Cement industry ratings released

The cement industry is a heavy weight of Indian industry. It is a darling of the stock market, a major contributor to GDP and the country's second-largest taxpayer. The industry poses many environmental challenges from mining to waste disposal. The industry has a unique opportunity to address these challenges without hurting the bottom line. The cement sector is different from all the other ratings GRP has undertaken. By definition, there is nothing called a 'sustainable cement industry'. The cement industry does not fit the contemporary picture of a sustainable industrybecause it uses raw materials and energy that are non-renewable; extracts its raw materials by mining and manufactures a product that cannot be recycled. Limestone mining has impact on land-use patterns, local water regimes and ambient air quality. Blasting causes problems of vibrations, cracks and fly rocks. The impact of mining is especially high in ecologically sensitive areas. There is poor mine management and poor planning for rehabilitation of exhausted land. Mining is one of the reasons for the high environmental impact of the industry. The industry is extremely energy-intensive. After thermal power plants and theiron and steel sector, the Indian cement industry is the third largest user of coal in the country. In 2003-04, the Indian cement industry consumed 11,400 million kWh of power. Companies in India have an opportunity to be environmentally sound while maximising their profits. Through waste management of it's power plants, fertiliser units and steel factories, they can reduce energy use. This cuts energy bills, raw material costs as well as green house gas emissions. In the process, it can turn this waste, whether it is fly ash, phosphor-gypsum, slag or mill scale, into a valuable product. Dust emissions during cement manufacturing have long been accepted as one of the main issues facing the industry. The industry handles millions of tonnes of dry material. Even if 0.1 per cent of this is lost to the atmosphere, it can cause havoc environmentally. Fugitive emissions are therefore a huge problem, compounded by the fact that there is neither an economic incentive nor regulatory pressure to prevent emissions. If cement is a product modern society cannot live without, we must be ready for the adverse ecological and social impacts that its manufacturing engenders. What is important is to define an 'acceptable trade-off', and benchmark the performance of the companies against it. Considering all these facts, the project decided to take on rating the ecological impact of this industry.

Environment Impact
Q: What are the environmental and social impacts of cement industries?

A: Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating machinery and during blasting in quarries and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after returning them to nature or recultivating them has closed them down.

Climate

Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both, directly through the production of carbon dioxidewhen calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide and indirectly through the use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced from fossil fuels. The cement industry produces about 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemical process, and 40% from burning fuel. The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is nearly 900kg of CO2 for every 1000kg of cement produced. Newly developed cement types from Novacem and Eco-cement can absorb carbon dioxide from ambient airduring hardening. Fuels and raw materials A cement plant consumes 36GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on the raw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum coke as primary fuels and, to a lesser extent, natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing a portion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selected waste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina and iron can be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale and limestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverable calorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value and burns to give ash-containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix.

Local impacts

Producing cement has significant positive and negative impacts at a local level. On the positive side, the cement industry may create employment and business opportunities for local people, particularly in remote locations in developing countries where there are few other opportunities for economic development. Negative impacts include disturbance to the landscape, dust and noise and disruption to local biodiversity from quarrying limestone (the raw material for cement). Q: Is precast concrete a green building material ? A: Precast concrete contributes to green building practices in significant ways. The low water-cement ratios possible with precast concrete are -0.360.38, which mean it can be extremely durable. The thermal mass of concrete allows shifting of heating and cooling loads in a structure to help reduce mechanical-system requirements. Because precast concrete is factory-made, there is little waste created in the plant (most plants employ exact-batching technologies) and it reduces construction waste and debris on site, reducing construction IAQ concerns. The load-carrying capacities, optimised cross sections and long spans possible with precast concrete members help eliminate redundant members and concrete readily accommodates recycled content. Q: Is precast concrete energy-efficient? A: The thermal mass of precast concrete absorbs and releases heat slowly, shifting air conditioning and heating loads to allow smaller, more efficient heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Insulation is often used in architectural panels and sandwich wall panels to increase thermal efficiency, with continuous insulation (ci) in walls being possible. The resulting savings are significant up to 25% on heating and cooling costs. Q: Does precast concrete contain recycled materials? A: Precast concretes fresh and in-place performance can improve when several common industrial byproducts are added. Fly ash, slag and silica fume, which would otherwise go to landfills, can be incorporated into concrete as supplementary materials. These by-products can also reduce the amount

