Introduction to Astronomy

Notes from Olivier Henry (henry@alumni.caltech.edu), based on Coursera Introduction to Astronomy course by Prof. Ronen Plesser 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Coordinates on Earth: longitude/latitude.................................................................................6 Motion of the stars in the sky ..................................................................................................6 Seasons ....................................................................................................................................7 Horizontal coordinate system..................................................................................................8 Equatorial coordinate system ..................................................................................................9 Recap: Horizontal vs. Equatorial coordinate system.............................................................11 Localizing stars......................................................................................................................11 7.1. Using observers latitude, declination and altitude. ......................................................11 7.2. Exercise: maximum rise of a star based on latitude & declination ...............................12 7.3. Exercise: how high is the Sun at noon?.........................................................................12 8. Solar time vs. Sidereal time...................................................................................................13 8.1. Ignoring Precession and Nutation effects......................................................................13 8.2. Exercise: when will we see Vega at its highest point....................................................14 8.3. Precession effect............................................................................................................14 8.4. Nutation effect...............................................................................................................15 8.5. Equation of Time...........................................................................................................15 Part 1: Influence of Earths orbit around the Sun..................................................................16 Part 2: Influence of Earths inclination .................................................................................17 9. Motion of the Moon ..............................................................................................................18 9.1. The hidden side of the Moon.........................................................................................18 9.2. Eclipses..........................................................................................................................19 9.3. Partial, Total and Penumbral eclipses ...........................................................................20 10. Planetary Motions..............................................................................................................21 10.1. Synodic period...........................................................................................................21 10.2. Three laws of Kepler .................................................................................................22 a) The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.......................22 b)A line joining a planet & the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.22 c) The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit....................................................................................................23 Example: period of the ISS ...................................................................................................23 10.3. Centripetal force ........................................................................................................23 10.4. Newton's law of universal gravitation .......................................................................24 10.5. Law of conservation of momentum...........................................................................24 10.6. Potential energy.........................................................................................................25 10.7. Law of conservation of energy..................................................................................25 Exercise: finding the thermal velocity...................................................................................25 Exercise: finding the escape velocity ....................................................................................25 10.8. Tidal forces................................................................................................................25 11. Waves ................................................................................................................................27 11.1. General definitions ....................................................................................................27 11.2. Doppler effect............................................................................................................27 11.3. Light ..........................................................................................................................27 11.4. Heat transfer and radiation ........................................................................................27 Heat transfer ..........................................................................................................................27 Radiation ...............................................................................................................................28 Luminosity is in W (=J/s)......................................................................................................28 Page 1/91

Exercise: Flow produced by Sun at its surface......................................................................28 Exercise: Temperature of the Sun .........................................................................................29 Exercise: color of the Sun .....................................................................................................29 Exercise: finding the speed of an helium particle, knowing temperature .............................29 12. Electromagnetic force........................................................................................................29 13. Solar system ......................................................................................................................30 13.1. General ......................................................................................................................30 13.2. The Sun......................................................................................................................31 13.3. Interplanetary medium ..............................................................................................31 13.4. Age of the Solar system.............................................................................................32 13.5. Nuclear/radioactivity decay.......................................................................................33 13.6. Radiometric dating ....................................................................................................33 13.7. Radiometric dating (Uranium-lead) ..........................................................................33 13.8. The creation of the solar system................................................................................34 13.9. KelvinHelmholtz contraction: gravity contraction! heat ......................................35 13.10. Terrestrial formation..................................................................................................35 13.11. Beyond the Snow line................................................................................................36 13.12. Orbital resonance.......................................................................................................36 Kirkwood gap ........................................................................................................................36 The Nice model .....................................................................................................................36 13.13. Timeline of the creation of the Solar system.............................................................37 14. The Earth ...........................................................................................................................38 14.1. General ......................................................................................................................38 14.2. Internal Heat ..............................................................................................................38 14.3. Finding temperature of Earth ....................................................................................38 Ignoring Earths atmosphere .................................................................................................38 Greenhouse model.................................................................................................................39 14.4. The Atmosphere ........................................................................................................39 14.5. Earth magnetism........................................................................................................40 15. The Moon ..........................................................................................................................41 16. Planets detection methods .................................................................................................43 16.1. Astrometry.................................................................................................................43 16.2. Radical velocity.........................................................................................................43 16.3. Transit method...........................................................................................................43 16.4. What have we found? ................................................................................................44 17. Analyzing Stars .................................................................................................................45 17.1. Laws of conservations of charge and of electrons ....................................................45 17.2. Chemical reactions to create heat..............................................................................45 17.3. Nuclear Fission to create heat ...................................................................................45 17.4. Nuclear fusion to create heat: PP chain.....................................................................46 Exercise: quantity of He produced since the Suns birth ......................................................46 17.5. Solar Structure...........................................................................................................47 The core.................................................................................................................................47 Inner Mantle ..........................................................................................................................47 Outer Mantle..........................................................................................................................47 Chromosphere .......................................................................................................................47 Corona ...................................................................................................................................47 17.6. Solar weather.............................................................................................................48 17.7. Parallax, or Finding distance from the Star...............................................................49 17.8. Astrometry, or finding the speed of the Stars............................................................50 17.9. Stellar statistics..........................................................................................................51 17.10. Binary stars................................................................................................................51 Page 2/91

17.11. Eclipsing binary stars ................................................................................................51 17.12. Recap: Analyzing Stars .............................................................................................52 By visual observation ............................................................................................................52 Using Doppler effect .............................................................................................................52 Particular case of Eclipsing binaries .....................................................................................53 17.13. Mass-luminosity relation...........................................................................................53 17.14. Main-sequence stars ..................................................................................................53 This is our Sun.......................................................................................................................53 CNO cycle for MS stars > 1.3 Rsun ........................................................................................53 Radiation and Convection effects..........................................................................................54 Expansion by contraction ......................................................................................................54 18. Star evolution ....................................................................................................................55 18.1. Star creation process..................................................................................................55 18.2. T-Tauri stars ..............................................................................................................55 18.3. Main Sequence ..........................................................................................................56 18.4. From MS to Subgiant stars........................................................................................56 18.1. From Subgiant to Red giant branch stars ..................................................................56 18.2. From Red giant branch to Helium core flash ............................................................57 18.3. From Helium core flash to Horizontal branch...........................................................57 18.4. From Horizontal branch to Asymptotic Giant branch...............................................58 18.5. From Asymptotic Giant branch (AGB) to Thermal Pulse AGB ...............................58 18.6. From Thermal Pulse AGB to White Dwarf...............................................................58 18.7. White Dwarf Nova ....................................................................................................59 18.8. Supernova (type Ia) ...................................................................................................59 18.9. Instability branch: Variable stars as Standard candles ..............................................60 18.10. Blue stragglers...........................................................................................................61 18.11. From MS to Red Supergiant......................................................................................61 18.12. From Red Supergiant to Helium flash to Blue Supergiant........................................61 18.13. From Blue Supergiant to Massive star AGB.............................................................62 18.14. From MS to Wolf-Rayet stars ...................................................................................63 18.15. From MS to LBV stars ..............................................................................................63 18.16. From Core collapse to Supernova type-Ib/Ic/II.........................................................63 18.17. From Supernova type-Ib/Ic/II to Neutron (pulsar) star .............................................64 18.18. Recap: Stars on HR diagram .....................................................................................65 19. Relativity ...........................................................................................................................66 19.1. Principle of Relativity ...............................................................................................66 19.2. Spacetime ..................................................................................................................66 19.3. Lorentz transformations ............................................................................................66 19.4. Relativistic Spacetime ...............................................................................................67 19.5. Length contraction.....................................................................................................67 19.6. Time dilation .............................................................................................................67 19.7. Doppler effect due to high speed...............................................................................67 19.8. Velocity addition .......................................................................................................67 19.9. Lorentz metric ...........................................................................................................67 19.10. The Invariant Interval................................................................................................68 Time-like interval ..................................................................................................................68 Light-like interval..................................................................................................................69 Space-like interval.................................................................................................................69 19.11. Conservation laws .....................................................................................................69 19.12. Lorentz transformations applied to Energy and Momentum.....................................69 19.13. Principle of Equivalence ...........................................................................................69 19.14. Gravitational redshift.................................................................................................70 Page 3/91

19.15. Relativistic Potential energy......................................................................................71 19.16. Gravitational lensing .................................................................................................71 19.17. Gravity is geometry ...................................................................................................72 19.18. Gravitational waves...................................................................................................72 20. Black holes ........................................................................................................................73 20.1. Horizon......................................................................................................................73 20.2. Singularity .................................................................................................................73 20.3. Emission of X-rays....................................................................................................73 20.4. No Hair ......................................................................................................................74 20.5. Cosmic censorship conjecture ...................................................................................74 20.6. Hawking radiation .....................................................................................................74 20.7. Wormholes ................................................................................................................74 20.8. Example: compute wavelength of X-ray emission of the accretion disk surrounding black hole ..................................................................................................................................75 21. Galaxies .............................................................................................................................76 21.1. The Milky way ..........................................................................................................76 21.2. Tracking matter .........................................................................................................76 21.3. The Milky way disk structure....................................................................................76 21.4. The Milky Buldge and Core......................................................................................77 21.5. The Milky Halo .........................................................................................................77 21.6. Weighting the Milky way..........................................................................................77 21.7. Dark matter................................................................................................................78 21.8. Spiral galaxies ...........................................................................................................78 21.9. Galactic evolution......................................................................................................78 21.10. Measuring distance to galaxies: Redshift..................................................................79 21.11. Cosmic expansion......................................................................................................79 21.12. Recap on formulas.....................................................................................................80 21.13. Galaxy clusters ..........................................................................................................81 22. Cosmology.........................................................................................................................82 22.1. The cosmological principle .......................................................................................82 22.2. Robertson-Walker model ..........................................................................................82 22.3. Angular size distance (k=0).......................................................................................82 22.4. Luminosity distance (k=0).........................................................................................83 22.5. Correcting the temperature for redshift .....................................................................83 22.6. Correcting the galaxy speeds for redshift..................................................................84 22.7. Einstein field equations .............................................................................................84 22.8. Isotropic Homogenous Matter...................................................................................85 22.9. Friedmann equations .................................................................................................85 22.10. Cosmological parameters ..........................................................................................86 22.11. The Early universe: radiation era ..............................................................................86 22.12. Matter-dominance era................................................................................................86 22.13. Dark-energy-dominance era ......................................................................................86 22.14. The Particle horizon ..................................................................................................87 22.15. The event horizon......................................................................................................87 22.16. Cosmic microwave background ................................................................................87 CMB ......................................................................................................................................87 Angular Power Spectrum of the CMB ..................................................................................88 22.17. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis.........................................................................................88 22.18. LCDM Cosmology ....................................................................................................89 22.19. Inflation .....................................................................................................................89 22.20. Exercise: compute the distance when the light was emitted, and the distance now, from a galaxy.............................................................................................................................90 Page 4/91

22.21. Exercise: compute the distance angular radius of an object......................................90 22.22. Exercise: compute the brightness of an object, knowing its luminosity ...................90 22.23. Exercise: compute the observed luminosity period, knowing its real luminosity period (e.g. when light was emitted) .........................................................................................90 22.24. Plasma and Ionization ...............................................................................................91

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1.

Coordinates on Earth: longitude/latitude

Longitude is going east.

2. Motion of the stars in the sky

Because of the Earths rotation, starts are moving with an ! angle which depends on the latitude of the observer (Stars except the Sun - are so far from Earth that they seem fixed): ! = 90 - latitude. Hence: Highest point, from For an observer on the pole, observers view starts go on a path parallel to the celestial equator Stars rise and descend The Sun moves along the Celestial sphere from West to East (RA increases), because The Earth rotates in the same direction as it orbits around the Sun. Within a year we see all stars.

