Matseshe /Maringa/Africa Habitat Review 2 (2008)

The Influence Of The Built Environment On Human Behaviour: Rehabilitation of Deviants in Correctional Facilities in Kenya.
* Matseshe Naicca and Mwangi Maringa Received on 18 Abstract
th

January 2007; received in a revised form 2008; accepted______2008

Current behaviour research has upgraded behaviour beyond the simplistic stimulusand-reaction relationship. Responsive behaviour is therefore complex. Kenyan correctional facilities are challenged. The study used a combination of environmental behaviour, survey, and case study research design, to probe inmates and the physical facilities of correctional centres. Positive significant association between a poor built environment and anomie was established in this study. A distinct positive and highly significant association was established between the built environment and human behaviour, specifically deviance. The study revealed that, there were high levels of stress (that could trigger deviance) associated with the general prison atmosphere. The public needs to embrace a new type of closed institution, whether known as Community Correctional Centre, Correctional Resource Centre, Regional Correctional Centre, and Halfway centre or by any other benign name.
Keywords: Deviance, environment, behaviour, anomie, correctional centre, cognition,

perception, crowding, alienation, personal space.

1. Introduction Recent inquiry by designers and behavioural scientists has prioritised attention on the relationships between urban settings as manifested in their defining social and physical environments, and human behaviour (Sommer 1969, Knox 1998). It is commonly held that these relationships are reciprocal (Knox 1998). To this extent then, an urban area acquires its character from the values and life styles of its occupants, while reciprocally providing a context whose personality selectively promotes particular human conduct (ley 1983). Research in these regards has sought to relate the character of urban settings with behaviour, most especially of a deviant form (Knox 1998, Maringa 2005). The study of environment and behaviour represents the most ambitious attempt, conceptually and empirically, to link up two halves of dichotomous man. In this regard the, man who creates environment on the one hand, and man who responds to environments on the other (Lang 1987). The basic

tenets of the theories of behaviour and environment arise out of a preoccupation with environmental determinism (Knox 1998). They generally aver that deviant behaviour is a pathological response to a particular social and physical environment, and that certain physical and social attributes act as environmental cues for certain kinds of behaviour. Particular environments therefore simply attract certain kinds of people (Knox 1998, Maringa 2005). Recent critical developments of environmental determinism have progressively congealed into a rather discredited possibilism, and then the more plausible cultural ecology (Steward 1955; Knox 1998), that acceptably tones down the deterministic nature of this theory. Society then both influences its social and physical environment, while also receiving stimulus from these surroundings, in a process of cultural or behaviour adaptation, as explained by the theories of environmental determinism and its modified variant, cultural ecology (Steward 1955, Knox

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1998, Maringa 2005). As such, behaviour cannot be studied or shaped conclusively, away from the environments in which it occurs. 2. The Problem Present behaviour research sees behaviour as more than a naive stimulus-and-reaction relationship. It recognises the intrinsic interface in this relationship of cognition, reflection, and consciousness. In these respects, behaviour is explained as responses to stimuli that are selectively received from the social and physical environment, which has been cognitively processed into information (Werlen 1993). Responsive behaviour is intricate and it needs incisive study or inquiry for it to be properly quantified and understood. There is considerable evidence that various attitudinal and behavioural indexes of anger, hostility, and aggression vary substantially over different settings, even for the same individuals. It has been observed that consistent individual differences accounted for between 15% and 20% of the variance in hostility, whereas differences of settings in a physical environment accounted for between 4% and 8%. Various interactions on the other hand, represented by a people postures accounted for approximately 30% of the variance (Endler and Hunt 1968). Responsive behaviour is once more underscored as a synthesised or hybridised product and the environment as a complex of society and the physical setting. There has been substantial attention directed towards the negative effects of architecture and urban design on peoples behaviour. Design and the resulting configuration of buildings and spaces generate microenvironments that inhibit normal patterns of social interaction while conversely encouraging deviant behaviour of various kinds (Knox 1998). The configuration of buildings and spaces creates a syntax of images and symbolisms to which people respond to through a synthesis of gut

reactions and intellectual responses (Smith 1977). Environments that are dominated by unfamiliar or illogical visual language are therefore likely to appear threatening or confusing qualities that may well precipitate certain aspects of malaise or deviant behaviour (Knox 1998). Although these postulations are products of research, they remain hypothetical and do require more empirical inquiry before their efficacy can be approved. Much petty crime, vandalism, mugging, and burglary in modern housing developments is related to an attenuation of community life, and a withdrawal of local social controls. These result from the inability of residents to identify with, or to exert any control over the space beyond their front door (Newman 1972). The ideas of Newman have unfortunately been embraced wholesomely with no criticism by Architects and urban designers dangerously borders on dogmatism. Elsewhere, the propositions are more acceptably heavily criticised for the sloppy quality of statistical analysis and for neglect of the interplay of physical and social variables (Gold 1982). Further research in these respects is undeniably necessary. These then are the fundamental contentions and relevant postulations on essential theory. A concise but more in-depth schematic compendium of pertinent theory, concepts, and variables is assembled further on into theoretical and conceptual frameworks. The basic theoretical disputations & necessary suppositions on theory advanced so far provide an adequate base from which to comprehend the local challenge of setting up conditions in correctional facilities that maximise desirable behaviour. These conditions promote effective rehabilitation of offenders or deviants. The local scene of correctional facilities constitutes a serious theoretical and practical task, needing urgent attention. Kenyan correctional facilities are no doubt clearly challenged. They hint at very mediocre unimaginative, mundane