of cement that is used in concrete. Reinforcement is typically made from recycled steel. (Steel is one of the most recycled building materials and can be reused repeatedly) Insulation and connections within the precast concrete also contain recycled content. Q: Can precast concrete members be reused? A: Precast concrete members are unique in that they are individually engineered products that can be disassembled. Designers can easily plan future additions to buildings, because the precast concrete components can be rearranged. Once removed, precast concrete members may be reused in other applications. Precast concrete is also friendly to downcycling, in which building materials are broken down, because it comes apart with a minimum amount of energy and retains its original qualities. An example of downcycling would be the use of crushed precast concrete as aggregate in new concrete or as base materials for roads, sidewalks, or concrete slabs. Q: How does precast concrete contribute to LEED-NC rating points? A: Precast concrete: Minimally disrupts the site (area and time) Reduces damage to drainage paths and natural habitats Increases open area when multi-level parking structures are used Reduces the heat-island effect because of concrete's light colour Improves energy efficiency and thermal comfort Reuses and recycles formwork, keeping materials out of the landfill Uses recyclable concrete and steel Can be reused or recycled Can use waste and recycled materials such as slag, fly ash and silica fume Is generally made from materials that are extracted and manufactured regionally Does not off-gas and does not need to be sealed or painted Q: What LEED-NC points does precast concrete contribute toward? A: Precast concrete and other materials contribute to LEED points by providing performance and properties that are measured by the LEED program. At this time, PCI endorses potential precast concrete contributions for up to 20 LEED points (see LEED Project Checklist) and possibly more, depending on the project. Q: How can precast concrete reduce the heat-island effect described in the LEED Sustainable Sites credit (SSc7.1)? A: Sustainable Sites credit 7.1 is intended to reduce heat islands, meaning the thermal gradient difference between developed and undeveloped areas. The heat-island effect is partially attributed to the dark surfaces of roofing and paving and the additional heat in developed areas increases HVAC loads and contributes to the creation of smog. Reducing heat islands minimises impact on microclimate and human and wildlife habitat. Precast concrete parking structures that place at least 50% of the spaces under cover (for example, underground, under a building, or under a deck or roof) can reduce this effect. Any roof used to shade or cover parking must have a solar reflective index (SRI or albedo) of at least 29. In addition, highalbedo vertical precast concrete wall surfaces reduce the heat-island effect. Q: How can precast concrete contribute to Innovation and Design in LEED? A: Projects earn Innovation and Design credits when they demonstrate exemplary performance in a recognised LEED credit area, or bring new approaches and technologies such as carbon-fibre reinforcing that reduce weight and embedded energy and advance sustainable design. Because of its significant contributions to LEED and its inherent green characteristics, precast concrete offers an excellent platform on which creative project teams can base their sustainable design plans. Q: How does precast concrete contribute to the underlying sustainability concept of Reduce, Reuse, Recycle? A: By reducing the amount of materials and the toxicity of waste materials Precast concrete can be designed to optimise (lessen) the amount of concrete used in a structure or element

As one example, the use of carbon-fibre reinforcement or insulation can reduce: Amount of concrete needed in a precast concrete panel Weight of a precast concrete panel Transportation cost of precast concrete panel Amount of energy used to erect a precast concrete panel Precast concrete generates low amounts of waste with low toxicity 2% of the concrete at a precast plant is waste 95% of the waste is used to manufacture new panels By reusing products and containers and repairing what can be reused Precast concrete panels can be reused when buildings are expanded or dismantled Concrete pieces from demolished structures can be reused to protect shorelines Wood or fibreglass formwork used to make precast concrete products is generally reused 40 or more times Concrete and steel have practically unlimited service lives By recycling as much as possible, including buying products with recycled content Industrial wastes (fly ash, slag and silica fume) can be used as partial replacements for cement Wood and steel forms are recycled when they become worn or obsolete Virtually, all reinforcing steel is made from recycled steel Insulation contains partially recycled material Concrete in most urban areas is recycled as fill or road base Q: What steps are precast operations taking toward sustainability? A: PCI Producer Members meet local and state ordinances and emissions requirements. Initiatives within the industry include: Use of local materials in all mixtures; local aggregate resources Water reclamation and recycling Reducing cement requirements by lowering watercement ratios Admixtures such as hardening accelerators to eliminate applied heat in curing Use of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) for quicker placement, no vibration and reduced surface defects Use of environmentally friendly thin brick in place of conventional brick in precast concrete systems Carbon-fibre reinforcement that allows lighter and larger concrete sections with less embedded energy and no corrosion Use of supplemental cementitious materials (SCMs) to reduce cement consumption; participation in Cool Climate Concrete Enclosed sandblasting facilities with 100% process-waste control Standardising wood form parts for multiple reuse; recycling discarded forms into mulch or fuel Recycling all scrap steel and reinforcement Reducing and reusing product packaging received in facilities Q: What is being done about CO2 emissions during the cement-manufacturing process? A: Since 1975, the cement industry has reduced CO2 emissions by 33%. Today, cement production accounts for less than 1.5% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, well below other sources such as electric generation plants for heating and cooling the homes and buildings we live in (33%) and transportation (27%). In 2000, the cement industry created a new way to measure CO2 emissions. Recently introduced guidelines will allow for greater use of limestone as a raw material in cement, ultimately reducing CO2 by more than 2.5 million tons per year. By the year 2020, plans call for further reduction of CO2 emissions to 10% below the 1990 baseline through investments in equipment, improvements in formulations and development of new applications for cements and concretes that improve energy efficiency and durability. Q: What is Self-Cleaning Concrete A: Self-cleaning buildings and pollution-reducing roadways: These may sound like futuristic ideas, but they are realities of some of todays concrete. Recently introduced formulations of cement are able to neutralise pollution. Harmful smog can be turned into harmless compounds and washed away.

