge to their benefit. !acrificial 7inc anodes are commonly used to protect metal components on boats. "he 7inc anode corrodes preferentially there by protecting the boat component. "he 7inc anodes are maintained and replaced as required to insure continued protection. %ther alloys are also used as sacrificial anodes. Aluminum or magnesium sacrificial anodes provide better protection in some cases.

Pitting Corrosion
'itting is a locali7ed form of corrosive attac8. 'itting corrosion is typified by the formation of holes or pits on the metal surface. 'itting can cause failure due to perforation 9hile the total corrosion< as measured by 9eight loss< might be rather minimal. "he rate of penetration may be D to DD times that by general corrosion. 'its may be rather small and difficult to detect. In some cases pits may be mas8ed due to general corrosion. 'itting may ta8e some time to initiate and develop to an easily vie9able si7e.

'itting occurs more readily in a stagnant environment. "he aggressiveness of the corrodent 9ill affect the rate of pitting. !ome methods for reducing the effects of pitting corrosion are listed belo9: #educe the aggressiveness of the environment Use more pitting resistant materials

Improve the design of the system

Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a locali7ed form of corrosive attac8. Crevice corrosion occurs at narro9 openings or spaces bet9een t9o metal surfaces or bet9een metals and nonmetal surfaces. A concentration cell forms 9ith the crevice being depleted of o=ygen. "his differential aeration bet9een the crevice >microenvironment? and the e=ternal surface >bul8 environment? gives the crevice an anodic character. "his can contribute to a highly corrosive condition in the crevice. !ome e=amples of crevices are listed belo9:

Flanges Deposits Aashers #olled tube ends "hreaded Boints %;rings *as8ets +ap Boints !ediment

!ome methods for reducing the effects of crevice corrosion are listed belo9:

$liminate the crevice from the design !elect materials more resistant to crevice corrosion #educe the aggressiveness of the environment

Marine Corrosion
Marine corrosion includes the immersion of components in a sea9ater< equipment and piping that use sea9ater or brac8ish 9ater< and corrosion in marine atmospheres. $=posure of components can be continuous or intermittent. !hips< marinas< pipelines< offshore structures< desalination plants< and heat e=changers are some e=amples of systems that e=perience marine corrosion. Corrosion of a component< such as a bolt< can vary mar8edly depending on if it is simply in a marine atmosphere< a splash 7one< or submerged in sea9ater. Maintenance costs for ships< offshore structures and related equipment are dependent on ho9 marine corrosion issues and failures are managed. In addition to the salt >)aCl? in sea9ater there are other commonly occurring constituents< dissolved gases< living organisms< and various other materials found in sea9ater. #ivers< temperature< dissolved o=ygen< and pollutants are some e=amples of issues that may affect the corrosion of a given component in sea9ater. Marine atmospheres are generally considered to be one of the more aggressive atmospheric corrosion environments. !ome factors that affect corrosion rates in marine atmospheres are listed belo9: 2umidity Aind "emperature Airborne contaminants +ocation 1iological organisms Alloy selection< metallic coatings< organic coatings< and cathodic protection are commonly used methods for providing proper corrosion protection to various components. "hermal spray< galvani7ing< and for specific circumstances electroplating are metallic coatings used in various marine corrosion applications. %rganic coatings have changed in recent times due to environmental requirements. %rganic coatings have various constituents to enhance properties that provide corrosion protection< antifouling< adhesion< good mechanical strength< or other desirable characteristics. Cathodic protection can be accomplished by either using an impressed current system or by using sacrificial anode system. Magnesium< aluminum and 7inc alloys are the most frequently used sacrificial anode systems.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

!tress corrosion crac8ing is a failure mechanism that is caused by environment< susceptible material< and tensile stress. "emperature is a significant environmental factor affecting crac8ing.

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For stress corrosion crac8ing to occur all three conditions must be met simultaneously. "he component needs to be in a particular crac8;promoting environment< the component must be made of a susceptible material< and there must be tensile stresses above some minimum threshold value. An e=ternally applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due to residual stresses in the material. "he threshold stresses are commonly belo9 the yield stress of the material.

Stress Corrosion Cracking Failures

!tress corrosion crac8ing is an insidious type of failure as it can occur 9ithout an e=ternally applied load or at loads significantly belo9 yield stress. "hus< catastrophic failure can occur 9ithout significant deformation or obvious deterioration of the component. 'itting is commonly associated 9ith stress corrosion crac8ing phenomena. Aluminum and stainless steel are 9ell 8no9n for stress corrosion crac8ing problems. 2o9ever< all metals are susceptible to stress corrosion crac8ing in the right environment.

Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking

"here are several methods to prevent stress corrosion crac8ing. %ne common method is proper selection of the appropriate material. A second method is to remove the chemical species that promotes crac8ing. Another method is to change the manufacturing process or design to reduce the tensile stresses.

Ductile and Brittle Metal Characteristics

Ductile metals e=perience observable plastic deformation prior to fracture. 1rittle metals e=perience little or no plastic deformation prior to fracture. At times metals behave in a transitional manner ; partially ductile/brittle. Ductile fracture has dimpled< cup and cone fracture appearance. "he dimples can become elongated by a lateral shearing force< or if the crac8 is in the opening >tearing? mode. ,

1rittle fracture displays either cleavage >transgranular? or intergranular fracture. "his depends upon 9hether the grain boundaries are stronger or 9ea8er than the grains. "he fracture modes >dimples< cleavage< or intergranular fracture? may be seen on the fracture surface and it is possible all three modes 9ill be present of a given fracture face.

!chematics of typical tensile test fractures are displayed above.