Spring/Summer on Northern Hemisphere

Spring/Summer on Southern Hemisphere Page 6/91

Special case when "=90: We can use the starts to find our latitude: the angle above our head to which we see the Polaris star corresponds to our latitude on Earth. Polaris (or ! UMi, or ! Ursae Minoris, or Alpha Ursae Minoris) is a North Star (also called Pole Star) in the constellation Ursa minor (petite ourse in French), very close to the celestial pole. Also, stars located at the observers Zenith have declination = latitude. Zenith The zenith is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the imaginary celestial sphere. The zenith angle is the angle between a direction of interest (e.g., a star) and the local zenith.

3. Seasons
Seasons are due to the inclination of Earth (24) vs. the Sun. At solstice, the day is the longest or shortest. Solstice comes from Latin sol (sun) and stilium (stoppage) because from one day to the next, the Sun seems to stay at the same place vs. Earth. At Equinox, day and night are about the same length: 12 hours, except on poles. On poles, days are 6 months, nights are 6 months, changing at solstice. In fact, this would be true if the Sun was just a point. But since the Sun is seen from Earth as a sphere, in practice the day is longer by a few minutes (depending on the latitude). At equinoxes, Sun rises vertically. Vernal equinox is ~ March 21, Autumnal equinox is ~ September 21. June solstice is ~ June 21, December solstice is ~ December 21.

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Earth is inclined 23.5, which 1. Creates seasons 2. Creates the impression from Earth that the Sun is orbiting in an elliptic path, called the Ecliptic.

The Earth rotates in the same direction as it orbits around the Sun.

4. Horizontal coordinate system

This system is using: 1. azimuth (angle from magnetic North) 2. altitude (height of the star in the sky)

The stars altitude and azimuth change through the night and depend on the observers position.

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5. Equatorial coordinate system

This system is using: 1. Right ascension is the longitude (going east). But not starting from Greenwich, rather from the Vernal Equinox. Degrees are converted in hours minutes seconds (24h = 360) 2. Declination is the latitude of the star if projected on Earth 3. RA always remain the same for a Star, except for close Stars like the Sun. RA varies between -23.5 and +23.5 for the Sun, through the year. This system does not depend on the observers position or time. 1 degree = 1hour of arc 1 hour of arc = 60 minutes of arc = 3600 seconds of arc Thumb is ~ 1 degree at arms length Hand is ~ 20 degrees at arms length 20

-23.5 RA +23.5 RA Hour Hour

0 RA For two stars one hour of right ascension apart, you will see one star cross your meridian one hour of time before the other. The start of the RA (Vernal equinox) can be easily visualized using the Pisces (poisson) constellation:

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Remember that from Earth, in this coordinate Stars seem fixed, because celestial sphere very big.

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6. Recap: Horizontal vs. Equatorial coordinate system

Horizontal coordinate system (azimuth, altitude) Equatorial coordinate system (RA, Declination)

7. Localizing stars
7.1. Using observers latitude, declination and altitude.

ZA = Zenith Angle
(angle between star and observers zenith), seen from observer

Latitude = !

declination + ZA Declination-ZA

or depending on position of star vs. observer and Altitude = 90-ZA

ZA = |latitude declination|

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7.2. Exercise: maximum rise of a star based on latitude & declination

If observers latitude is 38 and Stars declination is 30, then ZA= 8 and therefore Star will raise at maximum at 90-8 = 82 above the observers horizon.

7.3. Exercise: how high is the Sun at noon?

From Athens, how high is the Sun at noon? Athens is a latitude 37.7N. At Equinox Declination = 0, therefore ZA = 37.7 since ZA = |latitude declination| Therefore, Altitude = 52.3 since Altitude = 90-ZA. At Summer solstice Declination = +23.5, therefore ZA = 37.7-23.5 = 14.2 and altitude = 90-14.2 = 75.8. At Winter solstice Declination = -23.5, therefore ZA = |-37.7-23.5| = 61.2 and altitude = 90-61.2 = 28.8.

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8. Solar time vs. Sidereal time

8.1. Ignoring Precession and Nutation effects
By definition, 24h is the time needed for the Earth to see the Sun come back at the same place. This is called the solar time. But that ignores the fact that during this time, the Earth has been orbiting around the Sun. Hence the Earth rotates in less than 24h. This is called the sidereal time.

1. Earth orbits around the Sun in 365.25 days ! !24 = 360/365.25 per day, or per 24h. This is the degrees by which the Earth orbits the Sun in 24h 2. Earth rotates 360 + !24 in 24h 360 in 360/(360 + !24) x 24h ! Earth rotates 360 in Tsideral = 360/(360 + !24) x 24 = 23h 56 in Tsideral = 23h 56 Time for Earth to do 360 rotation Tsolar = 24h Time for Earth to view Sun at the same place

This is equivalent to Tsolar - Tsideral = 1/366.25 days = 24x60/366.25 " 4 min (3.83 min) since in one year, the Earth rotates 365 times relative to the Sun, but 366 times relative to the stars. That is why Stars (including therefore the Sun) rise 4 minutes earlier every day. Hence in one year, the Earth has rotated 365.25x24/23.93356 = 366.2 times. Hence stars shift slowly with every year. This effects adds to the precession effect. Solar time is called local time On Sep 21, solar time and sidereal time are the same ST = LT +/- 4minutes Sidereal time= 0 at vernal equinox (June 21st). Any celestial body is crossing the local meridian at its right ascension.

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Earth rotates 366.25 times @ 23h56, or 365.25 times @ 24h. Therefore, sidereal time for Earth is 365.25 days (of 24h). Local Sidereal Time Sidereal Time (Greenwich Sidereal Time) is the time such as a day is 23h56 min, and starts (ST=0) at Vernal equinox. Local Sidereal Time is the Sidereal time, but depending on the observers location. Local Sidereal Time = Greenwich Sidereal Time + observers longitude in hours (360 = 24h) Local Sidereal Time vs. local (Solar) time On September 21: local time = Local Sidereal Time. Then # = 4 minutes per day On December 21: local time = Local Sidereal Time - 6h on Dec 21 0:00 ST, its not On March 21: local time = Local Sidereal Time - 12h yet Dec 21 LT because On June 21: local time = Local Sidereal Time - 18h Tsideral = 23h 56 Each star is at its highest point (= on our meridian) when Local Sidereal Time = RA.

8.2. Exercise: when will we see Vega at its highest point

When is Vega as high as possible (from our point of view) at midnight? Vegas RA is 18h36. Vega is on our meridian at Local Sideral Time = 18h36. (ignoring latitude and time zone effects) 1. On June 21st, LST = LT + 18h therefore at LT = 0 on June 21st, LST= 18h and Vega is nearly on our meridian. Hence Vega is at its highest point at midnight LT, on June 21st + 9 days (36 = 9 days x 4) = July 1st. 2. We could also do: 18h36 = 18+36/60 = 18.6 h. Since 24h $ 365.25 days, 18.6h $ 283 days. September 21 + 283 days = July 1st. 3. We could also use the daily gap between Local Sidereal and Local Time (3.83 minutes). But we need to remember that this value is based on 366.25 days, not 365.25 days, so we need to withdraw 1 day: 18h36 = 1116 = 284 x 3.83 minutes ! September 21 + 283 1 days = July 1st.

8.3. Precession effect

When the Earth is orbiting around the Sun, and rotating around itself like a spinning top, the gravity from the Sun attracts the weight excess located around the Earth equator closer to the Ecliptic. This cause the Earths axis to slowly move in a cone shape, as a spinning top would do (rotation of the axis in the opposite direction of the spinning top rotation). Rotation of the axis rotates 360 in 26000 years, hence 1.4 every 100 years. Page 14/91

Because of this effect, Vernal equinox advances slightly every year, hence the name precession of the equinoxes.

8.4. Nutation effect

The Moon also creates such effect, called Nutation. Period is 18.6 years. Oscillation is 17,2" = 17.2/3600 = 0.005

Precession + Nutation effect

8.5. Equation of Time

The Earths orbit around the Sun is not a circle, for several reasons. Because of this, the Sun is not moving at a regular speed around the Ecliptic. The equation of Time indicates the difference between the time viewed from a sundial (real) and the official time (or apparent because based on the assumption that the Sun is moving at regular speed on the Ecliptic). The sundial indicates the real time, whereas our clocks indicate the apparent time (= average)

Real time = Apparent time - !T(d) where d is the day (d=1 for Jan 1st).

The real equation of Time in minute is: #T(d) = 4 x [C(d) + R(d)] C (d) = 1.918 sin(d) + 0.02 sin(2d) + 0.0003 sin(3d) R(d) = -2.468 sin(2d) + 0.053 sin(4d) 0.0014 sin(6d)

where C and R are expressed in degree, such as:

This can actually be approximated as: !T(d) = !Tc(d) + !Tr(d) #Tc (d) = 7.678 sin (B+1.374) #Tr (d) = -9.87 sin (2B)

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Part 1

Part 2

Equation of time = sum

Where B(d) = 2" (d-81)/365

(d=81 is the Spring Equinox)

Part 1: Influence of Earths orbit around the Sun

Earths orbit is not really circle, its a little elliptic Earths speed is not constant on the elliptic path This effect account for up to 9 minutes difference in the real and apparent time.

Earth is fastest

Earth is slowest

(Earths orbit is greatly exaggerated on the drawing. Speed varies from 30287 km/s to 29291 km/s) Perihelion happens around Jan 4, Aphelion happens around July 4. !Tc (d) = 7.678 sin (B+1.374) Page 16/91

Part 2: Influence of Earths inclination

Earth is inclined, therefore the Suns projection on the Ecliptic is not linear This creates a difference between the real time and the apparent Sun

!Tr (d) = -9.87 sin (2B)

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9. Motion of the Moon

9.1. The hidden side of the Moon
The Moon rotates in 27.323 days. This is its sidereal period, also called its sidereal month. Which means RA of the moon increases by 48 per day (vs. 4 for the Sun). Because the Earth is moving around the Sun, the Moons full rotation relative to the Sun is actually longer. This is called the synodic month = 29.53 days. The synodic period drives the full moon cycle. The sidereal period is also the time that the Moon takes to rotate around the Earth ! from Earth, we always see the same side of the Moon. The other side will always remain hidden from Earth. We say that the Moons rotation period and orbital period are the same. This is due to the tidal forces (forces de mare) applied for the Earth to the Moon, as indicated in the figure below (where the Moon is called the satellite). Lets assume that the Moon is rotating faster than it is orbiting around the Earth. The Earths tidal forces create 2 small deformations (one on each side of the Moon), as indicated in (1). When the Moon is rotating, those deformations are rotating as well, and are now in advance of the Earth. The Earths tidal forces apply to those deformations, which tends to slow the rotation of the Moon by forcing them to go backward as indicated in (2). With time, the satellite will be rotating at the same speed as it is orbiting around the Earth. The same reasoning is valid also if the satellite was rotating slower than it is orbiting around the Earth. The tidal forces: the force on the left is stronger than on the right, making it seem the planet was exposed to two opposed forces.

as if

If the satellite was rotating faster than its orbiting speed, the tidal forces will also make it come closer to the planet. If the satellite was rotating slower than its orbiting speed, the tidal forces will make it go farther from the planet. In the case of the EarthMoon system, the Moon goes farther from Earth by about 3.8cm per year.