Anything made out of concrete is a potential application, because these cements are used in the same manner as regular Portland cements. These products provide value through unique architectural and environmental performance capabilities. Proprietary technology (based on particles of titanium dioxide) is what makes this cement special capable of breaking down smog or other pollution that has attached itself to the concrete substrate, in a process known as photocatalysis. Q: What steps are being taken to make concrete environment friendly? A: Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a byproduct of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount of quarrying and landfill space required and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the amount of cement required to produce a solid concrete. Q: What is concrete recycling? A: It is a method of disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits. Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks. Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete based waste. Recycling concrete provides environmental benefits, conserving landfill space and use as aggregate reduces the need for gravel mining. Q: How does concrete contribute to Urban heat A: Concrete and asphalt are the primary contributors to what is known as the Urban heat island effect. Using light-coloured concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature. A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of solar heat and contributes to the warming of cities. By paving with light coloured concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-coloured concrete, communities can lower their average temperature. Many U.S. cities show that pavement comprise approximately 30-40% of their surface area. This directly impacts the temperature of the city, as demonstrated by the urban heat island effect. In addition to decreasing the overall temperature of parking lots and large paved areas by paving with light-coloured concrete, there are supplemental benefits. One example is 10 30% improved night time visibility. The potential of energy saving within an area is also high. With lower temperatures, the demand for air conditioning decreases, saving vast amounts of energy. Atlanta has tried to mitigate the heat-island effect. City officials noted that when using heat-reflecting concrete, their average city temperature decreased by 6F. New York City offers another example. The Design Trust for Public Space in New York City found that by slightly raising the albedo value in their city, beneficial effects such as energy savings could be achieved. It was concluded that this could be accomplished by the replacement of black asphalt with light-coloured concrete. Q: Does concrete create air pollution? A: Building demolition and natural disasters such as earthquakes often release a large amount of concrete dust into the local atmosphere. Concrete dust was concluded to be the major source of dangerous air pollution following the Great Hanshin earthquake. Q: Does concrete have any effect on the health of the people in the building? The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns. Natural radioactive elements (K, U and Th) can be present in various concentrations

in concrete dwellings, depending on the source of the raw materials used. Toxic substances may also be added to the mixture for making concrete by unscrupulous makers. Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may cause serious health concerns depending also on what had been incorporated in the concrete. Q: How much CO2 is associated with the manufacture of cement? A: For each tonne of cement produced by BCA member companies 822kg (0.822t) of CO2 emissions are released. About 40% of these emissions come from fuel combustion at cement manufacturing operations and 60% originate from the manufacturing process that converts limestone (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO), the primary precursor to cement. It is chemically impossible to convert CaCO3 to CaO and then cement clinker, without generating CO2. Additionally, indirect CO2 during the transport of raw materials, fuels and products, as well as electricity generation, would account for around 7% of the total emissions from cement manufacture. In 2002, global cement production was responsible for around 3.8% of man-made CO2 emissions. In 2004, the UK (and Crown dependencies) cement industry produced 1.74% of UK CO2 emissions (source: data from the BCA and National GHG Inventory). Q: Is concrete combustible? A: No. Concrete is an inert inorganic conglomerate. It does not burn, melt, warp, lose structural strength or drip molten material in a fire. Q: How does concrete compare to steel in fire? A: It is known that structural steel begins to soften around 425C and loses about half of its strength at 650C. This is why steel is stress-relieved in this temperature range. But even a 50% loss of strength is still insufficient, by itself, to explain the World Trade Centre collapse. It was noted above that the wind load controlled the design allowables. The World Trade Center, on this low-wind day, was likely not stressed more than a third of the design allowable, which is roughly one-fifth of the yield strength of the steel. Even with its strength halved, the steel could still support two to three times the stresses imposed by a 650C fire. The additional problem was distortion of the steel in the fire. The temperature of the fire was not uniform everywhere and the temperature on the outside of the box columns was clearly lower than on the side facing the fire. The temperature along the 18m-long joists was certainly not uniform. Given the thermal expansion of steel, a 150C temperature difference from one location to another will produce yield-level residual stresses. This produced distortions in the slender structural steel, which resulted in buckling failures. Thus, the failure of the steel was due to two factors: loss of strength due to the temperature of the fire and loss of structural integrity due to distortion of the steel from the non-uniform temperatures in the fire. Q: What is the effect of concrete on acoustics? A: The issue of sound insulation and acoustic performance of homes has grown in importance, primarily due to the growing demand from government for increased density of urban dwellings. The number of complaints about noise has risen due both to this closer proximity and the new demands placed on housing (e.g. entertainment systems). For this reason, the UK Building Regulations Part E now requires improved sound insulation. In general, increasing the mass of a wall or floor improves the sound insulation of a room; hence concrete and masonry offer a good barrier to airborne sounds, while impact sound is easily controlled with appropriate floor and ceiling finishes. A range of 'Robust Details' (RD) for both masonry and concrete walls and concrete floors have been agreed by the Building Regulations Advisory Committee. These offer approved construction choices for both party walls and separating floors and include aspects of the external wall in controlling sound between dwellings. Good acoustic properties can also be achieved for multi-occupancy residences using a range of concrete options. One example is tunnel form construction (in which the walls, floors and ceilings are