Brittle Fractures
1rittle fracture is characteri7ed by rapid crac8 propagation 9ith lo9 energy release and 9ithout significant plastic deformation. "he fracture may have a bright granular appearance. "he fractures are generally of the flat type and chevron patterns may be present.

Ductile Fractures
Ductile fracture is characteri7ed by tearing of metal and significant plastic deformation. "he ductile fracture may have a gray< fibrous appearance. Ductile fractures are associated 9ith overload of the structure or large discontinuities.

Hydrogen Em rittlement
Ahen tensile stresses are applied to a hydrogen embrittled component it may fail prematurely. 2ydrogen embrittlement failures are frequently une=pected and sometimes catastrophic. An e=ternally applied load is not required as the tensile stresses may be due to residual stresses in the material. "he threshold stresses to cause crac8ing are commonly belo9 the yield stress of the material. 2igh strength steel such as quenched and tempered steels or precipitation;hardened steels are particularly susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. 2ydrogen can be introduced into the material in service or during materials processing.

Hydrogen Embrittlement Failures

"ensile stresses< susceptible material< and the presence of hydrogen are necessary to cause hydrogen embrittlement. #esidual stresses or e=ternally applied loads resulting in stresses significantly belo9 yield stresses can cause crac8ing. "hus< catastrophic failure can occur 9ithout significant deformation or obvious deterioration of the component.

(ery small amounts of hydrogen can cause hydrogen embrittlement in high strength steels. Common causes of hydrogen embrittlement are pic8ling< electroplating and 9elding< ho9ever hydrogen embrittlement is not limited to these processes. 2ydrogen embrittlement is an insidious type of failure as it can occur 9ithout an e=ternally applied load or at loads significantly belo9 yield stress. Ahile high strength steels are the most common case of hydrogen embrittlement all materials are susceptible.

!i"uid Metal Em rittlement

+iquid metal embrittlement is the decrease in ductility of a metal caused by contact 9ith liquid metal. "he decrease in ductility can result in catastrophic brittle failure of a normally ductile material. (ery small amounts of liquid metal are sufficient to result in embrittlement. !ome events that may permit liquid metal embrittlement under the appropriate circumstances are listed belo9: 1ra7ing !oldering Aelding 2eat treatment 2ot 9or8ing $levated temperature service In addition to an event that 9ill allo9 liquid metal embrittlement to occur< it is also required to have the component in contact 9ith a liquid metal that 9ill embrittle the component.

Liquid

etal Embrittlement Failures

"he liquid metal can not only reduce the ductility but also significantly reduce tensile strength. +iquid metal embrittlement is an insidious type of failure as it can occur at loads belo9 yield stress. "hus< catastrophic failure can occur 9ithout significant deformation or obvious deterioration of the component. Intergranular or transgranular cleavage fractures are the common fracture modes associated 9ith liquid metal embrittlement. 2o9ever reduction in mechanical properties due to decohesion can occur. "his results in a ductile fracture mode occurring at reduced tensile strength. An appropriate analysis can determine the effect of liquid metal embrittlement on failure.

Cree# and stress ru#ture

Hig! "em#erature Failure Analysis
Creep occurs under load at high temperature. 1oilers< gas turbine engines< and ovens are some of the systems that have components that e=perience creep. An understanding of high temperature materials behavior is beneficial in evaluating failures in these types of systems. Failures involving creep are usually easy to identify due to the deformation that occurs. Failures may appear ductile or brittle. Crac8ing may be either transgranular or intergranular. Ahile creep testing is done at constant temperature and constant load actual components may e=perience damage at various temperatures and loading conditions.

Cree# o$

etals

2igh temperature progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. 2igh temperature is a relative term that is dependent on the materials being evaluated. A typical creep curve is sho9n belo9:

In a creep test a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at a constant temperature. !train is then measured over a period of time. "he slope of the curve< identified in the above figure< is the strain rate of the test during stage II or the creep rate of the material. 'rimary creep< !tage I< is a period of decreasing creep rate. 'rimary creep is a period of primarily transient creep. During this period deformation ta8es place and the resistance to creep increases until stage II. !econdary creep< !tage II< is a period of roughly constant creep rate. !tage II is referred to as steady state creep. "ertiary creep< !tage III< occurs 9hen there is a reduction in cross sectional area due to nec8ing or effective reduction in area due to internal void formation.

Stress Ru#ture
!tress rupture testing is similar to creep testing e=cept that the stresses used are higher than in a creep test. !tress rupture testing is al9ays done until failure of the material. In creep testing the main goal is to determine the minimum creep rate in stage II. %nce a designer 8no9s the materials 9ill creep and has accounted for this deformation a primary goal is to avoid failure of the component.

!tress rupture tests are used to determine the time to cause failure. Data is plotted log;log as in the chart above. A straight line is usually obtained at each temperature. "his information can then be used to e=trapolate time to failure for longer times. Changes in slope of the stress rupture line are due to structural changes in the material. It is

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significant to be a9are of these changes in material behavior< because they could result in large errors 9hen e=trapolating the data.

$ear Failures
Aear may be defined as damage to a solid surface caused by the removal or displacement of material by the mechanical action of a contacting solid< liquid< or gas. It may cause significant surface damage and the damage is usually thought of as gradual deterioration. Ahile the terminology of 9ear is unresolved< the follo9ing categories are commonly used.

Adhesive 9ear Abrasive 9ear $rosive 9ear

Adhesive 9ear has been commonly identified by the terms galling< or sei7ing. Abrasive 9ear< or abrasion< is caused by the displacement of material from a solid surface due to hard particles or protuberances sliding along the surface. $rosion< or erosive 9ear< is the loss of material from a solid surface due to relative motion in contact 9ith a fluid that contains solid particles. More than one mechanism can be responsible for the 9ear observed on a particular part.

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