10

IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 3 , No. 1 , February 1988

ANALXTICAL TUOIS FOR POWEX SYSl'EW RESI'ORATION -CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

Felix F. W u and A. Monticelli Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences and Electronics Research Laboratory University of California, Berkeley Berkeley, CA 94720

Abstract A conceptual framework for computer-aided monitoring and assessment during system restoration using analytical tools is proposed. The basic structure is similar to the one for security monitoring and assessment. State estimation and the related functions, such a s observability analysis, bad data identification. external network modeling, that are used in security analysis, can be modified for application to system restoration monitoring. The work in this area is reported. For restoration assessment, in addition to load flows and optimal power flows that are used in security assessment, a host of andysis/optiization programs is required. These analytical tools are identified and categorized. To synthesize possible control sequences and to select and coordinate analysis procedures for assessing restoration plans is a very complex task. A knowledge-based expert system architecture for this task is suggested. The conceptual design of the knowledge-based system and its interface with the analytical tools are presented.

and customer outages. It is therefore imperative to develop strategies to handle service interruption by minimizing its impact and to restore service to customers. Most utilities have system restoration plans [ Z ] . For example, one company has developed system restoration guidelines based on operator-analyst discussions and simulations [3,4]. Their proposed strategy calls for: sectionalization of power system into islands restoration of each island synchronization of islands idea behind their proposed strategy is that simultane-

ous restoration will resblt <n speedy restoration.

In contrast to the rapid advancement in the area of security analysis and control, very little work has been done in providing analytical tools to assist operators during the restoration process. In Japan, an interactive restoration control system has been proposed [5] and an expert system approach has been suggested for restoring a section of a feeder [6]. In a recent survey report on current operational it is found that most responproblems in power system [7], dents consider the present approach t o system restoration is unreliable, work is needed in problem analysis for system restoration and the new approach should have monitoring/assessment capability. W e believe that computer-aided analysis for restorative control can be of great assistance t o the operator, the same way as security analysis has demonstrated in normal operation. In this paper, we present a conceptual lramework for performing monitoring/assessment functions during system restoration identify analytical tools in system security monitoring that, after necessary modifications, can be transported for use in system restoration monitoring survey the analytical tools that can be used for system restoration assessment identify their effective areas of application propose a knowledge based expert system for coordinating the analytical tools for restoration assessment Some of the ideas of this paper was outlined in [E] and benefited from [ 9 ] .

I. INTRODUCI'ION
Power systems are operated under two sets of con1 . The straints; load constraints and operating constraints [ 1 load constraints impose the requircmcnt that thc cl;stomcr load demand be met, whereas t h e operating constraints require that the system variables such as line flows. voltages be within acceptable limits. The system is said to be in a normal state if both the load constraints and the operating constraints are satisfied. The systkm is said to be in an emergency state if there is a violation of the operating constraints. The system is said t o be in a restorative state if some load has been lost, i.e., there is service interruption. (See Fig. 1). Since disturbances or contingencies such as lightning strikes on transmission lines and generator failure occur frequently, power systems have been planned and operated so that it has the ability t o withstand most contingencies. This is called system s e c u r i t y . In the last twenty years, great progress has been made in developing analytical tools for security analysis. Sophisticated network analysis software is now installed in modern real-time computer controlled energy management systems (EMS) to perform security monitoring and assessment (Fig.2). These analytical tools contribute t o the improvement of system security. Even for systems designed t o be highly secure, unpredictables do happen and cause service interruptions
86 WM 105-1 A paper recommended and approved by t h e I E E E Power System Engineering Committee o f t h e I E E E Power Engineering Society f o r p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e IEEE/PES 1986 Winter Meeting, New York, New York, February 2 - 7 , 1986. Manuscript submitted August 3 0 , 1985; made a v a i l a b l e f o r p r i n t i n g November 1 2 , 1985.

II. A CONCEPTUAL FXAMEWORK FOR SYSl'EM REsMlRATION

The problem o f restoration after service interruption is a complex decision and control problem for the system operator[lO]. The problem may be viewed conceptually a s a multi-objective, multi-stage, combinatorial, nonlinear constrained optimization problem. The objective of restorative control is t h e speedy restoration of all customer service,

0885-8950/88/0200-0010$01.00@ 1988 IEEE

11

FILTER ING]

Transition as a result of a contingency Transition due t o a control action Figure 1. Operating states of a power system.