made from cast in-situ concrete using specialist reusable formwork) that was used for a residential block at the University of East Anglia. Two separating floors in the new block, consisting of 250mm of concrete with a stuck-down carpet and no ceiling finish beneath, were tested. They both exceeded the regulations by more than 5dB for both airborne and impact sound insulation and therefore met the levels required by Robust Details. Concrete walls provide a buffer between: Outdoor noise and the indoor environment in a building. Road noise and residential areas with a sound barrier. Indoor noise between adjoining apartments or other spaces as a separating wall. A study in America reported in the PCA bulletin No. 15434 proved that: "...The greater mass of concrete walls can reduce sound penetrating through a wall by over 80% compared with wood or steel frame construction. Although some sound will penetrate the windows, a concrete building can be two-thirds quieter than a wood or steel frame building. Concrete panels also provide effective sound barriers separating buildings from highways or industrial areas from residential areas..."

Environmental impact of concrete

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The environmental impact of concrete, its manufacture and applications, is complex. Some effects are harmful; others welcome. Many depend on circumstances. A major component of concrete is cement, which has its own environmental and social impacts and contributes largely to those of concrete. In spite of the harm that badly planned use of concrete can do, well-planned concrete construction can have many sustainable benefits. The cement industry is one of the primary producers of carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas. Concrete is used to create hard surfaces which contribute to surface runoff that may cause soil erosion, water pollution and flooding. Conversely, concrete is one of the most powerful tools for proper flood control, by means of damming, diversion, and deflection of flood waters, mud flows, and the like. Concrete is a primary contributor to the urban heat island effect, but is less so than asphalt.[citation needed] Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity.[citation needed] Wet concrete is highly alkaline and should always be handled with proper protective equipment. Concrete recycling is increasing in response to improved environmental awareness, legislation, and economic considerations.
Contents
[hide]

1 Carbon dioxide emissions and climate change

2 Design improvements 3 Surface runoff 4 Urban heat 5 Concrete dust 6 Toxic and radioactive contamination 7 Handling precautions 8 Concrete recycling 9 References

Carbon dioxide emissions and climate change[edit]

The cement industry is one of two primary industrial producers of carbon dioxide (CO2), creating up to 5% of worldwide man-made emissions of this gas, of which 50% is from the chemical process and 40% from burning fuel.[1] The carbon dioxide CO2 produced for the manufacture of one tonne of structural concrete (using ~14% cement) is estimated at 410 kg/m3 (~180 kg/tonne @ density of 2.3 g/cm3) (reduced to 290 kg/m3 with 30% fly ash replacement of cement).[2] The CO2 emission from the concrete production is directly proportional to the cement content used in the concrete mix; 900 kg of CO2 are emitted for the fabrication of every ton of cement.[3]Cement manufacture contributes greenhouse gases both directly through the production of carbon dioxide when calcium carbonate is thermally decomposed, producing lime and carbon dioxide,[4] and also through the use of energy, particularly from the combustion offossil fuels.

Design improvements[edit]
There is a growing interest in reducing carbon emissions related to concrete from both the academic and industrial sectors, especially with the possibility of future carbon tax implementation. Several approaches to reducing emissions have been suggested. One reason why the carbon emissions are so high is because cement has to be heated to very high temperatures in order for clinker to form. A major culprit of this is alite (Ca3SiO5), a mineral in concrete that cures within hours of pouring and is therefore responsible for much of its initial strength. However, alite also has to be heated to 1,500C in the clinker-forming process. Some research suggests that alite can be replaced by a different mineral, such as belite (Ca2SiO4). Belite is also a mineral already used in concrete. It has a roasting temperature of 1,200C, which is significantly lower than that of alite. Furthermore, belite is actually stronger once concrete cures. However, belite takes on the order of days or months to set completely, which leaves concrete weak for an unacceptably long period of time. Current research is focusing on finding possible impurity additives, like magnesium, that might speed up the curing process. It is also worthwhile to consider that belite takes more energy to grind, which may make its full life impact similar to or even higher than alite. [5]