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design inputs, with possibly little attention to the individual, and group psychological, social, cultural and spatial needs of the inmates. Here it is conceivable that gender, age, and cultural differentiation have gone largely ignored. Crime, substance abuse, violence, and physical molestation would very well fester in these places. Hostility between correctional officers and inmates are likely to evolve into a culture, where obedience can only be ensured through coercion and unfair loss of privilege. Endemic exploitation of offenders by their supervisors is a patent possibility. In such facilities consistent and unexplained loss of human life may possibly be a common feature. The nation is at present experiencing a high incidence of repeat offenders, attesting to the obviously failed correctional process that is in place at the moment. 3. Aims and Objectives The situation urgently needs investigation and redress that is scientifically informed, in the sense of outlining better the environmental circumstances that are necessary in order to diminish deviance, and therefore to foster effective rehabilitation. For these reasons, this study set forth to understand the theory and practice of deviance, anomie, crowding, alienation, territoriality, personal space, cognition, and perception (proximity, similarity, closure, and continuance). The study also investigated pollution, temperature, and illumination as the basic environmental factors of the built environment. All these perspectives of environment and behaviour are pursued in respect of inmates within correctional centres, as fundamental expressions of social malaise and the challenge of providing suitable built settings. It sought to explain the environmental impulses of these forms of eccentric conduct using the thinking of cultural ecology, which in effect is a softened form of determinism that leans more towards adaptation rather

then causation. Additionally, the study ventured to empirically describe the built environment and spatial arrangement, alongside an appreciation of the conventional generic factors and elements of the built environment. Further it aimed at an illustration of the principles that explain perception and cognition of these environments. Having outlined these two ends of the environment, their interaction was probed through well-structured measurement, then critically analysed, in order to fully comprehend the manner in which the two relate. Towards these ends, the following three specific objectives were adopted as guides for this inquiry: To determine the character of the built environment in correctional facilities To determine the types, levels, and causes of deviance in correctional facilities. To establish the relationship between the built environment in correctional facilities and deviance. These were translated into one relational hypothesis that is rendered here below a null (H0) and then an alternate hypothesis (HA): Null hypothesis (H0): There is no relationship between the built environment and human behaviour Alternate hypothesis (HA): There is a relationship between the built environment and human behaviour. 4. Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks The pertinent theory discussed so far and one that informs the conduct of this study is ordered into a comprehensive schematic theoretical framework. It draws together selectively essential theories of environmental determinism that embrace a multi-factor approach to studying these relationships. In this regard it sequentially addresses the Design Determinism, Alienation theory, crowding theory, and anomie, relating these to deviance (Figure 1).

Matseshe /Maringa/Africa Habitat Review 2 (2008)

Figure 1: Theoretical Framework on Environmental Determinism, its basic explanatory theories, and Deviance. Source: Author 2007

The concepts selected for inquiry here, and their supposed relationships or propositions about these associations, are also ordered into a suggested

conceptual framework, which represented diagrammatically Figure 2.

is in

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework on the Suggested relationships of Concepts, Postulations & Variables of the relationships that lead to, or explain Deviance. Source: Author 2007

5. Methods The study relied on a combination of environmental behaviour, survey, and case study research designs, to effectively probe inmates and the physical facilities of correctional centres (Zeisel 1984, Mugenda & Mugenda 1999, Maringa 2005). This blend brought together the synergistic advantages of each of these three research designs. Case study research promoted the attainment of

complete, careful, and in-depth, naturalistic investigation of the otherwise covert prison environment (Kothari 1996, Mugenda & Mugenda 1999). Survey research brought in representativeness through random sampling of the wide prison population using structured focused interviews that were guided by well-structured scaled oppinionnaire interview schedules (Nachmias & Nachmias 1996, Miller 1991, Maringa 2005).

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These were used to elicit ranked opinions, feelings, thoughts, expectations, dislikes, motivations, and attitudes on summated Likert-type scales (Kothari 1996, Miller 1991). Environmental behaviour research on its part facilitated unobtrusive incisive investigation of the inmates, tracking down otherwise hidden or past user patterns, with the interviewer acting as a recognised outsider (Zeisel 1984). Case studies were selected through judgemental non-probability sampling. Thereafter simple random sampling was resorted to in order to single out respondents with minimised bias, for focussed interview. Sample sizes in each case study were kept to a minimum of 30. This helped maintain the study within the confines of probability theory while assuring normality of distribution for the data obtained (Gregory 1978, Lapin 1981, Hayslett 1983, Kothari 1996,Glyn 1999). 5. Data Analysis Data were ordered for analysis using histograms, pie charts and gives. Analysis was carried out using Microsoft excel and Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) software. Both descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were used on ranked data that

were obtained on the ordinal scale of data measurement. More specifically, measures of central tendency or location (Mean, median, and mode measures), dispersion (standard deviation), and correlation (Spearmans rank correlation coefficient) were called into use. Appropriate significance testing was also carried out, and alpha error levels established as necessary. 6. Descriptive Analysis and Discussion The topical issues that were probed through focused interview of the inmates covered safety, services, the built environment, anomie, and crime. 90% of the inmates felt that their movements were restricted. 81% of them were of the opinion that security in prisons was tight. 31% concurred that public places were safe. 48% felt that prison was safe for staff, while 38% felt that their cells were safe. A mere 22% perceived prison as being safe for prisoners. 60% saw prison as having close supervision, compared to 8% who felt that there was privacy in prisons (Table 1, and Pie Chart 1 to 5).