RES TORA T I VE STATE

E VALUAT ION

which involves the minimization of restoration time and the maximization of customer load restoration at each stage. The constraints on the system involved in the restorative control include:

FLOW.

SECURE S TATE

INSECURE STATE

(1) power flow constraints

(power balance between generation and load, line flows and voltage limits) (2) stability constraints (transient and dynamic stability of sy'stem response, frequency and synchronization considerations) enerator r e s t a r t constraints r e s t a r t or hot restart) (4) generator load pick-up capability constraints

Figure 2: Functional blocks of monitoring and assesment.

I I I . MODEIJNG
Current capability of EMS is confined t o the use of steady-state analysis of power systems using load flows. Recognizing this practical limitation, we propose to formulate the constraints in system restoration as a multi-stage load flow problem. The network configuration and the power flow constraints are represented directly in the load flow model. The stability constraints and the constraints on generator re-start, load pick-up, etc., are transcribed into load flow constraints. The load flow is the workhorse of the monitoring/assessment functions during restoration. The

(5) transmission and tie line switching sequence constraints

The control variables in the restoration problem are the generation schedule of the generators and switching
sequences. The decision-maker during restoration is the system operator. The operator's decisions during restoration are based on his knowledge of the (a) current state of the system (b) availability of viable alternatives (c) consequences of each alternative
I

SYSTEM OPERATOR

1
I

ENERGY MANAGEMENT
I

Computer/communication systems of an energy management system, together with analysis software can assist the operator greatly in the monitoring and assessment functions. Energy management systems have been effective in assisting system operators during normal operation for cost minimization and security enhancement. Additional analytical capability added to the EMS can certainly assist system operators during restoration. Our proposed conceptual framework for system restoration is centered around an EMS control computer and is shown in Fig. 3. The EMS serves as the interface between the system operator and the power system. The monitoring and assessment functions are divided into three tasks: modeling, analysis/optimization, and synthesis. Here we use the t e r m modding in a more general sense than monitoring. By modeling, we mean the process of assembling from on-line data acquisition and off-line information necessary data regarding the present and future system for use in analysis and assessment. The assessment function is splitted into unalysis/optimization and synthesis. The details of these tasks are described below.

- 1

I I

I
I

I I
I
I

Figure 3: Conceptual framework for system restoration analysis.

12
measurement), t h e state estimation equation can be solved with a unique solution. This solution should have all angles the same, so the line flows a r e all zero. When the network is not observable, the fact t h a t all measurements are equal to zero only forces some angles t o be the same. The result will be several groups of nodes having the same phase angles. Each group of identical phase angle is an observable island. Wicient al orithms have been developed based on these ideas [11-1$.

flLTERING OBSERVABILITY ANALYSIS

BPD O P T A RlOCESSNC

SATE ESTWTW

NETWORK
TOPOLOGY

3.2 State Estimation State estimation processes a set of real-time rneasurements t o give the best estimate of the current state of the system. During restoration, the state estimation is required t o handle
multiple electrical islands multiple observability islands Most state estimation programs can handle multiple electrical islands but not multiple observability islands. The introduction of pseudo-measurements t o make unobservable part observable has been suggested, but it may degradate the quality of state estimation results. We have developed a scheme that is capable of performing state estimation for a system with multiple observable islands [ll-121. The process starts from identifying observable islands. The lines flows on the branches crossing two different observable islands will not be observable from the measurements, hence they are unobservable branches. Those injection measurements into the buses that have unobservable branches connected t o them a r e irrelevant in the sense that they are not contributing to the state estimation of the observable part of the network. Once the irrelevant injection measurements a r e removed and a reference angle is introduced into each observable island, the state estimation l l observable program can return the estimated state of a islands.

LMT CHECKING

SYNTHESIS

EXTERNAL NETWORK MOOELING

t
ANALYSIS/ OPTIMIZATION

I 1
ON-LINE

Figure 4: Functional blocks of restoration monitoring and control.

modeling task concerns with the establishment of the load flow model for monitoring/assessment. Real-time data are obtained through RTUs, SCADA, and communication facilities typically used in EMS. Because there are two networks in the system, one is the electric network and t h e other is the information (communication) network, we shall carefully distinguish the concepts of electrical islands and observability islands. During restoration, the system may be splitted into several islands that are electrically unconnected. Depending on the availability of measurements, state estimation can be performed only for a part of the system. This part may contain several islands that a r e topologically unconnected. The former are called electrical islands and the latter observability islands. For a given system the breakup into electrical islands may not coincident with its observability islands. The monitoring function during restoration follows closely the same components in the security analysis (Fig. 2) except that the detail requirements are different, as noted below (See Fig.4).