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9.2. Eclipses
Eclipses happen when the Sun, the Earth and the Moon are more or less aligned. We speak about solar eclipse when the Moon masks (partly) the Sun, and about lunar eclipse when the Moon passes directly behind the Earth into its umbra (shadow). Eclipses do not happen every 27 days, though. This is because the plan of the Moon rotation around the Earth is inclined vs. the plan of the Earth rotation around the Sun: The Moons orbit is tilted by 5 with respect to the ecliptic (it varies between 5 and 518 in 173 days). Like the Sun, the Moon is higher in the Summer. And both have almost the same angular size.
Full moon

Nothing Nothing

Solar eclipse Lunar eclipse Represented as a drawing:

Hence, a lunar eclipse happens roughly 2 times a year. Since the Moon orbits in 27 days, it has done half a resolution around Earth in about 2 weeks. Hence, solar eclipse (most of the time, partial) and lunar eclipse happen roughly 2 weeks at interval. In total, there are therefore about 4 eclipses (lunar and solar) per year. This is why when perfect alignment, for a particular region on Earth (250km shadow), we can have total eclipses. Practically, solar eclipse happens 2 weeks before the lunar eclipse. In fact, using the notion of saros (18.6 years interval, where the Earth, Sun and Moon have exact same position), we can compute that there are about 4.6 eclipses per year. This is because lunar and Earth orbits are not multiple of each others. Page 19/91

In the North emisphere, when eclipse, the Moon goes from East to West (appear on the right) because it enters Earth shadow from West. Thinking in terms of Nodes :

9.3. Partial, Total and Penumbral eclipses

Penumbral eclipse happen when the Moon enters the Penumbra only. Total or Partial eclipses happen when the Moon enter the Umbra.

Penumbral eclipse

When total lunar eclipse, the Moon does not totally disappear! It gets some light from the reflection of the light by the Earth.

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10. Planetary Motions

10.1. Synodic period
The synodic period is the temporal interval that it takes for an object to reappear at the same point in relation to two or more other objects, e.g., when the Moon relative to the Sun as observed from Earth returns to the same illumination phase.

The Synodic period of two planets can be easily found by solving:

where S is Synodic period (i.e. when both align again), P1 the planets period of the faster planet, P2 the planets period of the slower planet, Remember that where V is the planets speed.

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10.2.

Three laws of Kepler

a) The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci

Any point on orbit is at equal distance from each focus. r1 + r2 = 2a eccentricity e = dfoci / 2a (e=0 $ circle) The equation of an ellipse whose major and minor axes coincide with the Cartesian axes is

b)A line joining a planet & the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time
The planet moves faster near perihelion, slower near aphelion. Therefore, the closest the planet to the Sun, the fastest.

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c) The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.
P2 = K a3 where K is constant.

Or more precisely:

whereM1+M2 is the total mass of the system

Where P is the orbital period of the planet orbiting and M2 its mass, M1 the other planet (Sun)s mass, and a the semi-major axis of the orbit. G is the gravitational constant. This relation is due to the centripetal forces. Because M1 >> M2, K is constant for every planet of the Solar system. From this, we can get the planets speed for eclipses closed to circles (a%R) using P=2&R/v:

P2 = a3

if units expressed in AU and years, since for Earth, using those units we find out K=1. a = R is circle instead of ellipse. VALID FOR SUN ONLY For other Stars, express Motherstar = '. Msun, then P2 = K. a3 where K=1/ ' using AU and years.

ISS orbits at an altitude h = 370 km, Earth has radius of 6471 km and mass of 5.9272 x 1024. Hence P2 = 2 &2 R3 / GM ! P = 5510s = 91.8 m.

Example: period of the ISS

10.3.

Centripetal force

In simple terms, centripetal force is a force which keeps a body moving with a uniform speed along a circular path and is directed along the radius towards the centre. For a satellite in orbit around a planet, the centripetal force is supplied by gravity. Centripetal force (N) F= m.a where m is the mass in kg and a the centripetal acceleration.

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Attraction force On Earth, F= m.g attraction force, where g= 9.82 ms-2 constant for Earth. Notice that the smaller r, the highest the F and the v.

10.4.

Newton's law of universal gravitation

Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them: where: F is the force between the masses G is the gravitational constant = 6.67 x 10-11 N.m2/kg2 m1 is the first mass m2 is the second mass, and d is the distance between the centers of the masses.

It can be shown that the Earth is completely equivalent to a point of same mass, concentrated in the middle. Using the above formula, we can compute the effect of gravity on someone at the surface of Earth of 59kg: 579N.

10.5.

Law of conservation of momentum

We define momentum as: p = m.v The momentum represents how easy/hard it is to modify an objects course. In a closed system (one that does not exchange any matter with the outside and is not acted on by outside forces) the total momentum is constant. pA + pB = constant This is particularly interested in the case of collision, when an object stops and the other starts moving.

Notice that since F=m.a and p=m.v, F is the rate of change of p. The angular momentum is also conserved : L = m.v.R if moving in a circle. The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation: R(, so v). If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared between the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved.

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10.6.

Potential energy

Potential energy is the energy of an object or a system due to the position of the body or the arrangement of the particles of the system. For an object subject to gravity: and of the object. Note that if object is located on earth, the Potential energy (in this case, energy is I release the object) becomes: where ME and Mo are the masses of Earth

g So to sum-up: where constant for Earth

10.7.

Law of conservation of energy

Energy is constant, if no other forces than gravity is applied to an object. This is the speed of atoms excited by a certain temperature: Ec = % mv2 = 3/2 kB T Conservation of energy ! Ec = * mv2 = -G. ME m/(RE+h) ! v Comparing Thermal and Escape velocity, we can conclude whether those atoms remain in the atmosphere, or are expulsed by temperature.

Exercise: finding the thermal velocity Exercise: finding the escape velocity

10.8.
Using

Tidal forces
gives: therefore is the

acceleration on Earth due to the Sun, or Tidal acceleration, which varies depending on where we are on Earth:

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For there we get aT = a+ - a- ! This can be also expressed as:

= 5.14 x 10-8g This is a rather small value. What about the tidal forces due to the Moon? Applying the formula to the moon, we get aTmoon = 2.2 aTsun. Tides repeat every 24h44 min. Theres a 12 min lag. This effect is even increased during full moon, when Sun and Moon are aligned with Earth. At quarter moon, the tide is the smallest.

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11. Waves
11.1.

General definitions

f is the frequency, in Hz + is the wavelength, in m Energy flux transported by wave is proportional to Amplitude2 , in (J/s)/m2, or W

+.f = c where c is the speed at which the wavelength is traveling.

11.2.

Doppler effect

Where vrec and vem are the speeds of the receptor or emitter. Or, if receptor is not moving: + = +0 (1-v/c) where c is the wavelengths speed, and v the emitters speed. Notice that the frequency does not change with time: either its less than f (if emitter gets away from receptor), or it more than + (if emitter gets closer to receptor). The sound effect we see when a car passes by comes from the amplitude difference with time. The frequency is higher, but does not change with time.

11.3.

Light

Light carries energy at a speed of c = 2.998 x 10^8 m/s Color is the frequency of light, of the order of 10^12 Hz for visible colors. Our eyes are only sensitive to the intensity of Red Green Blue (RGB) colors. Because each atom absorbs particular frequencies, by looking at the spectrum of light emitted by stars, we can find which atoms are present.

11.4.

Heat transfer and radiation

Heat transfer
An object hotter than environment will lose energy until temperatures equilibrate. It can happen by: - conduction, i.e. through continuous contact - convection, i.e. through physical motion - radiation, i.e. hot objects glow losing energy to light. If energy is radiated at a rate L in J/s, at distance R

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Radiation flow is distributed uniformly on surface on a sphere F=L/(4 " R2) A hot object radiates The hotter the object, the smaller wavelength (gets blue): #max . T= b constant b=2.9 x 10-3 m.K T in Kelvins, b in meter x Kelvins where b is Wiens law

Radiation

Hotter objects radiate more: F = $.T4 where F is the flux (i.e. power/m2) radiated, and , = 5.67x10-8 W/m-2K-4 Stefan-Boltzmann constant Sunlight heat on earth is the solar constant b0 = 1361 W/m2 From this we can compute the luminosity of sunlight (L is fixed) L = 4 " d2 b0 = 3.83 x 1026 W

Flow is in W/m-2 Luminosity is in W (=J/s) Energy captured on Earth (in W/m2) = L/(4&D2) Energy radiated by Sun (in W/m2) = F.(4&Rsun2)

Exercise: Flow produced by Sun at its surface

Flow from Sun at surface is: F = L/(4& R2) and Luminosity L=4 & d2 b0 Therefore F= (d/R)2 . b0 = 6.29 x 107 W/m2

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Temperature of the part of the Sun that we see, at its surface: F = $.T4 ! T=5770 K = 5500 C

Exercise: Temperature of the Sun

Exercise: color of the Sun

Using Wiens law: +max = b/T = 0.0029/5770 = 503 nm. This corresponds to the green color. Why not yellow?

The light emitted by the Sun if refracted by the Earths atmosphere. First, the blue is refracted (which is why the Earth looks blue from space). The Sun therefore looks yellow. Then, at sunset, the distance that lights covers in the atmosphere increases, and more light gets reflected the sun looks red.

The highest frequencies get reflected first. 0K = -273.5C

Use Ec = * mv2 = 3/2 kB T

Exercise: finding the speed of an helium particle, knowing temperature

12. Electromagnetic force

(in Coulomb) to be compared with gravity force.

Force can be attractive or repulsive. Opposite charges attract to most objects are neutral. Charge is conserved A charge creates and is affected by electric field A changing magnetic field creates electric field (Faraday 1831) A changing electric field creates magnetic field (Maxwell 1861) This leads to propagating waves with velocity c speed of light ! light is an electromagnetic wave! Many waves frequencies are blocked by atmosphere, so we need to observe from space. Page 29/91

13. Solar system

13.1. General
Our solar system is composed of: the Sun (99.86% of total mass of the solar system) 8 planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (90% of the remaining solar system mass after the Sun), Uranus and Neptune. Distances from the Sun ranges from 0.39 30 AU Their 175 natural satellites (or moons), most of them orbiting Jupiter and Saturn 5 Dwarf planets: Pluto, Ceres, Eris, Makemake, Haumea Billions of small bodies All orbits are in the same plane, the Suns axis

All planets, as well as most other objects (except the Halley comet), orbit around the Sun in the same direction as the Suns rotation: counter-clockwise for an observer located on the North pole. All objects orbiting around the Sun do so in an elliptic path, from which one focus is the Sun. Planets orbit is nearly circular, while the smallest the other object, the more elliptic the path.

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Kepler's laws of planetary motion are three scientific laws describing orbital motion, each giving a description of the motion of planets around the Sun. Most of the largest natural satellites are in synchronous rotation, with one face permanently turned toward their parent. All the 4 giants have rings. A planetary ring is assumed to be quite instable, and disappear after a few thousand or millions years. Hence todays planetary rings are quite recent. One object from the ring is either attracted back to the ring, and therefore stays in the ring, or attracted by the planet (and therefore disappears within the planet). Hence rings have distinctive edges. 70.5% is Hydrogen, 27.5% is Helium, 2% is Metal

13.2.

The Sun

The Sun is a yellow dwarf, as 20-40 other billions yellow dwarf in the Milky way (for a total of 200-400 billions starts). Each second, the Sun merges 564MT of Hydrogen and produces 560MT of Helium. The difference, for a weight of 4MT, produces energy and is radiated as light and solar wind. Every 150M years, the sun looses the equivalent of 1 mass of Earth. The Sun is in its mid-life. In 5 bn years, it will become bigger, more bright, colder, more red: a red giant. It will then be several thousand times more bright than today. The Sun is a star Population I: it is born from supernovaes explosions, which created heavier metal. It is widely assumed that the presence of heavier metal in the Sun is required to form planets, grouping metals together.

13.3.

Interplanetary medium

In addition to light, the Sun also radiates a continued flow of charged particles (a plasma) called solar wind. This flows extends at a speed of 1.5M km per hour, creating an atmosphere called Heliosphere up to 100AU far from the Sun. These particles are called Interplanetary medium. Page 31/91

The solar wind explains why the second tail of comets (the plasma tail) always points away from the Sun. On Earth, solar winds can create continuous current on the high-voltage power lines, creating overload of the power transformers. The Earths magnetic field (magnetosphere) protects us more or less against the solar wind. When they penetrate near the poles, they create the Aurora Borealis. The plasma is ejected from the Sun at a speed of on average 450 km/s (between 400 800 km/s) and is composed of 73% of hydrogen and 25% helium, roughly 10^6 T per second. Because the Sun is rotating, the magnetic field lines form a spiral, called Parkers spiral.

13.4.