Table I Responses on Safety in relation to movement, security, public space, supervision & privacy
Statistic of central location and deviation N Valid Miss ing Movem ents are restricte d Secu rity in priso n is tight 60 0 1.82 1 1.14 1.30 Your cell is safe Public space is safe Prison is safe for staff Prison is safe for Prison ers 60 0 3.57 5 1.39 1.94 Prison has close superv ision 60 0 2.60 1 1.56 2.45 There is privacy

60 0 1.62 1 .98 .95

60 0 3.12 5 1.51 2.27

60 0 3.25 5 1.41 1.99

60 0 2.58 3 1.25 1.57

60 0 4.50 5 1.08 1.17

Mean Mode Std. Deviation Variance

Source: Research data, 2006.

Matseshe /Maringa/Africa Habitat Review 2 (2008)

This frequency table puts on view the responses acquired on Safety. The row with the mode values shows the values that appeared mot frequently as a response. These values relate well to the ranked data that is gathered in this study using the ordinal scale of
Movements are restricted
Strongly disagree
3.3%

measurement. The recommended value of central tendency though is the median, the [(n+1)/2]th value when all scores are arranged in ascending order. The scaling used was: Strongly agree (1), Agree (2), Not sure (3), Disagree (4), Strongly agree (5)
Security in prison is tight
Strongly disagree
5.0%

Disagree
6.7%

Disagree
5.0%

Not sure
6.7%

Agree
33.3%

Strongly agree

Strongly agree
58.3%

Agree
28.3%

53.3%

Figure I: Safety in relation to freedom of movement and security in prisons. Source: Research data.
Your cell is safe
There is privacy
Strongly agree

Strongl y disagree
25.0%

Strongl y agree
21.7%

6.7%
Agree

1.7%
Disagree

Agree Disagree
21.7% 16.7%

18.3%

Strongly disagree

Not sure
15.0%

73.3%

Pie chart 1: Safety at the level of cells and with relation to inmate privacy. Source: Research data, 2006. These pie charts show the types of responses for some of the issues inquired upon on safety. For example, 73.3% of the inmates interviewed strongly disagreed that there was
Public s pac e is s af e Str ongly agree Str ongly dis agree 26.7% A gree 16.7% Dis agree 18.3% Not sur e 23.3% 15.0%

privacy for prisoners in the prisons. Another 18.3% disagreed, while only 1.7% agreed that privacy existed in the prisons.

Prison is safe for staff Strongly disagree 8.3% Disagree 15.0% Strongly agree 25.0%

Not sure 28.3%

Agree 23.3%

Pie Chart 2: Safety in public spaces and for staff in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006.

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Prison is safe for Prisoners Strongly agree 15.0% Strongly disagree 31.7% Agree 6.7% Not sure Disagree 30.0% 16.7%
Disagree 18.3% Not sure 3.3%

Prison has close supervision Strongly disagree 18.3% Strongly agree 35.0%

Agree 25.0%

Pie Chart 3: Safety of inmates & as it relates to level of supervision. Source: Research data. Where services in prisons were concerned, the same bleak view by inmates emerged. About 80% of the inmates felt that general prison conditions were satisfactory.23% were convinced that toilets were accessible. 25% felt that the library was satisfactory. 7% were satisfied that dining facilities were good. 23% agreed that physical education opportunities existed. 15% believed that opportunities and facilities for recreation existed. A paltry 7% on the other hand saw visits facilities as being good and accessible (Table 2, and Bar charts 1 to 3).

Table 2 Responses on Services with regard to general prison conditions, accessibility of ablutions, medical services, library, recreation, dining & visits.
Statistic of central location and deviation General prison conditio ns are satisfac tory Toilet s are acce ssible Show ers are acce ssible Wash basin s are acce ssible Medical service s are accessi ble Librar y is satisf actor y Physi cal educ ation oppo rtuniti es exist 60 0 3.85 5.00 5 1.53 2.33 Opportu nities and facilities for recreati on exist 60 0 4.22 5.00 5 1.19 1.43 Visits faciliti es are good and acces sible 60 0 4.37 5.00 5 1.04 1.08 Dining facilities are good

Valid Missi ng

60 0 4.37 5.00 5 1.06 1.12

60 0 4.00 5.00 5 1.33 1.76

60 0 3.95 5.00 5 1.38 1.91

60 0 4.20 5.00 5 1.26 1.59

60 0 3.97 4.00 5 1.25 1.56

60 0 3.97 5.00 5 1.28 1.63

60 0 4.55 5.00 5 .87 .76

Mean Median Mode S Deviation Variance

Source: Research data, 2006 This frequency table shows the responses obtained on Services. Here too, the row with the mode values shows the values that appeared mot frequently as a response. These values relate well to the ranked data that is gathered in this study using the ordinal scale of measurement. The recommended value of central tendency though is the median, the [(n+1)/2]th value when all scores are arranged in ascending order. The scaling used was: Strongly agree (1), Agree (2), Not sure (3), Disagree (4), Strongly agree (5).