Another approach has been the partial replacement of conventional clinker with such alternatives as fly ash, bottom ash, and slag, all of which are by-products of other industries that would otherwise end up in landfills. Fly ash and bottom ash come from thermoelectric power plants, while slag is a waste from blast furnaces in the ironworks industry. These materials are slowly gaining popularity as additives, especially since they can potentially increase strength, decrease density, and prolong durability of concrete. [6] The main obstacle to wider implementation of fly ash and slag may be largely due to the risk of construction with new technology that has not been exposed to long field testing. Until a carbon tax is implemented, companies are unwilling to take the chance with new concrete mix recipes even if this reduces carbon emissions. However, there are some examples of green concrete and its implementation. One instance is a concrete company called Ceratech that has started manufacturing concrete with 95% fly ash and 5% liquid additives.[5] Another is the I-35W Saint Anthony Falls Bridge, which was constructed with a novel mixture of concrete that included different compositions of Portland cement, fly ash, and slag depending on the portion of the bridge and its material properties requirements.[7] Italian company Italcementi designed a kind of cement, that is supposed to fight air pollution. It should break down pollutants that come in contact with the concrete, thanks to the use of titanium dioxide absorbing ultraviolet light. Some environmental experts nevertheless remain sceptical and wonder if the special material can 'eat' enough pollutants to make it financially viable. Jubilee Church in Rome is built from this kind of concrete.[8]

Surface runoff[edit]
Surface runoff, when water runs off impervious surfaces, such as non-porous concrete, can cause heavy soil erosion and flooding.Urban runoff tends to pick up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, trash and other pollutants from sidewalks, roadways and parking lots.[9][10] Without attenuation, the impervious cover in a typical urban area limits groundwater percolation and causes five times the amount of runoff generated by a typical woodland of the same size.[11] A 2008 report by the United States National Research Councilidentified urban runoff as a leading source of water quality problems.[12]

Urban heat[edit]
Both concrete and asphalt are the primary contributors to what is known as the urban heat island effect. Using light-colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature.[13]A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of solar heat and contributes to the warming of cities. By paving with light colored concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-colored concrete, communities can lower their average temperature.[14]

In many U.S. cities, pavement covers about 3040% of the surface area.[13] This directly affects the temperature of the city and contributes to the urban heat island effect. Paving with light-colored concrete would lower temperatures of paved areas and improve night-time visibility.[13] The potential of energy saving within an area is also high. With lower temperatures, the demand for air conditioning theoretically decreases, saving energy. However, research into the interaction between reflective pavements and buildings has found that, unless the nearby buildings are fitted with reflective glass, solar radiation reflected off pavements can increase building temperatures, increasing air conditioning demands.[15] Atlanta has tried to mitigate the heat-island effect. City officials noted that when using heat-reflecting concrete, their average city temperature decreased by 6F (3.3C).[16] The Design Trust for Public Space found that by slightly raising the albedo value in New York City, beneficial effects such as energy savings could be achieved.[citation needed] It was concluded that this could be accomplished by the replacement of black asphalt with light-colored concrete. However, in winter this may be a disadvantage as ice will form more easily and remain longer on the light colored surfaces as they will be colder due to less energy absorbed from the reduced amount of sunlight in winter.[14]

Concrete dust[edit]
Building demolition and natural disasters such as earthquakes often release a large amount of concrete dust into the local atmosphere. Concrete dust was concluded to be the major source of dangerous air pollution following the Great Hanshin earthquake.[citation needed]

Toxic and radioactive contamination[edit]

The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted additives, can cause health concerns. Natural radioactiveelements (K, U and Th) can be present in various concentration in concrete dwellings, depending on the source of the raw materials used.[17] Toxic substances may also be added to the mixture for making concrete by unscrupulous makers. Dust from rubble or broken concrete upon demolition or crumbling may cause serious health concerns depending also on what had been incorporated in the concrete.

Handling precautions[edit]
For more details on safety issues associated with cement, see Cement. Handling of wet concrete must always be done with proper protective equipment. Contact with wet concrete can cause skin chemical burns due to the caustic nature of the mixture of cement and water. Indeed, the pH of fresh cement water is highly alkaline due to the presence of free potassium and sodium hydroxides in solution (pH ~ 13.5). Eyes, hands and feet must be correctly protected to avoid any direct contact with wet concrete and washed without delay if necessary.

Concrete recycling[edit]
Main article: Concrete recycling

Recycled crushed concrete being loaded into a semi-dump truck to be used as granular fill.

Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method of disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits. Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks. Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete based waste.

Larsen & Toubro - Innovative turnkey solutions - A case study

Written by Larsen & Toubro Friday 15 February 2013

 Larsen & Toubro (L&T) is a US$13.5bn Indian conglomerate with business interests in engineering, construction, manufacturing goods , information technology and financial services . It has its corporate office in Mumbai, India and predominantly serves the Indian, Middle Eastern, East Asian and South East Asian markets. L&T is one of the largest and most respected companies in India's private sector with 75 years of customer commitment.