Age of the Solar system

Oldest rocks on Earth are 4.4bn years (Gy) Oldest rocks on the Moon are 4.4 - 4.5bn years. Oldest meteorite is 4.54bn years

Our best estimate is 4.55-4.58bn years, using radioactive dating. Atom of atomic number N and of atomic mass A has its nucleus which contains N protons (positive) and A-N neutrons (neutral). A indicates the number of nucleons Nuclei can have same N but different A. They are then called isotopes.

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13.5.

Nuclear/radioactivity decay

Most combinations are unstable and decay via: ! decay: emission of Helium nucleus, i.e. 2 protons and 2 neutrons & decay: emission of electron with conversion of neutron $ proton, or emission of a positron with conversion of proton $ neutron: or

Fission: breakup into two smaller nuclei All these decays are usually accompanied by creation of ' rays, and produce heat. Using Ec = % mv2 = 3/2 kB T (thermal velocity), we find that vhelium "vescape and therefore the Earth is loosing Helium. But it is producing Helium also, through ! decay.

13.6.

Radiometric dating

We use decay process, for example using Carbon 14: If for an atom, we know the half-life period t% (i.e. the period in which half of the remaining atoms have decayed), then the number of atoms remaining (i.e. that have not yet decayed) is: where N(t) is the number of atoms remaining, and t% the half-life period. Which means that every half-time period, half the atoms have decayed. Since atoms have no memory, after the half-time period the process starts again. Use ln to solve. Carbon 14 dating can estimate a date from a few hundreds year to 50,000 years.

13.7.

Radiometric dating (Uranium-lead)

This method can estimate a date from 1M years to 4.5bn years, with 0.1-1% precision, and uses the fact that Uranium decays into lead through 2 routes instead of 1. Hence the 2 routes should give the same dating, which in practice is not the case. Hence we reduce uncertainty. 1. 238U to 206Pb, and 2. 235U to 207Pb Under conditions where the system has remained closed, and therefore no lead loss has occurred, the age of the zircon can be calculated independently from the two equations:

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And

In practice, the results of both equations differ slightly, because Fission tracks and micro-cracks within the crystal will create conduits deep within the crystal, thereby providing a method of transport to facilitate the leaching of Pb isotopes from the zircon crystal. We use the upper intercept of the Concordia method to evaluate the age of the sample.

13.8.

The creation of the solar system

Recalling that Ec = % mv2 = 3/2 kB T $ v=f1(T) And that v2esc =G.M.m/R $ vesc =f2(R) The cloud will remain stable if f1(T) = f2(R), i.e. R=[G.M] / [3 kB T]. This can be also expressed as: Ec < EG $ 3/2 kB T< G.M.m/R Jeans instability

Conditions for a molecular cloud to stay a cloud

Where M is the mass of the cloud, and m the mass of each particle. Hence, if clusters form, temperature gets higher and creates stars. In practice, if theres a singularity, or a non-conformity, the cloud will split. The solar system started as a molecular cloud. Then fragmentation and gravitational collapse created by a nearby supernova creates a fragment of around 3000 MassSun, and 2000-20000 AU in size, from which the Sun is a member of an open cluster now dispersed. If the mass had a small rotation movement, when it collapses the mass concentrates in one point, and therefore the rotation speed increases (conservation of the angular Page 34/91

momentum). That is why our galaxy, and all stars and planet, orbit together in the same direction. The closer the planet to the axis, the faster is moves. Matter orbiting around the center flattens to a ring towards the center of the rotation, exactly as what happens we turn around quickly, holding strings, which move towards our center of orbit.

13.9. KelvinHelmholtz contraction: gravity contraction! heat

As the universe concentrates, heat increases. This is also true for a star or planets.

This is due to the law of conservation of energy, where energy must be radiated through temperature increase. At the center of our galaxy, temperature "2000 K, with highest planet density. Then the farther the planet from the center, the colder it gets, and the more solid we can find on the planet.

. If d (, then

13.10. Terrestrial formation

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Grains of dust collide and adhere As soon as they reach 1km in size, they are bound by gravitation The larger the object, the faster it grows. The growth rate is proportional to R4 Objects grow for 100,000 years, at which point they are called protoplanets (R % 1000km) Because of the KelvinHelmholtz contraction effects, the gravitational force heats the elements until the planet melts. The planet becomes spherical because 1) it melts and 2) of gravity Chemical differentiation occurs: heavier materials sink to core Gravity is opposed by pressure force: pressure increases when closer to the center Compression heats the core

9. Then, protoplanets accrete into larger planets, called planetesimals. It ends up with 100 Moon-Mars sized planetesimals. Page 35/91

10. Gravitational interactions distorts orbits 11. Collisions lead to merger or ejection, leaving large Venus or Mars. Other get stripped to core 12. Orbits settle to near-circular orbits in 10-100 Myears, around the Sun

13.11. Beyond the Snow line

The snow line is the distance from the Sun where it is cool enough for hydrogen compounds such as water, ammonia and methane to condense into solid. The temperature is estimated around 150K. The snow line of the solar system is around 5AU, hence Jupiter is right on the outside of this line. 1. Outside of this line, the gravity of the Sun is lower, and gas giants like Jupiter acted like our solar system: it aggregated nearly all the remaining H and He gas, and grew very rapidly until gas in orbit exhausted. 2. Jupiter rotates, exactly like our solar system, but faster (in 10h) 3. Jupiter creates a flatten ring, exactly as the Sun creates its planets orbiting Saturn is further from Sun, it started later so captured less gas, but repeated the same process.

13.12. Orbital resonance

Orbital resonance occurs when planets orbital periods the Sun are related by a ratio of small integers: nP1 = mP2. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies, i.e., their ability to alter or constrain each other's orbits, regardless of the Suns attraction. Often, resonance occurring at 2-4 AU disrupts planet formation, which creates asteroid belts around the planet. This is the case in particular for Jupiter and Saturn. In most cases, this results in an unstable interaction, in which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists.

Kirkwood gap
Resonance can also occur between asteroids gravitating around the Sun at a distance coming at resonance with Jupiters orbit. At those distances, no asteroids can be found. This is called the Kirkwood gap.

The Nice model

The Nice model, developed at the Nice observatory, explains why the Gas giants are where they are. It proposes the migration of the giant planets from an initial compact configuration into their present positions. The four model proposes that after the dissipation of the gas and dust of the primordial Solar System disk, the four giant planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune) were originally found on near-circular orbits between ~5.5 and ~17 astronomical units (AU), much more closely spaced and more compact than in the present.

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After several hundreds of millions of years of slow, gradual migration, Jupiter and Saturn, the two inmost giant planets, cross their mutual 1:2 mean-motion resonance. This resonance increases their orbital eccentricities, destabilizing the entire planetary system. The arrangement of the giant planets alters quickly and dramatically. Jupiter shifts Saturn out towards its present position, and this relocation causes mutual gravitational encounters between Saturn and the two ice giants, which propel Neptune and Uranus onto much more eccentric orbits. These ice giants then plough into the planetesimal disk, scattering tens of thousands of planetesimals from their formerly stable orbits in the outer Solar System. This disruption almost entirely scatters the primordial disk, removing 99% of its mass, a scenario which explains the modern-day absence of a dense trans-Neptunian population. Some of the planetesimals are thrown into the inner Solar System, producing a sudden influx of impacts on the terrestrial planets: the Late Heavy Bombardment.

13.13. Timeline of the creation of the Solar system

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14. The Earth

14.1.

General

71% of its surface is water Above this is atmosphere of mostly N2 and O2 Surface is rocky: Si The core is rich in metals: Fe, Ni. Inner core is solid, outer core is liquid Mantle is made of rocks Average density 5500 kg/m3 (rock is 3000 kg/m3) Pressure, density, temperature increase with depth

14.2.

Internal Heat

Heat is generated in the core by : Radioactive decay Kelvin-Helmholtz The mantle drives the convection: fluids go up, then down. Because of that, the crust - broken into plates - is dragged by mantle. This creates mountains at the surface. New crust arises from volcanic processes. Heat loss: 87W/m2 at the surface. However, most heat on Earth comes from the Suns radiation. It loses energy as radiation into space.

14.3.

Finding temperature of Earth

Ignoring Earths atmosphere

Energy captured on Earth (assuming Earth is black): Iin and also therefore (L is in W)

(T is of Sun)

Energy radiated by Earth (assuming Earth is black): Iout

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At equilibrium: Iin = Iout !

gives 279K, i.e. 6C which is too cold!

In fact, Earth is blue and therefore reflects about 0.367 of the radiation, therefore Iabs = (1-a) Iin

where a = Earths albedo = 0.367 ! colder (and below zero)!

gives 248K which is even

TEARTH is the temperature of the planet based only on the light received by the Star.

Greenhouse model
Greenhouse effect explains why temperature is higher: The atmosphere is transparent to the incoming sunlight (visible) The atmosphere partially (g) absorbs the infrared light radiated by Earth, through its molecules, reradiating part of this energy towards Earth. At equilibrium, each medium is such as Fin=Fout. Atmosphere: g., Te4 = 2., Ta4 Earths Surface : , Te4 = , Ta4 + Fin Solving the equations gives Fin = (1-g/2). , Te4 Te = (1-g/2)-1/4 Tno greenhouse

This gives:

a=0.367 and g=0.21 ! Te = 292K

a depends on clouds, g depends on molecules present in the atmosphere. Notice that changes in a & g can alter climate drastically.

14.4.

The Atmosphere

N2 and CO2 were released when minerals were cooked at high temperature. H2O was imported from outer system as ice, during heaving bombardment period (3.5bn years ago) Rain creates oceans which dissolve CO2 and fix it in sediments Plants released O2 initially taken up by Fe and S

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14.5.

Earth magnetism

Earth is a magnet, roughly aligned with rotation axis. 1. The core metal-rich - is being heated by the inner code. This drives convection. 2. Along with the rotation of the Earth, this creates a magnetic field which aligns itself with the rotation axis 3. Every 500 years, the N/S change polarity unpredictably

Charged particles of Solar wind are trapped by field lines into radiation belts. This prevents this intense flux of charged particle to arrive on Earth. The solar winds deforms the Earths field, in particular on the North pole where they penetrate Earths atmosphere. This gives the auroras in the poles.

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15. The Moon

Those linear marks indicate that the Moon is shrinking.

Temperature 370K day, 100K night (nights/days are 2 weeks long) No liquid water because water requires atmospheric pressure to retain it. Ice in crater shadows 35K No atmosphere because the Moon is not big enough to attract the molecules Lunar surface is a museum of history, because on Earth those marks are removed by tectonic activities Moonquakes are caused by Earths tidal forces No big magnetic field Mineral composition indicates it's a peace of Earth. Probably from a giant impact by a Mars-sized meteorite in early Earth history. This explains why Moon is poor in metals, since metals are in the Earth's core,

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Combining crater dating with radiometric dating of lunar samples and meteorite leads to history of bombardment rates, and 3.9bn years ago the period of heavy bombardment.

Lunar density is not much higher than that of rocks, therefore we deduce its core is very small.

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16. Planets detection methods

16.1. Astrometry

First other extra solar planets discovered in 1988. There are now 853 planets found, around 672 stars. Only 32 planets, in 28 systems have been detected by imaging. In a system with 1 planet orbiting a star, the star is slightly orbiting around the center of gravity of the system. We have: Mstar.Rstar = Mplanet.Rplanet Rsystem = Rstar + Rplanet is fixed By combining both equations, we get: Rstar = (Mplanet /Msystem).Rsystem By carefully analyzing the complex path of a Star, we can get information on orbiting planets.

16.2.

Radical velocity

We can measure the Stars speed using Doppler effect: + = +0 (1-v/c) This is valid of course if the planet is in our plan, because to measure the Doppler effect, the planet must go away/closer from us. Forcegravity, system = Forcecentripetal, star Which gives using Rstar = (Mplanet /Msystem).Rsystem : The farther the planet from the Star, the more effect it has on its velocity. Jupiters effect on the Sun is 12.5 m/s. Vplanet 498 planets in 386 systems have been detected by radial velocity measurements.