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General prison conditions are satisfactory

70 60 50

Toilets are accessible

60 50 53

62

40
40

30
30 27 20

20

22 18

Percent

Percent

10 0 5 Strongly agr ee Agr ee Not sure Disag ree Strongly disag ree

10 0 5 Strongl y agree Agree Not sure Strongl y disagree Disagree

General prison conditions are satisfactory

Toilets are accessible

Bar Chart 1: Ablution services and sufficiency of general conditions in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006. On the services at the prisons, it was put to the inmates that the services and facilities mentioned here were satisfactory. The inmates strongly disagree with such an assessment for all services and facilities, indicating their utter dissatisfaction.
Physical education opportunities exist
60

Library is satisfactory
60 50

52

50

55

40

40 30

30

20

22

20

Percent

Percent

18 10 7 0 Strongly agree Agree Not sure Strongly dis agree Dis agree

10 0

13

13

15

Strongly agree Agree

Not sure

Strongly disagree Disagree

Library is satisfactory

Physical education opportunities exist

Bar Chart 2: Presence of physical education avenues and sufficiency of library services. Source: Research data, 2006. In all the cases, more than 50% of the inmates strongly disagreed, the highest being 70%, where inmates strongly disagreed that the dining facilities were good. Another 23% disagreed, further reinforcing the negative response.
Opportunities and facilities for recreation exist
70 60 58 50 40 30

Dining facilities are good

80 70 60

40

Percent

20

23

20

25

Percent

10 0 5

10

Strongly agree Agree

Disagree Strongly disagree

Strongly agree Agree

Not sure

Strongly dis agree Disagree

Dining facilities are good

Opportunities and facilities for recreation exist

Bar Chart 3: Availability of recreation facilities and worth of dining spaces in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006.

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The built environment also returned a sufficient in size. 51% agreed that mundane verdict. A meagre 13% of there was noise in prisons. 33% the prisoners indicated that they liked denied that there was air pollution in the prison buildings. Only 18% of them the prisons. 21% found it easy to liked the building surface colours. 28% navigate around prison grounds. 55% felt that lighting levels were sufficient. felt that prison buildings were not well 23% did not feel that prisons were hot. related (Table 3 and Pie Chart 4 to 21% felt that prison cells were 10). Table 3 The Built Environment in the context of building form, colour, lighting, noise, size or scale and temperature.
Statistic of central location and deviation You like the prison building s You like the buildin g surfac e colour s 60 0 3.87 4 1.16 1.34 Lightin g levels are enoug h The size of the prison cells is enoug h 60 0 4.53 5 .91 .83 It is hot in the prison There is noise in the prison There is air pollutio n in the prison Prison buildin gs are functio nally well related 57 3 3.47 5 1.49 2.22 Findin g your way in prison the first time is hard 56 4 2.79 2 1.51 2.28

N Mean Mode S Deviation Variance

Valid Missing

60 0 4.17 5 1.21 1.46

60 0 3.47 4 1.41 1.98

59 1 3.03 5 1.50 2.24

59 1 2.93 2 1.59 2.51

59 1 3.07 5 1.71 2.93

Source: Research data, 2006. This frequency table puts on view the responses acquired on built environment. Again, the row with the mode values shows the values that appeared most frequently as a response. These values relate well to the ranked data that is gathered in this study using the ordinal scale of
You like the prison buildings
Strongly agree 6.7% Agree 6.7% Not s ure 5.0%

measurement. The recommended value of central tendency though is the median, the [(n+1)/2]th value when all scores are arranged in ascending order. The scaling used was: Strongly agree (1), Agree (2), Not sure (3), Disagree (4), Strongly agree (5).

You like the building surface colors

Strongly disag ree
35.0%

Strongly agree
3.3%

Agree
15.0%

Not su re
8.3%

Dis agree Strongly dis agree 55.0% 26.7%

Disagree
38.3%

Pie Chart 4: Acceptance of buildings and colour of surfaces in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006.
Lighting levels are sufficient
Strongly agree Strongly disagree
26.7% 15.0%

T he size of the prison cells is sufficient

Other 8.3% Disagree 21.7%

Agree
13.3%

Not sure
8.3%

Disagree
36.7%

Strongly disagree 70.0%

Pie Chart 5: Sufficiency of lighting levels and sizes of prison cells. Source: Research data, 2006.