3.3 External Network

3.1 Observability
W e say a network is observable if there a r e sufficient measurements t o make state estimation possible. Communication facilities used during restoration, such as telephone circuits, may be susceptible t o overloading during an electrical outage. If the outage is widespread, resulting from natural causes such as severe storms, then certain communication links may b e lost to service. Therefore loss of observability is not to be unexpected during restoration. The observability analysis should be able to test observability of the system and in the event it is not observable, to identify a l 2 observable islands in t h e system. This is because during restoration it is important t o monitor every part that is monitorable. Any observability program that e have identifies only t h e largest island is inadequate. W developed a numerical approach t o observability analysis that is capable of simultaneously identifying all observable islands [ll-131. The basic ideas of the multi-island observability analysis method a r e the following. A network is observable if and only if all measurements are zero implies all Line flows are zero. Consider first the case that a network is observable. When all the measurements are set t o zero, no matter what reference angle is assigned to the slack bus (.lp pseudo

The control center receives telemetered data of realtime measurements. The monitored p a r t of the power system that these measurements cover normally consists of ones own system and is usually called the internal s y s t e m . The rest of the interconnection is called the e z t e r n d syst e m . Since the division into internal and external systems a r e for the purpose of state estimation, a better way of defining internal and external systems is via the stateestimation process. The internal system in this context is actually the observable part of the system with respect to the state estimator in ones energy control center. During the restoration process, due t o loss and recovery of communication links, the boundary of internal and external systems is constantly changing. Therefore we need an external network model that
(a) is flexible t o changing boundary between internal and external systems (b) does not corrupt the internal system state estimation W e have developed a method that performs internal state estimation and external network modeling simultaneously [ 1 4 ] . It uses one state estimation covering both internal and external systems. The set of pseudo-measurements in the external system is so selected that it makes the external system barely observable. This way the two requirements mentioned above a r e all satisfied. 3.4 Variable Limit Update Strictly speaking, system dynamic models a r e required for analyzing stability and synchronization. With current knowledge and computational capabilities, it is rather impossible t o include explicitly the dynamic models for real-time system restorative assessment. In real-time security analysis and control, certain transmission limes loading

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T a b l e 1. Subproblems in system r e s t o r a t i o n

Problem

Number of Islands

Number of Stages

Control Variables

Load Flow Model

Mathematical Problem Formulation simultaneous linear or nonlinear equations linear o r nonlinear

pr ogr a m m i nq

Applications

Relevant References

!. Basic l o a d flow

single

single

continuous (gen/load dispatch) continuous (gen/load dispatch)

linear or nonlinear

t e s t i n g scena r i o s compiled by s y n t h e s i s i. max. l o a d restored w i t h i n an island

ii. system

interactive load flow

2. G e n e r a t i o n / load scheduling

single

single

l i n e a r or nonlinear

o p t i m a l power flow

voltage m i n t enance

3. G e n e r a t i o n /
load scheduling with l i n e switching

single

single

continuous linear (gen/ l o a d dispatch) discrete (line switching) continuous linear

mixed integer programming

network configuration selection

line switching

4. M u l t i - s t a g e
v e r s i o n of 2 5. Multi-stage v e r s i o n of 3

single

multiple

dynamic programing dynamic programming

l o a d pick-up capability sequent i a l restoration within an island

multi-stage generation scheduling none

single

multiple

continuous + discrete

linear

6. M u l t i p l e i s l a n d
v e r s i o n s of 4.5

multiple

multiple

continuous + discrete

linear

dynamic programming

1. d e f i n i n g islands in s e c t i o n a l i z a t i o n none ii.connecting i s l a n d s during restoration

7 . Nonlinear v e r s i o n s of

s i n g l e or multiple

s i n g l e or multiple

continuous + discrete

nonlinear

dynamic programming

3 , 4,5, d 6

comprehensive restoration control

none

limits are established based on off-line stability simulations. Similarly for system restoration, the stability constraints and the constraints on generator re-start, load pick-up, etc. are transcribed into limits on l i e flows and voltages. These limits a r e generally functions of the current network topology, generator and load pattern. Therefore during restoration these limits need t o be updated from time to time. A viable approach t o variable limit update is perhaps through table look-up established based on off-line studies.