16.3.

Transit method

If a planet crosses (transits) in front of its parent star's disk, then the observed visual brightness of the star drops a small amount. The amount the star dims depends on the relative sizes of the star and the planet. For example, in the case of HD 209458, the star dims 1.7%. This method has two major disadvantages. Page 43/91

First of all, planetary transits are only observable for planets whose orbits happen to be perfectly aligned from the astronomers' vantage point. The probability of a planetary orbital plane being directly on the line-of-sight to a star is the ratio of the diameter of the star to the diameter of the orbit. About 10% of planets with small orbits have such alignment, and the fraction decreases for planets with larger orbits. For a planet orbiting a sun-sized star at 1 AU, the probability of a random alignment producing a transit is 0.47%. Therefore the method cannot answer the question of whether any particular star is a host to planets. Secondly, the method suffers from a high rate of false detections. A transit detection requires additional confirmation, typically from the radial-velocity method.

However, by scanning large areas of the sky containing thousands or even hundreds of thousands of stars at once, transit surveys can in principle find extrasolar planets at a rate that could potentially exceed that of the radial-velocity method. The main advantage of the transit method is that the size of the planet can be determined from the lightcurve. When combined with the radial-velocity method (which determines the planet's mass) one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the planet's physical structure. The transit method also makes it possible to study the atmosphere of the transiting planet. When the planet transits the star, light from the star passes through the upper atmosphere of the planet. By studying the high-resolution stellar spectrum carefully, one can detect elements present in the planet's atmosphere. 290 planets in 235 systems have been detected via transit. The Kepler telescope has found 2321 candidate planets in 1290 systems.

16.4.

What have we found?

Between 1-40% of (Sunlike) stars have planets Only a tiny zone has been explored. These methods are sensitive to Hot Jupiter: big planets orbiting close to stars.

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17. Analyzing Stars

17.1. Laws of conservations of charge and of electrons

1. Law of conservation of charges: Whatever the reaction, the total charge remains unchanged before/after the reaction has occurred. 2. Law of conservation of electrons: Whatever the reaction, the number of electrons remains unchanged before/after the reaction has occurred.

17.2.

Chemical reactions to create heat

The Sun gets part of its heat through chemical reactions. It burns 10-19 J per atom, or 6.107 J per kg of H. The Sun produces in this fashion 6.4.1018 kg/s, hence the Sun would live around 10000 years if using this process only.

17.3.
Reminder:

Nuclear Fission to create heat

1 atom = 1 nucleus + electrons orbiting = a bunch of nucleons + electrons orbiting Recall that nucleon = neutron or proton. Atoms are not charged, because the charges of the nucleons and the electrons cancel each others. Why dont nuclei break up under electric repulsion? A strong, short-range (10-15m) attractive force binds the nucleons. This gravity force is called the nuclear force. If we can break the nucleus, then the nucleons get away from each other, and liberate electrostatic energy that was used to bind them together. Practically, the binding energy per nucleon peaks around iron (Fe). Same process happens for decay.

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17.4.

Nuclear fusion to create heat: PP chain

Two atoms of H can crash and merge if 1) they have enough kinetic energy to overcome electrostatic repulsion, and 2) right alignment. 1. When they merge, the 2 protons create a proton and a neutron. Because of the law on conservation of charges, one positive electron (positron) gets created. Because of the law of conservation of the quantity of electrons, a neutrino (-) gets created.
1

2.

H + H $ H + e + -e + 0,42 MeV ( H is also called deuterium) The positron e+ positron annihilates

2

itself with an electron of a nearby H atom, which creates energy through 2 photons
+ -

e + e $ 2' + 1,02 MeV

3. The deuterium can then repeat the same process with another H atom
2

H + H $ He + . + 5,49 MeV

4. Two 3He will eventually merge

3

He + He $ He + H + H + 12,86 MeV

PP1

This process creates 4.3 10-12J through 1 He atom, guaranteeing the Sun ~ 1011 years (100 bn years) However, this process happens very infrequently (1 in 5bn years), and only temperature in the core is high enough for this process to occur in the Sun, which represents 10% of the Sun. Hence this fusion process guarantees 10bn years. Which is also roughly the Suns life, by the way.

Exercise: quantity of He produced since the Suns birth

Energy produced since birth: Luminosity (in J/s) x Suns life in s = 3.83e26 x 1.4e17s = 5.4e43 J Energy produced by 1 He atom in PP chain: 4.3e-12 J/atom of He Mass of 1 He atom ! 4 protons = 6.65e-27kg/atom Therefore; 8.41e28kg of He have been produced in the core (on top of the 27% already present uniformly).

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17.5.

Solar Structure

We know the structure of the Sun thanks to Helioseismology. The sun creates acoustic waves @3mHz. This method can also apply to other stars, in this case we talk about asteroseismology.

The core
R / 25% Rsun 7 x 10^6 K / T /1.57 x 107 K 2 x 104 kg/m3 / 0 / 1.5 x 105 kg/m3 M % 40% Msun

The Luminosity of the stars are determined by their mass, because the heavier the star, the more it contracts the core.

Inner Mantle
25% Rsun / R / 70% Rsun 2 x 10^6 K / T /7 x 106 K 103 kg/m3 / 0 / 2 x 104 kg/m3 Heat is transmitted through charged plasma, transit time 1.7 x 105 years takes a charged particle to transit from the core to the outer edge 70% Rsun / R / Rsun 5780 K / T / 2 x 106 K 2 x 10-4 kg/m3 / 0 / 103 kg/m3 The plasma becomes opaque, heat is transmitted through convection Density is low, but temperature increases with altitude h < 2000 km 5780 K / T / 50,000 K 10-10 kg/m3 / 0 / 2 x 10-4 kg/m3 2000 km / h < 1.3 Rsun T % 2 x 106 K 0 % 3 x 10-12 kg/m3 Can be observed though UV or X-Ray wavelength Temperature is very high, therefore particles are very fast, and can escape gravity of the Sun: solar wind of charged particles.

Outer Mantle

Chromosphere

Corona

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17.6.

Solar weather

The Sun is covered by sporadic sunspots, varying in 1 year cycle. Looking at those sunspots, we can see that the Sun is orbiting in ~ 25 days. Sunspots pair (+/-) appear first at mid-latitudes, and later near equator. Spots are regions of increased magnetic fields, therefore they modify the density of atoms and therefore temperature. The charge varies from one cycle to the next, because the magnetic field reverses between cycles. The equator rotates faster than the poles! This deforms the convection zone: the field gets elongated in the equator vs. the poles. Reconnection releases energy, every 11 years reverses polarity. Sunspots are those regions where the magnetic field rotates when getting released Reconnection releases magnetic energy through charged particles: up to 6x1025J, in gas @107K. This is the solar wind, which takes ~3 days to arrive to Earth, if projected in our direction

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17.7.

Parallax, or Finding distance from the Star

To find the distance from a Star to Earth, we look at the angle at which we see the Star, from 2 distance points.

Dsun/D = tan(1) ! 1 = Atan(Dsun/D) % Dsun/D Atan(r) % r if r <<1, i.e. typically expressed in radians (1 NOK, but it gives 0.02 radians OK) Tan(r) % r if r <<1 where DAU is D expressed in AU
Convert to

Convert to arc seconds 206265 is the AUto-parsec conversion factor

where

Evaluating the distance of Stars enable to build a 3D map of our universe. Today, we have registered 2.5M stars. Gaia mission will be launched in 2013 to extend our knowledge. Parallax formula above is used when angle is parallax angle (i.e. angle between 2 Earths positions). This is NOT to be confused with angle we see from one fixed position on Earth! In this latter case, we must use angle x Distance from Earth, where angle is in radians.

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17.8.

Astrometry, or finding the speed of the Stars

Stars move, very slowly Over the course of centuries, stars appear to maintain nearly fixed positions with respect to each other, so that they form the same constellations over historical time. Ursa Major, for example, looks nearly the same now as it did hundreds of years ago. However, precise long-term observations show that the constellations change shape, albeit very slowly, and that each star has an independent motion. Defining motion The proper motion of a star is its angular change in position over time as seen from the center of mass of the solar system. It is measured in seconds of arc per year, arcsec/yr, where 3600 arcseconds equal one degree. This contrasts with radial velocity, which is the time rate of change in distance toward or away from the viewer, usually measured by Doppler shift of received radiation. The proper motion is not entirely "proper" (that is, intrinsic to the star) because it includes a component due to the motion of the solar system itself. Radial velocity is computed using Doppler effect: VR = c.(+/+0 1) + is the observed wavelength of a known atom, +0 the real wavelength at v=0 Transverse velocity is computing using: VT = 4740.. D Where VT is in m/s is in arcsec/year D in parsec 1AU/(365.25x24x3600) % 4740 Space velocity 2 = VR2 + VT2

Notice that Vr points out of the Sun, i.e. by convention in the above formula a planet going farther from us has Vr>0 (opposite sign of the one used in the Doppler effect) By studying the stars spectrum of radiation, spectroscopy can also derive many properties of distant stars and galaxies, such as their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using Doppler shift measurements.

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17.9.

Stellar statistics

Luminosity varies hugely Radius varies less Pattern appear when you arrange it right: Hertzsprung-Russel diagram:

Temperature Attached is a table with exact values, depending on star type:

17.10. Binary stars

A fifth of the Stars have a partner star. By looking at the Star orbiting, we can deduce the mass of the Star of interest. A false binary star is a system with 2 stars unrelated, but visually appearing close to one another. Binary stars make it easier to find Mstar and Rstar. If two stars are too close to resolve, we can distinguish them through the periodic Doppler shift. When found this way, we call them Spectroscopic binaries.

3 cases: 1. Both Doppler shifts move from the same amount: two big stars 2. One Doppler shifts move more than the other: one star is lighter 3. Only one Doppler shift is visible: the star or the planet is orbiting around a very big star

17.11. Eclipsing binary stars

An eclipsing binary star is a binary star in which the orbit plane of the two stars lies so nearly in the line of sight of the observer that the components undergo mutual eclipses.

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17.12. Recap: Analyzing Stars

By visual observation
From relative brightness we deduce Luminosity: L= 4 & D2 b !

A brighter star is more luminous, if at the same distance from Earth (to be checked with parallax). From color (spectrum) we deduce Temperature From the luminosity ! From the radius of the star 1, and the orbiting period of a nearby planet/star 2, we can find the stars mass: where a (orbiting radius) is in AU and P in years and the temperature we
A blue star is hotter than an orange star.

deduce

the

Stars

radius:

From the mass of the star, we can find its orbiting radius relative to the center of mass of the system by solving: M1 . R1 = M2.R2 M1 + M2 = a3/P2.Msun

From M and R we can deduce surface gravity: Form speed of Star we deduce Mass around which it I orbiting:

Using Doppler effect

We can find the radial velocity VR = c.(+/+0 1) if star moving in our direction Using VR1,2 and observing P, we can deduce the orbiting radius a1,2 = VR1,2.P/2& We can also deduce the ratio of the masses: M1. R2 = M2.R2 ! M2 / M1 = VR1,2/ VR2,1 ! Msystem = M1 .(V2 + V1) V2 and M1 . VR1,2 = M2.VR2,1

R = R1 + R2 because orbiting planets/stars are always in opposite direction R = P.V1/2& + P.V2/2 & ! R = (V1 + V2) .P/2& where P is in year, and Vearth = 29.78km/s speed of Earth orbiting

the Sun. V are the radial velocities.

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Particular case of Eclipsing binaries

To compute dip in intensity, do not use b = "max.T, because "max are not the same for each star since speeds are not the same. Instead, use L # b. D2 and L # R2T4 (V1 + V2). t2 = 2. R2 (V1 + V2). t1 = 2. R1 (V1+V2).t3=2.(R1-R2) t2 is time of slopes. Notice its the same for each dip, because S2 is either going in front, or behind S1 t1 is defined as the eclipse time. By definition, eclipse occurs when slope starts to decrease to lower brightness, until when it starts increasing. t3 is the time of the slope when decreasing to lowest brightness.