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It is hot in the prison

There is noise in the prison
Missing 1.7% Strongly disagree 23.3% Strongly agree 21.7%
Missing 1.7% Strongly disagree 23.3% Strongly agree 25.0%

Agree Disagree 18.3% 18.3% Not sure 16.7%

Disagree 23.3% Agree 26.7%

Pie Chart 6: Temperature and noise levels in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006. Responses to the built environment were varied. 55% of the respondents strongly disagreed that they liked the prison buildings. Another 27.3% just plainly disagreed to liking the prison buildings. 63.4% of respondents either strongly disagreed or merely disagreed that the lighting levels in the cell/wards were sufficient. 35% and
There is air pollution in the prison
Missing 1.7% Strongly disagree 33.3%
Strongly disagree 35.0%

20% of the respondents respectively strongly disagreed and simply disagreed that the prison buildings were well related in terms of operations. A combined 55% of respondent strongly agreed and just agreed that it was difficult to find ones way around the prison the first time (Pie Chart 7).
Prison buildings are well related in terms of operation
Other Strongly agree 11.7%

Strongly agree 28.3%

11.7%

Agree 21.7%

Agree Disagree 16.7% 20.0%

Disagree 20.0%

It is difficult to fin d your w ay aro und prison the first time Missing 6.7% Strongly disag ree 21.7% Strongly agree 20.0%

Disagree 11.7% N ot su re 5.0% Agree 35.0%

Pie chart 7: Air pollution levels, functional flow, and way finding in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006.

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Concerning anomie, 11% felt that their families cared little for them and their situation. Only 15% believed that if leaders wanted to, they could achieve societys desires and goals. 35% felt confident of still achieving many things
Statistic of central location and deviation Prison authorities and other national leaders care for your needs 59 1 3.27 5 1.62 2.61

in life. 49% reported that their families did not visit them often enough. 51% felt that prison authorities and other national leaders cared for their needs (Table 4 and Pie Chart 4 to 7).
You are confident you can still accomplish many things in life 59 1 3.08 1 1.59 2.53 Your family and relatives care for you and your situation Your family visits you often enough

N Mean Mode S Deviation Variance

Valid Missing

If they care, you are confident they can accomplish what they set out to do 58 2 3.76 5 1.30 1.70

59 1 2.17 1 1.33 1.76

59 1 3.22 5 1.59 2.52

Table 4 Anomie and its diverse indicator of self worth, and prisoner trust of family, society, and of leaders. Source: Research data, 2006. This frequency Table puts on view the responses acquired on anomie. Once more, the row with the mode values shows the values that appeared most frequently as a response. These values relate well to the ranked data that is gathered his study using the ordinal scale of measurement. The
Prison authorities and other national leaders care for your needs
Missing 3.3%

recommended values of central tendency though is the median the [(n+1)/2]th, when all scores are arranged in ascending order. The scaling used was: Strongly agree (1), Agree (2), Not sure (3), Disagree (4), Strongly agree (5).

Missing 1.7% Strongly disagree 35.0% Agree 16.7% Disagree 16.7% Not sure 8.3% Strongly agree 21.7%

Strongly disagree 36.7% Strongly agree 10.0% Agree 5.0% Not sure 20.0%

Disagree 25.0%

Pie Chart 8: Prisoner sense of self worth and faith in leadership. Source: Research data, 2006. Generally, anomie was here moderately confirmed. In anomic prison settings, community leaders were perceived as being indifferent to the needs of prisoner. Inmates generally felt that little could be accomplished in society, and that lifes goals are receding rather than being realised. There was a general cynicism, nihilism, or sense of futility in the prisoners. They felt that they could depend little on personal associates for social support. In this study inmates desired to succeed outside prisons and had confidence of family support. This was possibly a reaction to the rather apathetic relationships with prison authorities, and the squalor in prison. This attitude in all likelihood was driven by a strong desire for freedom. Otherwise, anomie was generally confirmed to appertain in

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these prisons. From the literature review, indicators of anomie (normlessness) are identified as: the perception that community leaders are indifferent to ones needs, the perception that little can be accomplished in the society, the perception that lifes goals are receding rather than being realised, a sense of futility, the conviction that one
You are conf ident you can still accomplish many things in life

cannot count on personal associates for social support. The responses from respondents confirm the presence of these indicators. For example, when asked whether prison authorities and other national leaders cared for their needs, a combined percentage of 51.7% either strongly disagreed or plainly disagreed with this assertion.

Your family and relatives care for you and your situation

Missing 1.7% Strongly disagree 26.7% Strongly agree 28.3%

Other
5.0%

Strongly disagree
11.7%

Strongly agree
40.0%

Not sure
Agree Disagree 18.3% 6.7% Not sure 18.3%
15.0%

Agree
28.3%

Pie chart 9: Prisoner sense of self worth and of belonging to their families. Source: Research data, 2006.
Your family visits y ou often enough
Other Strongly agree 6.7% 18.3% Strongly disag ree 33.3% Agree 25.0% Disagree 16.7%

Pie Chart 10: Prisoner access to family. Source: Research data, 2006. On the matter of crime, the survey showed a 25% who denied that smuggling and sale of drugs existed in prisons. 9% disagreed that threat of violence against inmates one to another existed.10% ruled out theft. 25%disagreed that there was homosexuality. 14% denied that assault occurred. 18% did not see prisons as experiencing high levels of crime. Prison life was rated to be generally unsafe; services were poor, and the building environment not endearing to the rehabilitation of inmates. Anomie had clearly taken root here and this nurtured a growing crime and therefore deviance. Both the social and physical environments in prisons were hostile, further promoting deviance further. Rehabilitation of offenders was difficult under these circumstances (Table 5 and Bar Charts 4 to 6).