Each subproblem can be used naturally as a building block for a more general subproblem (e.g., single-stage for multi-stage) or, when used in a standalone mode. is applied to solve one or more particular aspects of the system restoration problem. W e have identified the step-by-step build-up of these subproblems in Table 1. Table 1 also shows the characteristics, t h e applications areas, and the mathematical formulation of these subproblems.
4.1 Load Flow

N ANALYSEVOPTIJQZATION
There are many facets to system restoration. The problem has all the characteristics, and more, of a complex decision and control problem: multi-objective, multi-stage, large-scale, combinatorial. nonlinear. etc. The overall problem defles an analytical solution. However solution techniques are available for some subproblems. Here we categorize t h e subproblems according to their number of stages applicable (single or multiple) number of islands applicable (single or multiple) control variables (generation rescheduling, load control, h e switching) linearized (dc) or nonlinear (ac) load flow

The load flow program is the workhorse in the stable of analysis/optimization programs. It is used for checking feasibility of the intermediate steps in a restoration plan and also served as building blocks for other programs. Approximate models t o the nonlinear ac load flow may be used advantageously for restoration analysis because when the case is not feasible the ac load flow will fail to converge without giving the source of the nonconvergence, whereas the approximate models do. The most well-known approximations to the load flow a r e the dc load flow and the transportation model in which only the Kirchhoff current laws are considered. The solutions t o t h e approximate load flow models can indicate the source of infeasibility. There is a family of approximate models lying between the dc load flow and the transportation model. The dc load flow is equivalent t o the optimization problem of minimizing a quadratic function subject to the transportation model constraint [ZO]. Approximating the quadratic cost by piecewise h e a r functions gives an approximation t o the dc load flow ~171.

14
During restoration the network is frequently splitted into islands. For some studies, the load flow model cannot be applied directly. For example consider the case where one wants t o determine the optimal strategy of connecting two islands so that the load in one island can be picked up by increasing the generation in the other island. Transportation model or dc load flow model can be used in this situation by connecting the islands with very high reactance fictitious branches. The resulting sensitivity factors provide the indication of the effectiveness of various connections.
4.2 Other Analysis Programs

The optimal power flow has been used in security analysis for generation/load scheduling. I t is also applicable for system restoration analysis. In Europe, the use of lie switching as an additional means for security control e believe t h a t t h e problem can be was proposed [15-181. W more appropriately formulated for system restoration. An LP approach for multi-stage generation scheduling was proposed [19], which is very relevant in restoration analysis. Possible extensions of these methods for restoration analysis/optimization a r e listed in Table 1.

v SYNTHESIS During restoration, the operator makes a sequence of decisions concerning

(1) switching sequence
(2)

of thumb, and other knowledge about a given field, coupled with methods of applying those rules, t o make inferences [21-221. There are three key components in the construction of a n expert system: knowledge base, an inference engine, and a user interface. The knowledge base is the repository of specific knowledge about t h e problem, usually acquired from an "expert", hence the name "expert system". However this does not have to be so. In fact in the present case, there is no human expert who has the experience serving a s an interface between t h e analysis software and the operator. The knowledge base here is more likely acquired through analysis, heuristics and the understanding of the problem. A knowledge-based system similar t o the one for computer-aided control engineering [23] is suggested (Fig. 5). Central to this knowledge-based system is a "list of facts" or a "blackboard." The information in the blackboard may be organized into three categories: objectives, constraints, and status. There a r e several rule bases in the system. The rules in RB1 suggest appropriate sequences of actions for assessment. The rules in RBZ define an analytical problem and select software in the library for analysis. The rules in RB3 deal with validation of the assessment results through load flow simulations. For example, from RB1, it is suggested that at the present stage to energize a portion of the network. The knowledge-based system writes the following information on the blackboard

m j e c tiwe
t o energize the network connecting buses a, b. c. and d. load pick-up sequence

(3) generation/load schedule

Cbmtraints The
subproblems together with solution techniques identified in Sec. IV form a library of analysis software. In order to make this collection of analysis software useful for the operator, an interface between the analysis software and the operator is needed t h a t can (a) synthesize appropriate sequences of actions for assessment (b) select proper subproblems (c) organize and control the analysis procedure Such a task can best be accomplished by the employment of a knowledge-based s y s t e m . The knowledge-based, or expert system, is a software consisting of a collection of facts, rules

x,

switching sequence AEKD generator ramp constraints on Y,2.