17.13. Mass-luminosity relation

Broadly speaking, the heavier the star, the hotter, and the more luminous, and the shorter its life. You give Nature a bowl of hydrogen, and it will produce a Star. 3.5 applies to main-sequence stars (2.Msun < M < 10.Msun) This makes sense, because the bigger the star, the higher the density at the core, the higher the nuclear reactions, the higher the luminosity. This means big stars run out of H must faster.

17.14. Main-sequence stars

This is our Sun
Main-sequence stars are basically all identical to our Sun, but with different sizes. 85% of Stars are main-sequence stars Main-sequence stars fuse Hydrogen to Helium in core In star with R>1.3 Rsun, temperature is high enough to allow another chain or reaction: the CNO cycle. Carbon is used (but not consumed) as a catalyst to produce much more energy. This is because a proton and a carbon nucleus crash into each other (vs. a proton-proton in the PP chain), which requires much more energy since repulsion is much higher by the morecharged C.

CNO cycle for MS stars > 1.3 Rsun

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Radiation and Convection effects

Expansion by contraction
H in the core produces He through fusion, and more and more He get produced in the core, and less and less H. Hence, probability of collision of protons decreases. Hence, the rate of fusion decreases in the core, as well as the radiation pressure. Because 4 H ! 1 He, the pressure should decrease as well. But this is not possible! Because the outer layer pressures the core, and the core contracts. Hence pressure increase, and density increases. This process is called Expansion by contraction. A new influx of H arrives from outer layers. Net result: 1. The core contract and heats 2. Luminosity increases 3. Envelope expands For example, our Sun is 25% brighter now than when it formed, hence Earth was colder. Its core is now 60% He. Therefore, in 1-3 Gyears, Earth could become uninhabitable. But other effects are in play: more solar wind, hence Earth farther way from Sun.

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18. Star evolution

18.1. Star creation process
1. Everything starts from a cloud of dust. Let's say for example, 1 Msun 2. Within a few k years, collapse occurs and forms an opaque, radiating photosphere of dust, and later H- . Photosphere has R $ 5 AU and T $ 300K. L$10 Lsun 3. Fueled by KelvinHelmholtz contraction (gravity contraction! heat) and PP chain (Nuclear fusion ! heat), the photosphere contracts to a Protostar of R $ 2 Rsun and T $ 4000K at constant L$10 Lsun . This process takes $ 600 k years. The protostar is hidden in a dusty cocoon.

4. Protostar (Giant, Supergiant...) then contracts at constant T, decreasing L. It takes it about 40M years to reach the Main sequence: this is called the KelvinHelmholtz time. Larger stars go faster.

Depending on cluster mass: M < 1.3% Msun: fusion through PP does not occur. No protostar. 1.3% Msun % M % 7.2% Msun: effective fusion does not occur. The star is called a brown dwarf. We currently estime the ratio of star to brown dwarf = 5:1 7.2% Msun < M < 250 Msun: fusion occurs, star will reach main sequence. 250 Msun < M: radiation pressure, created by gravity contraction, will break up the cloud (265 Msun is the current record, in the Tarentula nebula. But very rare).

18.2.

T-Tauri stars

Medium-mass, young stars exhibit rapid, irregular mass loss: 10-8 Msun /year. This mass loss can last up to 107 years and occurs through a massive energetic bipolar flow.

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18.3.

Main Sequence

For 10.9G years, the star has sat happily within the same point of the HR diagram. At the end, R$1.58 Rsun, L$2.21 Lsun. T $ 10.9G years. Hydrogen fusion in the core supports envelope by thermal and radiation pressure Luminosity and surface temperature are determined mainly by mass, but also by composition, rotation, close binary partner, atmospheric and interstellar effect Over time, the core contracts and heats & fusion rate increases + envelope expands slowly with little change in temperature. Intert He gets deposited into the core, therefore core is increasing. Luminosity is now coming from H shell around the He core. Temperature remains roughly the same, while R is increasing, hence L increases.

18.4.

From MS to Subgiant stars

Let's consider what's happening at the end of Sun's MS (post MS). This period of Subgiant star lasts until T $ 11.6 G years. R$2.3Rsun, L$2.2Lsun. P.V = N. kB.T therefore if V' (because of enveloppe expanding), P(, but there is a limit until which pressure in the core can decrease and still support outer layers: When core becomes too large (Mcore ) 8% M), it cannot support outer layers and collapses rapidly, making it a Subgiant star. This creates Gravitational energy which expands the enveloppe. Temperature decreases. A Subgiant star has a state life of a few hundreds of Myears. It then becomes a red giant star. Summary Core becomes too large * Pressure too small * core collapses under outer layers * Gravitational energy * envelope expands * TC (

18.1.

From Subgiant to Red giant branch stars

For our Sun, the period of Red giant star lasts until T $ 12.233 G years. R$ 166 Rsun, L$ 2350 Lsun. The core collapses, pression heats shell which increases Luminosity. CNO cycle occurs (Carbon acts as catalyst). The enveloppe expands, heat is radiated outside through convection. The Star looses up to 28% of its mass through Solar wind. And then? The core does not collapse due to electron degeneracy: Pe = Ke +5/3, where Ke $ 3.2 106 Nm-2 for the Sun, Ke =2.35684210338/5/3 otherwise, where the average mass per free electron. This pressure prevents the core from collapsing. Electron degeneracy means that up to a certain contraction, the electrons cannot be packed further (Pauli principle). Summary Core collapse * pression heats shell * Luminosity' and CNO* * heat radiated outside * mass evacuated through solar wind *: Carbon acts as catalyst Page 56/91

18.2.

From Red giant branch to Helium core flash

When the temperature of the core reaches 108 K, 4He and 4He fuse (the process is called triple-# process), create a 8Be atome with emission of gamma particle, and 8Be fuse again with 4He atom to create a 12C atome and emission of a gamma particle through explosions. The core degenerates into 12C. For a few seconds, the star produce a galactic luminosity (hundreds of k of Lsun), called Helium Flash, absorbed by the star's atmosphere, ejecting part of the atmosphere and leading to mass loss. The amosphere increases due to this flash, therefore the Luminosity decreases. This contraction creates heat, therefore temperature increases.

Summary High TC * triple-# process* * Helium flash * enveloppe expands then contracts * TC '. *: 4He fuse + creates 8Be which fuses and creates 12C

18.3.

From Helium core flash to Horizontal branch

T $ 12.234 G years. R$ 10 Rsun, L$ 41 Lsun. Core is contracting, creating heat Envelope is contracting and heating as well Shell is fusing H to He Summary Core & Envelope contracting * TC '. Core & Envelope contracting + TC ' * Luminosity'.

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18.4.

From Horizontal branch to Asymptotic Giant branch

T $ 12.365 G years. R$ 180 Rsun, L$ 3000 Lsun. Core is collpasing, now inert CO and degenerated Inner Shell is fusing He, outer H shell nearly inactive Envelope expands and cools + mass loss in outer layer (atmosphere) Summary Core collapsing * Luminosity ' + envelope expands and cools * TC (.

18.5. From Asymptotic Giant branch (AGB) to Thermal Pulse AGB

T $ 12.365 G years. R$ 213 Rsun, L$ 5200 Lsun. Core is fusing He, outer layers are inert He and then fusing H Fusing He creates flashes, expanding atmosphere and loosing part of it as solar superwind Atmosphere then contracts and heats, reigniting He fusion, which will lead to another He flash Summary He flashs * star gets peeled off as an onion * after some time, remains only the core * apparent TC is higher because it's the core's TC. Luminosity remains constant over the period because Luminosity ' during flash, then ( because R( and TC'

18.6.

From Thermal Pulse AGB to White Dwarf

R$ Rearth A white dwarf had very low Luminosity ($0.03) but very high TC. Therefore, it cannot have H (otherwise H would fuse, and Luminosity would be much higher). This is because after star has been stripped out of atmosphere, what remains is only the degenerated CO core: white dwarves are the degenerate cores of stars whose M < 8 Msun The core cools, and is surrounded by an ephemeral planetary nebula formed by its solar wind Page 58/91

Because core is degenerated, pressure in the core for degenerated electrons must equal gravity pressure: Ke.+5/3 ! #. M2/R4 * MR3 = cst * in white dwarves, the higher the mass, the smaller the star. In fact, it can be shown by relativity that there's a limit: Mdwarf <1.44Msun (Chandrasekhar's limit)

Summary Hot, degenerated CO core, cooling down and surrounded by its gas nebula. Because degenerated electrons support gravity pressure * Mdwarf <1.44Msun . Rdwarf & 0 as Mdwarf & 1.44Msun

18.7.

White Dwarf Nova

A white dwarf can transfer mass as H from a nearby Giant as binary partner, at a rate of up to 10-8 Msun/year. The coming H gas is heated by gravity, this increases temperature. When 10-8 Msun accumulated, temperature reaches 107 K, and CNO fusion occurs. Temperature reaches 108K, Luminosity 105Lsun CNO heating is done explosively: at 108K, the radiation pressure overcome the electron degeneracy pressure, and material is ejected: 1038J over a few months. Mass reaccumulates, so this process can occur every 105 years Ejected matter glows at 9000 K 30 White Dwarf Nova are observed per year in M31 galaxy

Summary Giant binary partner transfer H mass to White Dwarf * H gets heated by gravity * TC' * CNO heating * huge radiation & Luminosity & material ejected. Recurring process.

18.8.

Supernova (type Ia)

If the mass transfer to a white dwarf gets closer to the Chandrasekhar limit (1.44 Msun), the degenerated C in the core fuses. C is degenerated, therefore heating does not lead to expansion but to explosion: shock waves blow star appart, ejecting matter at high speed and releasing 1044J Temperature exceeds 109K, Luminosity reaches 10-10Lsun over a few months Spectrum has absorption lines of Si, but little H and He Mass donor is either MS/Giant, or more often another white dwarf ripped apart by tidal forces in merger. Page 59/91

 Luminosity (corrected by light curve) is the same for all Supernovae: standard candles! To normalize, we just need to normalize so that brightness peak is at same value. Summary Mass transfer to White Dwarf close to the Chandrasekhar limit (1.44 Msun) * degenerated C heated until explosion * TC' and high Luminosity. Standard candles with identical luminosity, corrected by light curve.

18.9.

Instability branch: Variable stars as Standard candles

Some Giants and Hypergiants exhibit regular periodic change in Luminosity, for example Mira changes by a factor of 100 with period of 332 days. Variable stars are called Standard Candles (or Cepheids), because once identified, they help us compute distance of the cluster using : Observation shows that Log(L) = # Log(Period) where # depends on the type of the Variable star (Small Magielanic Cloud, or Global Cloud) 1. We identify it's a Variable star, and its type 2. From the type, we estimate its Luminosity 3. From its measured brightness, we compute distance of the cluster

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If He is at the right temperature, compression of the star ionizes it, so less energy is spent on heating during contraction. The layer becomes opaque, capturing contraction energy. When it's contracted enough, it releases the stored energy, and expands (reducing ionization). This process is called k mechanism.

Summary Variable stars pusle, and are stars successively contracting and expanding. TC and Luminosity peak during expansion. They can be used as standard candles because Luminosity is function of period (Log(L) = # Log(Period)), and with measured brightness we find cluster distance.

18.10. Blue stragglers

How can we explain why some massive stars are still in the MS sequence, when they should not be (more massive stars evolving faster)? This can be explained by mass transfer: a lighter star has attracted matter ejected by a more massive binary partner, who was becoming a subgiant. As a result, the lighter star has become the most massive, while the other has become the lightest.

18.11. From MS to Red Supergiant

Stars whose M > 8 Msun end main sequence in 10M years. R! 5 AU Burning shell is H, core is inert He When fusion H stops, core contracts and envelope expands and cools

Summary Fusion H stops early because massive star, core contracts and envelope expands and cools.