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Table 5 Anomie as manifested in a prevalence of diverse forms of crime in prisons.

Statistic of central location and deviation Smugglin g and sale of drugs exists Threats of violenc e against others exist 58 2 1.66 1.00 1 1.15 1.32 Theft exists Assaul t exists Homosexu ality exists Levels of crime in the prison are high Territorialit y exists

Valid Missi ng

58 2 2.12 1.00 1 1.66 2.74

58 2 1.64 1.00 1 1.15 1.32

58 2 2.02 2.00 1 1.25 1.56

57 3 2.37 2.00 1 1.59 2.52

57 3 2.46 2.00 1 1.55 2.40

57 3 2.82 2.00 1 1.58 2.50

Mean Median Mode Std. Deviation Variance

Source: Research data, 2006. This frequency Table puts on show the responses attained on the levels of crime. Here, the row with the mode values shows the value that appeared most frequently as a response. These values relate well to the ranked data that is gathered in this study along the ordinal scale of measurement. The
Theft exists
70 60 50 40 30 20 26 30 31 64 40 50 45

recommended value of central tendency though is the median the middle [(n+1)/2]th score, when all scores are arranged in ascending order. The scaling used was: Strongly agree (1), Agree (2), not sure (3), disagree (4), strongly agree (5).

Assault exists

20

Percent

Percent

10

10 9 0

10 5

Strongly agree Agree Theft exists

Not sure Strongly disagree

Strongly agree Agree Assault exists

Not sure

Strongly disagree Disagree

Bar chart 4: Incidence of assault and pilferage in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006. strongly agreed and simply agreed The purpose of this part of the that assault existed in the prisons. interview was to establish the forms of Another 46% strongly agreed that deviance that took place in the homosexuality existed. 39% and 25% prisons. 64% of the respondents of the respondents respectively strongly agreed that theft existed. This strongly agreed and merely agreed was further reinforced by 26% who that the levels of crime in the prison plainly just agreed that theft existed. A were high. combined 76% of the respondents

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Smuggling and sale of drugs exists

70 60 50 40 30 20 64 70 60 50 40 30 21 20 19 0 5 66

Threats of violence against others exist

Percent

10

Percent

10 0 7 7

Strongly agree Agree

Not sure

Strongly disagree Disagree

Strongly agree Agree

Not sure

Strongly disagree Disagree

Smuggling and sale of drugs exists

Threats of violence against others exist

Bar Chart 5: Smuggling, peddling and sale of drugs as well as threats of violence to prisoners in prisons. Source: Research data, 2006.
Homosexuality exists
50 46 40 40 39 30 30 25 21 18 20 19 12 10 9 0 9 50

Levels of crime in the prison are high

20

Percent

Strongly agree Agree Homosexuality exists

Not sure

Strongly disagree Disagree

Percent

10

Strongly agree Agree

Not sure

Strongly disagree Disagree

Levels of crime in the prison are high

Bar Chart 6: Source: Research data, 2006 7. Inferential Analysis and Discussion The study confirmed clear positive and highly significant correlation between crime or deviance and some indicators of anomie: Between confidence of care from family and smuggling as well as sale of drugs, threats of violence, and theft; between hopelessness and assault as well as homosexuality. These associations support the conventional thinking that anomie ultimately engenders or precipitates deviance and therefore in this case crime. Positive and vastly significant association between a poor built environment and anomie was also established in this study. A dislike for prisons, building colours, and the prevalence of cramped up cells were shown to positively and significantly correlate with hopelessness, low level of visits from family, and a failed belief in benevolent responsible leadership. Low lighting levels, hot prisons, and unclear way finding in prisons, all correlated positively and highly significantly with a loss of faith in concern for inmates from their families. Poor arrangement of prison buildings in respect of operations associated positively and very significantly with the belief by inmates that societal leadership can achieve anything if they care to. When inmates generally dislike the prison buildings and colours and feel crowded and with low lighting levels, confused way finding, hot

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building environment, confused order and complementation of prison buildings, anomie is induced. Such prisoners blame their own failure and
Table 6 Association of the indicators of Anomie
Correlations

inmate status and conditions on a perceived indifferent leadership, family, and society at large.

Spearman's rho

Prison authorities and other national leaders care f or y our needs If they care, y ou are confident they can accomplish what they set out to do You are confident y ou can still accomplish many things in life

If they care, Prison y ou are You are authorities confident confident y ou Your f amily and other they can can still and relativ es national accomplish accomplish care f or y ou leaders care what they set many things and y our f or y our needs out to do in lif e situation Correlation Coef ficient 1.000 .587** -.298* .122 Sig. (2-tailed) . .000 .022 .359 N 59 58 59 59 Correlation Coef ficient .587** 1.000 -.089 .171 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 . .507 .199 N Correlation Coef ficient Sig. (2-tailed) N 58 -.298* .022 59 58 -.089 .507 58 .171 .199 58 .369** .004 58 58 1.000 . 59 -.308* .018 59 -.251 .056 59 58 -.308* .018 59 1.000 . 59 .568** .000 59

Your f amily v isits y ou of ten enough .231 .079 59 .369** .004 58 -.251 .056 59 .568** .000 59 1.000 . 59

Your f amily and relativ es care f or y ou and y our situation

Correlation Coef ficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Your f amily v isits y ou Correlation Coef ficient of ten enough Sig. (2-tailed) N **. Correlation is signif icant at the .01 lev el (2-tailed). *. Correlation is signif icant at the .05 lev el (2-tailed).