Introduction
L&T was founded in Mumbai, India in 1938 by two Danish engineers, Henning Holck-Larsen and Soren Kristian Toubro. Both were strongly committed to developing India's engineering capabilities to meet the demands of its industries. More than seven decades of a strong, customer-focused approach and the continuous quest for worldclass quality have enabled L&T to attain and sustain leadership in all its major lines of business. L&T has an international presence, with a global spread of offices. The company continues to grow its global footprint, with offices and manufacturing facilities in multiple countries. L&T's businesses are supported by a wide marketing and distribution network and have established a reputation for strong customer support. L&T believes that progress must be achieved in harmony with the environment. A commitment to community welfare and environmental protection are also integral parts of its corporate vision.

L&T Construction
L&T's construction arm, L&T Construction, is the largest construction organisation in India. It has high rankings in various international contractor surveys, ranking fourth in a Newsweek list of 'green' companies and ninth most innovative by Forbes International. It also won the Infrastructure Company of the Year award at the EPC World Awards in December 2012.

L&T Construction's cutting edge capabilities cover every discipline of construction, be it civil, mechanical, electrical or instrumentation engineering as well as services extending to large industrial and infrastructure projects from concept to commissioning. It has played a prominent role in India's industrial and infrastructure development by executing several projects across the length and breadth of the country and around the globe. L&T's Project Management expertise has repeatedly demonstrated its ability to deliver projects, even under critical conditions and stringent timelines. Its high standards of professionalism with its clients have helped it win over many difficult situations that would have otherwise caused bottlenecks in execution and successful commissioning.

Indian cement industry

L&T Construction's association with the cement industry dates back to the very early days of the industry and continues today with cutting-edge technology that covers every discipline of construction. L&T Construction has an impeccable record in the cement plant construction for the design and construction of major cement plants on an engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) basis, meeting the complete requirements of its clients to world-class standards with speed, economy, quality and safety. Being a pioneer in the construction industry, L&T Construction has constructed cement plants with a total capacity of about 80Mt/yr. In 2012 alone L&T added 12.8Mt/yr of cement production capacity to the Indian cement industry to international standards. Some of the recently executed Indian cement projects include: Vicat Sagar Cement, Karnataka. UltraTech Rajashree, Karnataka. Wonder Cements, Rajasthan. KCP Cement Plant, Andhra Pradesh. Zuari Cement, Yerraguntla, Andhra Pradesh. India Cements, Rajasthan.

First cement plant for Vicat Sagar Cements

A case study is presented here in its entirety, displaying the core competencies of L&T in the execution of a state-of-the-art cement plant. The superior technology implemented by L&T and the initiatives taken thereby provide an analytical frame for completion of plant erection within stipulated schedules. This ensures the highest standards of quality and safety.

Vicat Sagar Cement Plant constructed by L&T

Vicat Sagar Cement Pvt. Ltd., (VSCPL) a joint venture between the Vicat Group of France and Sagar Cements Limited of India, put up its first integrated greenfield cement plant at Chatrasala Village in Gulbarga District of Karnataka, India. The plant has a cement capacity of 2.75Mt/yr along with waste heat recovery (WHR) system.

VSCPL awarded the civil execution, structural, plate-work and equipment erection contract to L&T. The scope of work included the construction of all major process buildings including eight silos; one 16,000t blending silo, two 60,000t clinker silos, one 6000t fly ash silo and four 10,000t cement silos.

Innovations and construction methodology

To cater to the erection activity within the stringent time schedules of the cement industry, L&T implemented certain innovations and new technologies during construction to enhance productivity. Many advantages by the successful implementation of the new measures at Vicat Sagar have convinced L&T to use the technologies for other new and upcoming cement plant projects as well. 1. Mast Climbing System for silo post tensioning: The standard practice for silo post tensioning stressing works includes the use of staging and side tower arrangement. This standard practice involves movement of labour and post tensioning equipment to a height of around 5060m, a laborious and time consuming process. Furthermore, labour productivity is low, owing to extensive scaffolding arrangements and in the construction of temporary platforms. Thus, a new initiative for the silo post tensioning was taken up. A Mast Climbing System was provided for uninterrupted and smooth access to the stressing locations at both sides of the ribs. In this arrangement, a rack-and-pinion system was assembled, along with a working platform to enable movement of the working platform to the full height of the silo. This contributed to higher labour productivity, reducing the costs related to scaffolding and additional manpower mobilisation. Worker safety was better ensured by an auto-locking mechanism. The productivity increased to such a level that the post tensioning for the 60m-high silo was completed within a period of 15 days. 2. Optimised use of plant and machinery: L&T has consistently utilised tower cranes for equipment erection at elevated levels. The 165m-high preheater, which is the tallest structure in the plant, was the right location for effectively utilising tower cranes for equipment erection. This enabled completion of preheater mechanical erection in a short time-span. To achieve the timelines, meticulous micro-level planning was performed which laid out activities right from the foundation stage to commissioning. Two tower cranes, one 25t crane for mechanical erection and another 16t crane for civil works, were deployed right from the beginning of the project, which has helped in achieving the progress of both the civil and mechanical activities. The tower cranes positioned at the preheater also catered to the erection of other structures in the raw mill and coal mill building. Thereby, equipment in the adjacent buildings was also erected within a short period of time ensuring effective and optimum utilisation of plant and machinery resources. 3. Parallel progress of both civil and mechanical works in the preheater: In the preheater, mechanical erection clearance will be issued only after completion of de-staging and de-shuttering of the slab. This procedure was being followed for all the slabs in the preheater, leading to a delay in initiating the mechanical erection activities.