. .
Status
empty The problem is then translated into mathematical form using rules in RB2 and appropriate analysis software is selected. This step is recorded on the blackboard

<
PROGRAM PROGRAM U S

mjective
t o energize the network connecting buses a, b, c, and d.

R B 2 OPERATOR + . )

w
RBI

BLACKBOARD
OBJECTIVE CONSTRAINTS

Cbnstraints

x,

switching sequence ABCD generator ramp constraints on Y, 2.

STAiUs

t +

RB3-

t
status
use the optimal switching pro-

g r a m to determine the switchFigure 5 Knowledge-based system architeture for system restoration synthesis.
ing sequence and simulate the step by step results using load flow.

15 Suppose that in the load flow simulation of the switching sequence suggested by the optimal switching program, it is found by RB3 that a ramp constraint of the generator is violated. This information is then used' t o redefine the analytical problem. During the analysis/synthesis process, the current status is always recorded on the blackboard to facilitate the application of the rule bases. A n important aspect of the knowledge-based system is its ability to explain the reasoning or inference process. Therefore when the analysis/optimization of a possible control sequence is complete, the knowledge-based system will send the assessment report t o the operator. In the proposed knowledge-based system architecture of Fig. 4, there are two types of programs. The analysis programs perform mainly numerical computations and are coded in an imperative language such as FORTRAN. The decision-oriented programs perform symbolic computations and a r e coded in a declarative language such as PROLOG. I t is reported [24] that research is currently underway in computer science for high performance architectures that support a mixture of numerical and symbolic computations. Our proposed system will profit from any such advance.

IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and S y s t e m s , vol. PKS101, NOV.1982, pp. 4263-4271. Bouchey and hLh4. Adibi, [3] R.J. Kafka, D.R. Penders, S.H. "System Restoration Plan Development for a Metropolit a n Electric System," IEEE Ram. Power Apparatus and S y s t e m s , vol. PAS-100, Aug. 1981, pp. 3703-3713. Bouchey and hLM. Adibi, [4] R.J. Kafka, D.R. Penders, S.H. "Role of Interactive and Control Computers in the Development of a System Restoration Plan", IEEE Pans. Power Apparatus and S y s t e m s , vol. PAS-101, Jan. 1982, pp. 43-52. [5] H. Kodama. H. Suzuki, I. Atsumi and K. Ishizuka, " Interactive Restoration Control of Electric Power Systems," CIGRE-IFAC S y m p . Control Applications for Power S y s t e m Security, Florence, Sept. 1993. Paper 514-04. [6] T. Sakaguchi and K. Matsumoto, "Development of a Knowledge-based System for Power System Restorat ~ ~S y s t e m s , tion," IEEE Trans. o n Power A p p a ~ a and vol. PAS-102, Feb. 1983. pp. 320-329.

VI CONCLUSION
Recent research progress in the development of analytical tools for system security monitoring/assessment has been remarkable. As systems operating closer to their limits and the threat of blackouts increases, system restoration becomes more important and the need for analytical tools assisting the operator for monitoring/assessment during restoration increases. In this paper we propose a conceptual framework for computer-aided monitoring and assessment during system restoration. The basic structure is rather similar to the one for security monitoring and assessment. State estimation and the related functions, including observability analysis, bad data identification, external network modeling, have been used in security monitoring. They can be modified for application to system monitoring during restoration. For security assessment, t h e analytical tools used are simply the load flow al3d the optimal power flow. For system restoration, a host of analysis/optimization programs is required. They are identified and categorized in this paper. The problem of synthesis of possible control sequences and the selection and coordination of analysis procedures for assessing restoration plans is much more complex. A knowledge-based system is suggested to handle this task. To summarize, the same functional diagram for security monitoring/assessment (Fig. 2) can be used for monitoring/assessment during restoration by replacing two blocks. The contingency evaluation block is replaced by a library of analysis/optimization programs and the contingency selection block is replaced by a knowledge-based system (Fig. 4). Of the components in the proposed framework, the synthesis using the knowledge-based system is the one requires basic research. Currently we a r e actively working on this problem. W e envisage that the integration of the analytical tools for system restoration into system operation can take place in three levels: (a) off-line planning studies (b) operator training simulator (c) real-time operathg environment

[7] R.P. Schulte et.al., (Systems Operations Subcommittee.