18.12. From Red Supergiant to Helium flash to Blue Supergiant

He core ignites H fusion in shell Page 61/91

 Envelope contracts and heats, forming CO core Temperature increases, therefore star becomes blue

Summary He core ignites * triple-# process* * Helium flash * enveloppe expands then contracts * TC '. *: 4He fuse + creates 8Be which fuses and creates 12C

18.13. From Blue Supergiant to Massive star AGB

CO core collapses until T > 6. 108K Then C fuses, producing Mg Ne O Superwind and mass loss: nebulae If star is big enough, when T > 1.5 109K Ne fuses and produces O Mg. Neutrinos carry off L = Lsun If star is big enough, O fuses when T > 2.1 109K and produces Si S P. Neutrinos carry off L = 105Lsun, lasts 1 year Si fusion occurs at T > 3.5 109K and produces Ni Fe. Neutrinos carry off L = 1012Lsun, lasts 1 day S-process nucleosynthesis then produces heavier elements. Fe is the end. Core radius = Rearth, Envelope radius ! 5 AU

Summary TC ' * heavier elements get created, fuse * TC ', and create more heavier elements: Mg, Ne, O, Si, S, P, Ni, Fe

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18.14. From MS to Wolf-Rayet stars

Those are also called Type O stars Stars whose M > 20 Msun have different evolution than Red Supergiants He fusion begins without core collapse Envelope expands, then gets essentially lost through extreme mass loss 10-4 Msun/year Rapid rotation 4 of O type stars have binary companion, * are close enough for mass transfer Then core collapse 3 types: WN (He emission lines), WC (C emission line), WO (O emission line)

18.15. From MS to LBV stars

Stars whose M > 50 Msun Don't even redden, get blue Poorly understood Huge mass loss, lots of heavy elements L ! 2.107 to 5.106 Lsun

18.16. From Core collapse to Supernova type-Ib/Ic/II

As gravitational crush increases, iron core collapses from size of Earth to a few km in 0.1s Temperature ! 3.5 109K Gamma rays get emitted Outer layers fall inward at speeds up to 0.15c Electrons are forced into neutrons: p+ + e- &n + ,e + ! 8.1017 kg/m3 Very little light escapes Power emitted exceeds total power of all known stars for 10s Core collapse stops with bounce, emitting shock wave ejecting 96% of star mass Thin light can escape: Luminosity reaches 3.108Lsun, Energy released around 1047J. Neutrinos escape first, then light. Standard candles: L=3.108 Lsun Summary Supernova type Ia: Thermonuclear explosion from C of a white dwarf. Supernova types Ib-Ic-II: Core collapse * gravitational energy is released. Supernova type depends on spectrum: Ia: strong Si no H He Ib: Weak H strong He Ic: Weak Si no H He II: strong H Page 63/91

18.17. From Supernova type-Ib/Ic/II to Neutron (pulsar) star

Core of supernova type Ib/Ic/II stops collapsing due to neutron degeneracy, at + ! 7.1017 kg/m3 Surface gravity 1.9 1011g Mneutron star = 1.4 Msun and Rneutron star ! 10 km MR3 = constant Rapid rotation due to conservation of angular momentum (R becomes smaller, hence rotation speed increases). Using MvR = MR2/P we get where Pcore is the rotation period of the core before collapse That gives Pneutron star !0.005s. That's 200 rotations per second! Maximum mass: Mchandrasekhar = 2.2 Msun 2.9 Msun depending on rotation Same for magnetic field: very high magnetic field because everything is ionized where Bcore is the rotation period of the core before collapse That gives Bneutron star !1012Bsun Temperature decreasing, but still high: T !106K "max !3.9 nm L ! 0.25 Lsun Rapid rotation creates regular pulse, hence neutron star pulse: 0.2s % P % 2s This rotation time is very regular, nearly as precisice as atomic clock. But slowly decreasing anyway, gone in 107years Minimum rotation period, after which star blows appart: That means that if star rotates faster than this, centripedal forces are higher than gravitational forces and star blows appart. This comes from v2/R (=4-2R/P2) = GM/R2 Pulsar emit at all wavelength bands Summary Supernova stops at electron degeneracy. If mass big enough * core contracts further and nearly all electrons are transformed into neutrons, core collapse stopping at neutron degeneracy. Rotation is very rapid, creating beam of neutrons at regular pulse.

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18.18. Recap: Stars on HR diagram

107 y

108 y 109 y

1010 y

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19. Relativity
19.1.

Principle of Relativity

Laws of physics are the same measured at rest or at constant velocity Speed of light is the same whatever the referential At rest is meaningless. Only relative velocities are physical

19.2.

Spacetime

Space: Space motion: Spacetime: all possible events (t,r) = (t,x,y,z) Worldline: path of an object as it travels in spacetime

19.3.

Lorentz transformations
x is x seen by Observator

y=y, z=z

By setting: x' = Ax + Bt t = Cx + Dt And using: For x=0, x=v.t For x=0, x=-v.t c is constant for both A(v) = A(-v) solving x and t in function of x and t, and then rewriting the symmetric equivalent

We find: A(-v) = 1/(A(v) (1-v2/c2))

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19.4.

Relativistic Spacetime

From relativity equations, we deduce that the same even, happening 1 light-year away, appear at ! 1sec difference for 2 observers: 1 standing still, the other driving at 10 m per sec.

19.5.

Length contraction

It follows from the Lorentz transformations that lengths contract. Seen from an observer standing still, the length of an object moving relatively to this observer with a speed v appears to have a length of Notice that this equation is symmetric (same value for v or v). This is the length seen by the other observer.

19.6.

Time dilation

Each observer thinks the others clock is ticking slower! For example, if we observe a particle is going at 0.8c, the particle itself sees time T. This is important for particle decay.

19.7.

Doppler effect due to high speed

Red shift

Blue shift

19.8.

Velocity addition

19.9.

Lorentz metric

The unification of space and time is exemplified by the common practice of selecting a metric (the measure that specifies the interval between two events in spacetime) such that all four dimensions are measured in terms of units of distance: representing an event as (ct,x,y,z) in the Lorentz metric. In the (ct,x,y,z) spacetime, (ct,x,y,z) represents an event, which is characterized in terms of space AND time.

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19.10.

The Invariant Interval

The separation between 2 events is measured by the invariant interval, s2, between 2 events. Note that the interval takes into account not only the spatial separation between the events, but also their temporal separation. s2 = c2.(#t)2 - (#r)2 Other conventions put s2 = (#r)2 - c2.(#t)2

The measurement of lengths is more complicated in the theory of relativity than in classical mechanics. In classical mechanics, lengths are measured based on the assumption that the locations of all points involved are measured simultaneously. But in the theory of relativity, the notion of simultaneity is dependent on the observer. Proper distance provide an invariant measure, whose value is the same for all observers.

In relativity, proper time is the elapsed time between two events as measured by a clock that passes through both events . The proper time depends not only on the events but also on the motion of the clock between the events. An accelerated clock will measure a smaller elapsed time between two events than that measured by a non-accelerated (inertial) clock between the same two events. The twin paradox is an example of this effect.

Proper time simply means classical, non-relativistic time, but taking into account time dilatation due to relativity. Notice indeed that Proper distance is analogous to proper time. The difference is that proper length is the invariant interval of a spacelike path or pair of spacelike-separated events, while proper time is the invariant interval of a timelike path or pair of timelike-separated events.

Time-like interval For two events separated by a time-like interval, enough time passes between them for there to be a causeeffect relationship between the two events. For a particle traveling through space at less than the speed of light, any two events which occur to or by the particle must be separated by a time-like interval. Page 68/91

Light-like interval In a light-like interval, the spatial distance between two events is exactly balanced by the time between the two events. The events define a squared spacetime interval of zero. Light-like intervals are also known as "null" intervals. Space-like interval When a space-like interval separates two events, not enough time passes between their occurrences for there to exist a causal relationship crossing the spatial distance between the two events at the speed of light or slower. Generally, the events are considered not to occur in each other's future or past. There exists a reference frame such that the two events are observed to occur at the same time, but there is no reference frame in which the two events can occur in the same spatial location.

19.11.

Conservation laws
if v << c Momentum

Momentum (product of mass and speed) and Energy have a modified expression under relativity:

if v << c

Energy

Therefore, Energy comes from kinetic energy, and from the mass. Equivalently, under relativity theory mass is created when adding energy (E/c2), albeit by a very small amount. For example, when water is heated it gains about 1.11210317 kg of mass for every joule of heat added to the water. Also, Energy emitted through radiation means emitting object is reducing slightly its mass! And Particle decay means particle is loosing mass. If a particle decays without losing mass, then it must acquire kinetic energy. It derives from E=mc2 () that mass of an object varies according to its energy and kinetic speed. However, we can notice and define the invariant mass m as: . This expression is always constant. All other quantities (electric charges, etc) are Lorentz-invariant.

19.12.

Lorentz transformations applied to Energy and Momentum

. Therefore, Energy and

transform under Lorentz under the same form as momentum observed depend on observer!

19.13.

Principle of Equivalence

Lets imagine we throw a ball horizontally, from inside a spaceship (trajectory depicted below):

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Spaceship in space, no gravity, accelerating Spaceship on the ground, gravity g. with acceleration g. In both cases, the trajectory of the ball is the same! This means that the gravitational force is simply an acceleration. As an object in free-fall approaches the ground, the time scale stretches at an accelerated rate, giving the appearance that it is accelerating towards the planetary object when, in fact, the falling body really isn't accelerating at all. This becomes evident when ones realizes that someone in free fall does not feel any acceleration! This is why an accelerometer in free-fall doesn't register any acceleration; there isn't any.

19.14.

Gravitational redshift

Gravitational redshift: The wavelength of a photon (e.g. light, or any electromagnetic radiation) as seen by an observer in higher gravitational potential increases compared to its wavelength seen at the point of emission. This is equivalent to saying that its frequency decreases towards the red part of the light spectrum. Gravitational blueshift: The wavelength decreases, and frequency increases towards the blue part of the light spectrum, as seen by an observer in weaker gravitational potential. The Gravitational shift is where +e is the wavelength of

the radiation measured at the source of emission, +e is the wavelength measured by the observer. Therefore, in binary stars, we will observer a change in the Doppler shift of a star depending on whether the other star is behind or before it, because the partners gravity affects the redshift. OBSERVED FROM GREAT DISTANCE

NEAR EARTH, at distance H R is the distance between the center of mass of the gravitating body, and the point at which the proton is emitted.

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is called Schwarzschild radius : the distance from the center of an object such that, if all the mass of the object were compressed within that sphere, the escape speed from the surface would equal the speed of light. The redshift is not the Doppler shift: both objects are moving. And unlike Doppler shift, the redshift is symmetric.

19.15.

Relativistic Potential energy

Mass of the system (Sun + Earth) is slightly less that the sum of their masses, because of the negative potential binding Energy between the two. Therefore, gravitation fields are nonlinear. The relativistic version becomes:
Kinetic Energy

Relativistic Potential Energy

In close binaries, v is typically very high, therefore we could use the relativistic version of the potential energy to get better approximation.

19.16.

Gravitational lensing

Relativity theory predicts light being deflected by planets by an angle :

This effect creates duplica or artefacts when looking at the stars: farther galaxies may seem duplicated by cluster.

The deformation of spacetime around a massive object causes light rays to be deflected much like light passing through an optic lens. Page 71/91

19.17.

Gravity is geometry

Gravity deforms spacetime, provoking attraction. Thats how gravity attracts objects. A very good way of seeing it is trough dark matter: dark matter has mass, but does not interact a lot with matter. So why does it get attracted by massive objects? This is because massive object change spacetime, which attracts dark matter by pulling it closer. This illustrates that gravity is geometry. It has nothing to do with the fact that dark matter does not interact much with baryonic matter. Dark matter is also gravitating around the center of galaxy, as are our sun and other stars/planets.

19.18.