Considering the time impact this procedure has on the project schedules, the L&T formwork design team prepared a detailed staging and shuttering plan where the cyclones are erected before the staging works starts for the next slab. Subsequent slab staging was done using L&T's heavy duty towers around the cyclones where the structural members are used for supporting the entire slab shuttering arrangement. This staging arrangement has a smaller footprint in the lower slab where the cyclone erection is carried out. This technique has yielded considerable reductions in time and labour. To implement this new system L&T's formwork team made a detailed implementation plan considering workers' safety and other execution issues. 4. Slip-form angle bracket for clinker silo ring beam: The standard practice for casting the ring beam in a clinker silo is by scaffolding. This demands shuttering and de-shuttering works that are not only very labour intensive but also call for an extensive lead time. A new technique using slip-form angle bracket for the ring beam was initiated to cut down the huge costs incurred in mobilising these resources. The usage of a crane facilitated mechanised construction and reduced costs. 5. Automation in fabrication yard: The nature of the soil and regular rainfall obstructed crane and machinery movement inside the plant during construction. L&T therefore implemented micro-planning to enable maximum fabrication within the yard premises and customised the plant and machinery in order to suit the local soil conditions. A modern gantry crane was installed, similar to that in a factory, to obtain the required output on time and easy movement of raw as well as finished material on site. The set-up was on a par with any self-reliant factory setup to meet the complete structural and plate fabrication requirement. This implementation enabled uninterrupted supply of fabricated items to the work site, speeding up the scope of mechanical works.

Safety standards
L&T has adopted and implemented various Quality Plans and Safety Plans to maintain and achieve benchmark results in quality and safety. With over 172 acres of plant area, a workforce of more than 3100 and an average working height of 40m, L&T was able to successfully maintain its reputation of having the highest safety standards at its cement plants by clocking over 15 million injury-free safe man hours. This is L&T's second project site where it has received the most prestigious British Safety Council Award.

Achievements
The project was executed using advanced L&T formwork systems. L&T was able to mobilise 2600t of formwork material exclusively for this project while construction activity was at its peak. The formwork system was utilised efficiently to complete the civil works with high standards of quality and safety within the stipulated time schedule. It was a momentous occasion when L&T was able to set the record for erecting the 467t, 4.75m-diameter, 74m-long rotary kiln shells in 23hr 35min.

The project achieved all the major milestones sequentially and has successfully despatched its first cement bag on 16 January 2013.

Cement trends in India

L&T consistently evaluates the problems faced by customers and initiates action plans to identify economical solutions for those issues. Due to various environmental factors, cement manufacturers are under continuous pressure to operate their plants at lower emission levels and reduce their specific energy consumption. The market scenario also plays a major role in this area. India, one of the fastest growing economies, attracts foreign investment in cement production due to current policies and the country's future potential. Yet the per capita of cement consumption in India is still as low as 150kg/capita/yr, compared to the global average of 350kg/capita/yr. Indian cement consumption has to improve if the economy is set to achieve high growth rates. This creates stiff competition in the domestic market making cement producers explore ways to cut their operational costs. The entire Indian cement industry is on an upgrade spree ranging from plant capacity enhancements, process optimisation, reduced emission control levels and implementation of alternate fuel firing systems, WHR systems and captive power plants. These upgrade activities will enable the manufacturers to stay competitive even in an environment where the demand is very low. The environmental ministry has also implemented strict norms in terms of emissions and energy consumption levels where manufacturers would have to pay a penalty if the required government standards are not being met. These are the prime areas of focus for L&T's design team to provide solutions that suit Indian customers. Cement plant upgrades are expected to be carried out without affecting production; hence plant manufacturers favour technologies that require the least down-time. These are the critical challenges in implementing upgradation projects, which L&T is gearing up to address. Substantial progress has been achieved in construction areas where cutting edge machineries are deployed to speed up the construction progress and reduce time and labour. The first major step in reducing plant implementation time is to construct plants on an EPC basis.