.122 .359 59 .231 .079 59

Source: Research data, 2006. A distinct positive and highly significant association was established between the built environment and human behaviour, specifically deviance. Insufficient lighting levels and difficulty in way finding around prison facilities associated positively and significantly with smuggling and sale of drugs, threats of violence, and theft. Air pollution and poor building arrangement in terms of operations correlated strongly, positively, and significantly with the prevalence of assault, homosexuality, and levels of crime in correctional centres. In summary then, the physical environment of correctional facilities displayed, unfamiliar visual patterns arising from awkward and irregular building and spatial configurations. Other pertinent inputs into these patterns included a lack of similarity and uniformity in the buildings within the correctional facility; as well as a lack of good continuance visually and functionally in the placement of facilities. There was also a contribution coming from poor choice of materials especially on the interior of facilities, poor choice and monotony of colours, inadequate ventilation, and insufficient lighting.

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Table 7 Association of crime or deviance and anomie (seen in the associations their respective indicators)

Correlations If they care, you are confident they can accomplish what they set out to do .587** .000 58 1.000 . 58 -.089 .507 58 .171 .199 58 .369** .004 58 -.203 .130 57 -.209 .118 57 -.237 .075 57 -.241 .071 57 -.017 .902 56 -.049 .722 56 -.164 .228 56

Spearman's rho

Prison authorities and other national leaders care for your needs If they care, you are confident they can accomplish what they set out to do You are confident you can stil accomplish many things in life

Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N

Prison authorities and other national leaders care for your needs 1.000 . 59 .587** .000 58 -.298* .022 59

You are confident you can stil accomplish many things in life -.298* .022 59 -.089 .507 58 1.000 . 59 -.308* .018 59 -.251 .056 59 .126 .347 58 .117 .383 58 .079 .557 58 -.114 .393 58 .303* .022 57 .180 .181 57 .167 .214 57

Your family and relatives Threats of care for you Your family Smuggling violence and your visits you and sale of against Homosexu situation often enough drugs exists others exist Theft exists Assault exists ality exists .122 .231 -.145 -.197 -.269* -.084 -.037 .359 .079 .278 .137 .041 .532 .786 59 59 58 58 58 58 57 .171 .369** -.203 -.209 -.237 -.241 -.017 .199 58 -.308* .018 59 1.000 . 59 .568** .000 59 -.055 .680 58 -.015 .911 58 -.160 .231 58 -.082 .541 58 -.107 .430 57 -.235 .079 57 .022 .872 57 .004 58 -.251 .056 59 .568** .000 59 1.000 . 59 -.064 .635 58 -.240 .069 58 -.265* .044 58 -.096 .472 58 -.045 .737 57 -.015 .910 57 -.116 .389 57 .130 57 .126 .347 58 -.055 .680 58 -.064 .635 58 1.000 . 58 .516** .000 58 .418** .001 58 .299* .022 58 .736** .000 57 .469** .000 57 .352** .007 57 .118 57 .117 .383 58 -.015 .911 58 -.240 .069 58 .516** .000 58 1.000 . 58 .713** .000 58 .495** .000 58 .558** .000 57 .413** .001 57 .501** .000 57 .075 57 .079 .557 58 -.160 .231 58 -.265* .044 58 .418** .001 58 .713** .000 58 1.000 . 58 .599** .000 58 .393** .003 57 .331* .012 57 .386** .003 57 .071 57 -.114 .393 58 -.082 .541 58 -.096 .472 58 .299* .022 58 .495** .000 58 .599** .000 58 1.000 . 58 .320* .015 57 .282* .034 57 .178 .184 57 .902 56 .303* .022 57 -.107 .430 57 -.045 .737 57 .736** .000 57 .558** .000 57 .393** .003 57 .320* .015 57 1.000 . 57 .535** .000 56 .343** .010 56

Levels of crime in the prison Territoriality are high exists -.083 -.335* .540 .011 57 57 -.049 -.164 .722 56 .180 .181 57 -.235 .079 57 -.015 .910 57 .469** .000 57 .413** .001 57 .331* .012 57 .282* .034 57 .535** .000 56 1.000 . 57 .303* .022 57 .228 56 .167 .214 57 .022 .872 57 -.116 .389 57 .352** .007 57 .501** .000 57 .386** .003 57 .178 .184 57 .343** .010 56 .303* .022 57 1.000 . 57

Your family and relatives care for you and your situation Your family visits you often enough Smuggling and sale of drugs exists Threats of violence against others exist Theft exists

Assault exists

Homosexuality exists

Levels of crime in the prison are high Territoriality exists

Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig. (2-tailed) N

.122 .359 59 .231 .079 59 -.145 .278 58 -.197 .137 58 -.269* .041 58 -.084 .532 58 -.037 .786 57 -.083 .540 57 -.335* .011 57

**. Correlation is signif icant at the .01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is signif icant at the .05 level (2-tailed).