Current Operational Problems Working Group Report), "Survey Report on Current Operational Problems," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and S y s t e m , vol PAS104, June 1985, pp. 1315-1320.

F.F. Wu, Letter to M.V.F. Pereira, Electric Power Research Institute, April 18, 1984.

M.V.F. Pereira, oral communication. G.L. Blankenship and T A Trygar, "A Discussion of the Restorative State Control Problems in Electric Power Systems," R o c . o f EPRI/SIAM Conference o n Electrical Power Problems: the Mathematical W d l e n g e . Seattle, March, 1980. A. MonticelLi. and F.F. Wu, "Network Observability: Theory." IEEE Trans Power App. and S y s t e m s , vol.
PAS-104. pp. 1042-1048. May 1965.

A. Monticelli and F.F. Wu. "Network Observabilitv:

~ ~~~~~

1dcnt.iAcntion of 0tJscc.rvatJlc Islands a n d \l(~:~sut-errieriI ' Trans Pousr Am, a n d .>?~.stc?rn~, vol. PAS-10.1, I>[>. 10:30-1041, !ddy 195'). 1131 A. Monlicclli aiid l'.b'. \ T u , "Observ&ility Annly.<is f o r Orthogorial 'I'riirisforrnation Basad S t d t c Fktimoti preserited at 1985 PICA Conference, to appear i r i I P a n s Power Appornttls and Sysfwxs 1141 A. Mor~ticc!li, arid I~'.l~'.\SI], "A Mcthod Ttiiil Comt>int:r Internal State Estimnt.ion and Cxterrial Setv:ork hlodcling," IEEE Trans Power ilpp. and S y s t z m s . vol. PAS-101, pp. 91-103, Jan. 1985. [I51 J.J. Koglin, arid 11. Vullcr, "Correctivr Switching: A SCW Dinierisiori in Optinial Lodti I,low,' f..Znr.tn.c:aL Pouar aT.d Energy S'&3tn??Ls. Vol. 4, Apr. 1982, pp. 142-149.

[I61 H. Kronig and I!. Glawtsch, "A Sys:triidtic ;\pproach to Corrective Switching i r i Power Yet.works, f'/L'f<F-i/7.4C S y m p Control Applications for Pownr Yystqm Sc::;u~;'ty, Paper 206-02. F'lorcrice, Sept. 193'3.

V I 1 REmXJn ' CE [ 11 T.E. DyLiacco, "System Security: " h e Computer's Role,'

IEEE S p e c t m m , vol. 15, June 1978, pp. 43-50.

[ 171 C . A . ltossicr
izatiori

arid A . Gcrrriorid, "Network Topology Oprim-

for Power Syst cm Security l:nhsnccrrierit," CIGRK-lFAC S 7 p p . Control Appl for Pouer S y s t e m S e c u r i t y , Paper 206-01, I,'lorence, Sept. 19U3.

[a]

W.k Johnson et.al., (Systems Operations Subcommittee Report), "System Restoration - Deploying the Plan,'

[ 181 A.A. Mazi, B.F. Wollenberg, and M . l i . Eesse, "Corrective

Control of Power System Flows by Line and Bus-bar

16 Switching," presented at 1985 PICA Conference, to appear in IEEE Pans. Power Apparatus and Systems. [19] B. Krogh, S.H. David and J.H. Chow, "Multi-State Rescheduling of Generation, Load Sheddim, and ShortTerm Transmission Capacity for Emergency State Control," IEEE Ram. Power Apparatus and S y s t e m s , vol. PAS-102, May 1983. pp. 1466-1472. techniques of heuristic search may be applied to such problems. If the authors intend to use such techniques, would they be included in a knowledge base or coded as imperative routines? 4) A fundamental problem in madmachine systems is the division of labor between the operator and the computer. Do the authors foresee the operator making decisions based on the computer's assessment report or on a more interactive mode where the operator proposes control sequences and has some control over the search procedures? Manuscript received February 21, 1986.

A. Monticelli et.al., "Interactive Transmission Network Plannine Usine A Least-effort Criterion." IEEE R a m . fivler &para;us and S y s t e m s , vol. 101,'#IO, pp. 39193925, Oct. 1982.