EPC concept The future

EPC concept came into existence many decades ago and is widely employed in thermal power plants, nuclear reactors, oil refineries and cross-country pipe lines. The EPC concept paved the way for faster completion of the project, thereby reducing project cost and break-even periods for the customer. In a volatile market scenario, customers do not have the privilege of absorbing the additional cost for delayed projects. The timelines need to be met, shareholders shown good returns and funds repaid to lenders. With such demanding scenarios, even the time available for decision making is very short. Implementing a project despite all these constraints is becoming more complex day by day, thus making the EPC concept the answer to all these challenges. The entire project concept, engineering, procurement, supply-chain, erection and commissioning is completed faster if a single entity is entrusted with all these activities.

However the Indian cement industry has traditionally ordered equipment in packages, where all equipment is ordered by the client directly and the interlinking between departments is entrusted to the client. This methodology appears to be the choice for cost-effectiveness but the final figures show a completely different story. Direct ordering may be cost-effective during the initial stages of the project, but ultimately most of the projects end up spending more than the budgeted value due to various factors, including delays. If any one of the following issues such as interfacing between different equipment suppliers, scope of each vendor, delivery of equipment and operation of the plant are not handled properly, the total project cost is expected to reach levels beyond the estimated budget, due to ever-increasing interest rates for the acquired capital. Many cement projects are still under implementation four years from their start date, due to lack of funds, which is the kind of situation every customer wants to avoid. This risk is mitigated in EPC by pegging the project cost on the date the contract is signed. Hence customers can plan their cash flow according to the stages of the project, which are fixed in the past and no cost escalation can be possible. EPC has been proven to be very cost-effective in the long run where better monitoring of the project progress is possible. The EPC provider will be held responsible for completing the project on time. The entire engineering, manufacturing and supply process becomes faster in EPC as the supplier is bound to perform, considering the responsibility he is vested with in order to avoid demurrages. This driving factor ensures timely completion of the project and insulates the customer from the effects of project delays and loss of revenue.

Innovative EPC solutions One-stop shop

Only a few organisations have the capability to provide EPC solutions to the cement industry in which L&T Construction is a leader. It offers a wide range of turn-key solutions to cement plant customers on an EPC basis. In-order to address the concerns and provide quality solutions to the cement and process industry, L&T has established an office in Hyderabad called 'L&T Cement & Process Plants.' It is dedicated to providing turnkey solutions for cement plants along with offerings to the food, paper, sugar and chemical industries. L&T Cement & Process Plants division specialises in providing turnkey solutions for total construction, balance of plant (BOP) and EPC. This division's engineering department, with its multi-disciplinary approach to design and integrated solutions has a team of professionals with vast experience in cement and process plants. The team provides solutions from concept to commissioning on EPC basis to satisfy the needs of individual customer right from the enquiry stage. With the domain knowledge, requisite expertise and wide-ranging experience to undertake EPC/BOP of cement plants, L&T's specialisation extends to cost-effective and optimised design solutions. In 2012, L&T Cement & Process Plants introduced retrofit specialisation to its profile, through which it can provide retrofits for the existing cement plants right from plant study to complete replacement and commissioning of equipment. This makes L&T a capable partner for simplifying cement plant solutions.

Air Pollution Control Devices

Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
ESP control devices ionize contaminated air flowing between the electrodes. The charged particles (contaminants) travel to the oppositely charged plates. The particles on the plates are removed. These particles can be dry dust or liquid droplets (liquid droplets is more efficient). The particles that are removed from the plates are knocked off to the bottom of the ESP. ESPs have high efficiency and low pressure drops.

These devices are used after the roller mill and after the cement kiln in the production of cement to reduce emissions of particulate matter such as cement kiln dust. Often spray towers are used before the ESP in order to moisten the particulates, increasing ESP efficiency.

Baghouse Filters
In these control devices, polluted air is filtered through the bags. The bags are closed at the bottom, and are exposed to a clean air chamber at the top. The bags are cleaned by short bursts of pressured air. The bags contracts and snaps which releases the particulate layer.

Baghouses are used in cement production at the top of material storage silos and gas separators. They help ESP at Cement Plant prevent any particulate matter escape Plant the process. Anything collected in the bag filters is simply release back into the process to be used in the cement making.

Baghouse at Cement

In-situ Monitoring Devices

In-situ monitoring device attached to side of cement kiln stack

SO2, NOx, and hydrocarbon emissions

are monitored using in-situ monitors. The readings are transmitted to the control room. The control operator uses this information in order to adjust temperature or flow of the material in order to reduce emissions. These devices are placed near the top of the cement kiln stack.

Monitor that displays current emissions of SO2, NOx, and HCs

Selective Noncatalytic Reduction

At 900-1000C ammonia will reduce NOx concentrations to N2 without a catalyst. The ammonia is injected into a boiler to reduce NOx concentrations in the boiler. Proper temperatures must be achieved in order to create a fuel-rich reburn zone. The hydrocarbon radicals react with NOx to reduce NOx to N2. This system can be used to prevent NOx formation in the cement kiln.