Source: Research data, 2006.

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Types, levels and causes of deviance in correctional facilities took the form of a generally strong indication of the existence of smuggling and sale of drugs. This was accompanied by, numerous incidences of threats of violence towards others, incidences of theft of personal property, various incidences of assault, high incidences of homosexuality, and incidences of taunting and bullying especially of new inmates. Regarding the relationship between the built environment in correctional facilities and deviance the study revealed that, there were high levels of stress (that could trigger deviance) associated with the general prison atmosphere. Some inmates seemed withdrawn due to the lack of a stimulating environment. Inmates indicated that darkness due to poor lighting design allowed for such deviant acts as homosexuality and assault. Inmates identified stuffiness and thermal discomfort due to poor ventilation as a source of frustration, which more often than not would lead to various acts of deviance. Overcrowding as a result of insufficient space was indicated as a major contributor to homosexuality, assault, acerbic conduct, and various forms of harassment. 8. Conclusions and Recommendations While there is a growing tendency to divert as many offenders as possible from closed institutions towards alternative methods (King and Mc Dermott, 1995), it is still valid to pose the question as to whether, for those who are committed to closed institutions, architecture has completed its task of seeking design solutions that correspond to the development of penal concepts. Protection of the community necessitates the isolation of such delinquents who have shown dangerous and damaging behaviour. In this context, the desired protection can only be gained if offenders acquire lawabiding attitudes before their reintegration into the community. This can only be obtained without undue subjugation of the personality of the

offender, and also by stimulating and developing an interaction between the prison world and the normal community. Today, the demand placed on professionals towards prison architecture is made more specific, along three different lines. First, is the design of suitable structures for the function of integrating treatment offered in the outside community such as: probation offices, hostels, recreation facilities, free workshops and outpatient clinics. In this case the design is not specifically prison architecture. It overlaps to varying degrees with a more general, community service architecture. Second, is the design of adequate structures for offenders that are subject to limited temporary control. Thirdly, is the design of institutions for categories of offenders who have to be subject to constant control so as to avoid their escape or unwanted contact with members of the community. In this category, there is at the same time a pressing need to develop models, which nevertheless allow maximum opportunity for interaction with the public. What is needed is a closed institution, but unlike in the past, the problem is complicated by the need for such community interaction. Architecture can encourage this dynamic model through the adoption of such innovations as open control stations, the elimination of barriers, the placing together of staff and inmate areas, and the inclusion of spaces specifically designed to encourage interaction. The design of common use areas may promote the involvement of, and use by, the local community. This new approach to correction also has the potential to sensitise inmates, staff and the public to correctional facilities as a normal, contributing component of the community. Once the normalised or humanised environment becomes the accepted correctional standard, architecture and the operations in it can move towards the broader goals of full integration into, and acceptance by, the community.

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The trend towards integrating the offender with the community from which he/she comes from can also be considerably aided by a closer link with that community. Prisons must also be flexible in both design and construction. Security systems and methods of zoning for security must be studied and refined. Fences rather than walls should be explored as much more suitable forms for perimeter security where sitting and security permit. The importance of providing proper workshops, recreation and visiting facilities, educational facilities, and of attractive landscaping is now recognised. Cited References Endler, N., and J. Hunt, (1968), Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Harper and Row, pp., 309 315, New York. Gregory, S., (1978), Statistical Methods and the Geographer, 4th edition, Longman Group Limited. Guiseppe Di Gennaro et al, (1975), Prism Architecture, Architectural Press, London. Hayslett, H. T., (Advisory editor: Patrick Murphy), (1983), Statistics Made Simple, William Heinemann Ltd. Howard (1977), King, D.R., and K. McDermott, (1995), The State of our Prisons, Clarendon Press, London. Knox, Paul, (1995), Urban Social Geography: An Introduction, Longman, Singapore. Kothari, C. R., (1996), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, 11th reprint, V.S., Johri for Wishwa Prakashan, a Division of Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi. Lang, Jon, (1987), Creating architectural Theory: The role of the Behavioural Sciences in Environmental

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Lapin, L. Lawrence, (1981), Statistics for Modern Business Decisions, 3rd edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc. Ley, D., (1983), A Social Geography of the City, Harper & Row, New York. Maringa, P.M., (2005), The Influence of Social Cohesion on the Quality of the Urban Environment: A case of the City of Nairobi, Kenya, Unpublished PhD Thesis. Miller, Delbert, (1991), Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement, 5th edition, Sage Publications, Inc., London. Mugenda & Mugenda, (1999), Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches, Acts Press, Kenya. Nachmias & Nachmias, (1996), Research Methods in the Social Sciences, 5th edition, St. Martins Press, Inc., New York. Newman, O., (1972), Defensible Space, Macmillan, New York. Smith, F.P., (1977), The Syntax of Cities, Hutchinson & Company, London. Sommer, Robert, (1969), Personal Space: The Behavioural Basis of Design, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey. Steward, Julian H., 1955, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multi-linear Evolution, University of Illinois Press, Urbana. Werlen (1993), Society, Action and Space: An alternative Human Geography, Routledge, London. Zeisel, John, (1984), Inquiry by Design: Tools for Environment Behaviour Research, Cambridge University Press, London.