G. Morin and H. Horisberger (Hydro-Qudbec, Montrdal, PQ, Canada):

The authors have presented a very interesting conceptual framework for computer-aidedpower system restoration. It should stimulate the development of new analytical tools and their integration with existing security monitoring functions for future energy management systems. For the time being, most utilities have to rely on system restoration guidelines based on operator experience and extensive off-line studies. HydroQudbec has developed a restoration plan [I] which is similar to the one cited in reference [3] of the paper and is based on a three-step strategy (sectionalizing into island, restoration of islands, synchronization of islands). The objective of the approach is not only to speed up the restoration process but to carefully avoid the risk of equipment damage due to temporary and steady-state overvoltages. These may occur on weak EHV systems with long transmission lines between production and load centers, causing large amounts of reactive power to be generated and possibly leading to low-frequency resonance excited by transformer magnetizing inrush currents. Different restoration plans were validated on our transient network analyzer. For digital simulations, a three-phase harmonic impedance analysis program had to be developed and used together with a conventional loadflow. In the near future we plan to adapt these off-line analysis programs and to integrate them with security monitoring functions of our energy management system. Our objective is a relatively simple interactive tool to monitor and predict potentially dangerous system states or switching operations during system restoration. Manuscript received February 24, 1986

F. Hayes-Roth, D.A. Waterman and D.B. Lenat, Building Expert S y s t e m s , Adaison-Wesley, 1983.
[22] A. Bsrr and E A Feigenbaum. The Handbook o f Artificid Intelligence, vol. 2 , William Kaufrnann, 1981.

[23] J.H. Taylor and D.K. Frederick, "An Expert System Architecture for Computer-Aided Control Engineering," Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 72, No. 12, Dec. 1984, pp. 1785-1805. [24] C.Y. Cuadrado, and J.L. Cuadrado, "Prolog Goes to Work," B y t e , Aug. 1985, pp. 151-245.

Discussion R. B. 1. Johnson and B. J. Cory (Imperial College, London, UK): The

authors are to be commended on their conceptual design of a knowledgebased system for power system restoration. We are also investigating the use of knowledge-based systems but for the operational planning and real-time operation of power systems. Most expert systems to date have been applied to areas where little causal knowledge exists but in the case of power systems a large number of mathematical models and analytical algorithms are available. The application of knowledge-based techniques to power systems must incorporate these models and we are encouraged to see that the authors have taken an approach broadly similar to ours. While we agree that knowledge may be acquired from an analysis of the problem we feel that the operator's knowledge about the system's behavior should also be included. Some objectives which can justify the implementation of an expert system and for which research into expert systems applications in the power system field should seek, are i) ii) iii) iv) more complete solutions; a speed-up in computation; efficient solutions to search problems; explanation of how solutions are obtained.

Reference [ l ] G. Morin, "Service Restoration Following a Major Failure on the Hydro-Qudbec Power System," IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New York, February 2-7, 1986. Paper no. 86 WM 183-8.

F. F. Wu and A. Monticelli: We thank the discussers for their valuable

comments. We agree with Drs. Johnson and Cory that the operator's knowledge should be included in the rule base. This could be in the form of the selection of appropriate subproblems for analysis, switching sequence, etc. Table 1 presented the results of our preliminary study. A much larger family of algorithms and procedures may be included in restoration control. It seems an excellent idea to develop means to assess the reliability of approximate models and the knowledge be included in the rule-based system. The determination of switching sequence definitely is an area where we see the operator's knowledge can be incorporated directly as part of the knowledge base to reduce the need for a large search. Finally, we believe the development of more interactive software is definitely the right direction to be heading. We appreciate Messrs. Morin and Horisberger for sharing their experience with us. Manuscript received September 3, 1987.

While recognizing the conceptual nature of the paper, we wish to pose the following questions which relate to these objectives. 1) Table 1 of the paper identifies seven algorithms of increasing complexity up to comprehensive restoration control. Would subproblems be selected from these seven algorithms or would a much larger family of algorithms be defined based on model reduction, network equivalencing, aggregation, etc.? 2) Would rates be included in the knowledge base which assess the reliability of approximate models? This could reduce the need for validation through the load flow simulations. 3) The determination of switching sequences is a combinatorial problem for which exhaustive searches must be made. Artificial intelligence