Gravitational waves

As massive objects move around in spacetime, the curvature changes to reflect the changed locations of those objects. Moving objects generate a disturbance in spacetime which spreads like electromagnetic waves. This disturbance is called gravitational wave. According to general relativity, gravitational waves travel through the universe at the speed of light. Gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, since in it physical interactions propagate at infinite speed. Sources of detectable gravitational waves could possibly include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. In addition, binaries lose energy through Gravitational waves, therefore their orbits will decrease.

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20. Black holes

20.1. Horizon
For objects reaching the Schwarzschild radius (called the horizon of the black hole), the redshift becomes infinite: a black hole. No light can emerge. Inversely, blueshift is observed from a blackhole. For object of 1 solar mass, Schwarzschild radius Rs = 3km. Observed from far away, something falling in the black hole will actually never gets there: it will approach, slowing down forever because of time dilation. The object becomes dimmer forever. Smaller stable orbit for a black hole is 3 Rs. Photosphere at 1.5 Rs : light circles around the black hole in unstable orbit. Tidal forces can become extreme, depending on Black holes mass: since Therefore, the more massive the Black hole, the smaller the tidal force ! So if the mass of the black hole is very big, we may not notice it.

20.2.

Singularity

Singularity of the back hole is where tidal force becomes infinite. Even matter gets dislocated, and Relativity equations break down we do not know whats happening there.

20.3.

Emission of X-rays

In the case of compact objects such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes, the gas in the inner regions becomes so hot that it will emit vast amounts of radiation (mainly X-rays), which may be detected by telescopes. This process of accretion is one of the most efficient energy-producing processes known; up to 40% of the rest mass of the accreted material can be emitted in radiation. (In nuclear fusion only about 0.7% of the rest mass will be emitted as energy.)

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20.4.

No Hair

Black holes have no hair: core collapse loses all properties of the star. The black hole is characterized completely by: 1. mass 2. angular momentum. Black holes turn very rapidly, typically in a few ms 3. electric charges

20.5.

Cosmic censorship conjecture

Cosmic censorship conjecture: singularities of the black hole are hidden inside horizon. Nothing that happens within the black hole matters for the outside, because it has no effect. We may observe other singularities outside of a black hole. They are called naked singularities.

20.6.

Hawking radiation

Quantum effect near the horizon leads to radiation with energy loss. Because T of a black hole is inversely proportional to its mass, the bigger the black hole, the colder it is, and therefore the more difficult it would be to notice it. Therefore, mass of a black hole decreases with time, temperature increases, and at the end of its life, it evaporates through a cosmic explosion. T in Kelvin, h is the reduced Planck constant, M the mass of the black hole. Expected lifetime of a 5 Msun black hole would be 1062 years. Maybe we could see it with 2kg microscopic black holes.

20.7.

Wormholes

An Einstein-Rosen Bridge (or wormhole) is a hypothetical topological feature of spacetime that would be, fundamentally, a "shortcut" through spacetime. There is no observational evidence for wormholes, but on a theoretical level there are valid solutions to the equations of the theory of general relativity which contain wormholes. The first type of wormhole solution discovered was the Schwarzschild wormhole which would be present in the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole, but it was found that this type of wormhole would collapse too quickly for anything to cross from one end to the other. Wormholes which could actually be crossed in both directions, known as traversable wormholes, would only be possible if exotic matter with negative energy density could be used to stabilize them.

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20.8. Example: compute wavelength of X-ray emission of the accretion disk surrounding black hole
X-ray spectrum shows peak at +observed = 2.068e-10m. Computations show disk is orbiting black hole at distance R=3 Rs

a) Correcting for gravitational effect, we find wavelength peak at: =1.69e-10m

b) Computing speed of disk using to high speed:

=0.41c we can correct for Doppler effect due

where +0 is previously corrected +. 5 = 1.54e-10m.

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21. Galaxies
21.1.

The Milky way

Diameter: 100-120 l years (31-37 kpc) Thickness: 1k lyears (0.31 kpc) Sun is about 8kpc from center Thin disk: 6. 1010 Msun, young (8 Gy) stars 25x.35kpc Thick disk: 3.109 Msun, older (10-11Gy) stars, 25x1kpc Central Buldge: 1010 Msun, stars of all ages, 5x2kpc Halo: 3.109 Msun, oldest (11-13 Gy) stars

21.2.

Tracking matter

The matter we can see depends on the band frequency:

21.3.
2 main arms.

The Milky way disk structure

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21.4.

The Milky Buldge and Core

Dense molecular cloud, but no ongoing star formation The motion of material around the center indicates that Sagittarius A* harbors a massive, compact object. This concentration of mass is best explained as a supermassive black hole with an estimated mass ~ 4 million times the mass of the Sun. Observations indicate that there are supermassive black holes located near the center of most normal galaxies.

21.5.

The Milky Halo

The Galactic disk is surrounded by a spheroidal halo of old stars and globular clusters, of which 90% lie within 100,000 light-years (30 kpc) of the Galactic Center The temperature of this halo was said to be between 1 million and 2.5 million kelvin or a few hundred times hotter than the surface of the sun, stated by scientists On September 24, 2012, a team of five astronomers working with the Chandra X-ray Observatory, along with data gathered by the XMM-Newton, and Suzaku (satellite) missions, announced that the halo had a mass nearly equivalent to the galaxy itself On January 9, 2006, Mario Juri6 and others of Princeton University announced that the Sloan Digital Sky Survey of the northern sky found a huge and diffuse structure (spread out across an area around 5,000 times the size of a full moon) within the Milky Way that does not seem to fit within current models. The collection of stars rises close to perpendicular to the plane of the spiral arms of the Galaxy. The proposed likely interpretation is that a dwarf galaxy is merging with the Milky Way.

21.6.

Weighting the Milky way

Sun orbits the Milky way at 220 km/s at 8kpc, with a period of 230 My (so the Sun has orbited 20-25 times in its life so far) Using the Suns orbiting period and its distance from the center of the galaxy, we can estimate the total mass of the galaxy:

Or knowing the Suns speed we can also use: within the R radius

where M(R) is the mass

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21.7.

Dark matter

After a short increase (until we englobe all the known mass), the speed should decrease, which is not the case! This means that mass keeps adding. Is it coming from dark matter? 95% of the mass is neither luminous nor absorbing. Thats 20 times the weight of the Milky way. Dark matter is a type of matter hypothesized to account for a large part of the total mass in the universe. Dark matter is in spherical halo with radius 200-300 kpc and mass of 2.1012 Msun with no optical activity. We think dark matter is present as MACHOS: Massive Compact Halo Objects, i.e. Brown/Red/White Dwarfs or other dim compact objects Search for HALOS is done using gravitational microlensing, but Machos explain only 10% of this missing mass. WIMPS: Weakly Interacting Massive ParticleS: a new kind of particle that interacts only very weekly to form dark matter.

The center of galaxies are made of a huge black hole (stars in the center of galaxies orbit much faster), and the external part of galaxies are made of dark matter.

21.8.

Spiral galaxies

Spirals cannot be made of stars, because differential rotation would destroy them quickly rotation would throw away the stars Density Wave model: Spirals are quasistatic density waves where density increases by 10%-20%. As gas enters a density wave, it gets squeezed and makes new stars. Stars then exit through the end of the spiral Stochastic self-propagating star formation model: this model proposes that star formation propagates via the action of shock waves produced by stellar winds and supernovae that compose the interstellar medium. Star formation begins randomly, then OB supernovae shock wave trigger star formation further out. Differential rotation pulls new stars into trailing arms.

21.9.

Galactic evolution

Most galaxies are in clusters. Interactions are important. Elliptical galaxies much more common in the center of the dense clusters Half the mass is gas between galaxies When a cluster of galaxies move through a galaxy, galaxies accelerate towards the cluster and because of the conservation of angular momentum, the cluster slows down. This process is called dynamical friction, and we can compute the equivalent friction force: Page 78/91

where C is a constant depending on how vM compares to the velocity dispersion of the surrounding matter. In close encounters, tidal forces break spreading it in stellar steam When 2 galaxies meet, the combined galaxy could have 2 black holes The detailed process by which such early galaxy formation occurred is a major open question in astronomy. Theories could be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down theories (such as the EggenLynden-BellSandage [ELS] model), protogalaxies form in a large-scale simultaneous collapse lasting about one hundred million years. In bottom-up theories (such as the Searle-Zinn [SZ] model), small structures such as globular clusters form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy.

21.10.

Measuring distance to galaxies: Redshift

If galaxy is not too far (< 107pc), we can use Cepheids standard candles For further, spiral galaxies, Tully-Fisher relation relates rotation to luminosity & type For further, elliptical galaxies, Fundamental plane relation relates luminosity to size & velocity dispersion This allows galaxies to be used as standard candles for distance measurement Red shift indicates galaxy speed. What Hubble noticed, is that the farther the galaxy, the faster it goes away from us : v=H0.D Hubble law H0=100.h km/s/Mpc h=0.71 hubble constant

This law gives the speed of a galaxy (in km/s), 1 megaparsec away. Redshift z: From this is follows that we can deduce the galaxy speed straight from the Doppler shift: for small Doppler shifts

21.11.

Cosmic expansion
In fact, Hubble constant varies with time: the rate of expansion is not constant in time. For unbound objects: where D(t) is the distance to a galaxy, measured at time t. t0 is now

D(t) = D(t0). [1 + H0(t-t0)]

Earth, Sun etc are bounded, therefore they are not expanding vs. each other From this, we can deduce the age of the Universe: 1 + H0.(t-t0) = 0, which gives t = t0 - H0-1 ! concerting everything to same units: H0-1 = 13.8Gy ago With the redshift we can compute the distance to the galaxy: With the redshift we can also compute how far ago the light that we observe from the galaxy has been emitted: Page 79/91

This can be expressed also as:

for z <<1 which means that the emitted

wavelength expands with the universe. The Redshift is a cosmological shift, not a Doppler shift.

21.12.

Recap on formulas

From a star orbiting a galaxy: From a stars orbiting period, its mass and its distance from the center of the galaxy, we can estimate the total mass of the galaxy: From the Stars speed we can estimate the total mass of the galaxy: where M(R) is the mass within the R radius

Using the galaxys redshift: From the distance to a galaxy, we can find its speed: V = H0.D

(Hubble law)

H0=100.h km/s/Mpc, h=0.71 Based on shift of wavelength emitted by galaxy, we compute the redshift:

We can compute galaxys speed: We can compute galaxys distance from us:

% z for small Doppler shifts or for z <<1, i.e. for

speed low enough, e.g. D << c/H0. We can compute the time when the light that we observe from the galaxy has been emitted: From the time of light journey, we can also estimate the distance to the galaxy

We could also use since +0 is + observed now.

which gives

where

The above relations ignore the relativist corrections needed at high speed, and the history of the universe: H0 is now, we need to integrate trough all previous H. In deducting the age of the universe we assumed H constant, which is not the case: the gravity effect will bring back all galaxies together, therefore the expansion will slow and become negative. Or, if speeds are higher than escape velocity, it will increase forever.

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21.13.

Galaxy clusters

Milky way is part of a cluster, or local group. Estimated mass of 4.1022 Msun , most of it is dark matter Virgo cluster has 250 large galaxies and over 2000 smaller ones. 68% spirals and 19% ellipticals. Intracluster medium of hot 106 gas contains 8 times more mass than galaxies Intergalactic stars account for 10% mass Gravitational lensing by clusters can be used to find mass distribution of lens: Most of the dark matter is diffuse Dark matter interacts weakly so follows galaxies Clusters are organized in Superclusters. Our supercenter is centered on Virgo galaxy Superclusters are grouped into metastructures Correlation data shows after 100Mpcs universe is homogeneous: there is no larger structure

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22. Cosmology
22.1. The cosmological principle
The cosmological principle is the assertion that the universe, at the largest scales, is homogeneous and isotropic. Homogeneous: Every position is equivalent. There is no center or edge. Isotropic: Every direction is equivalent. The cosmological principle is true if we go very far away (100 Mpc), where there is no more perturbations due to stars or galaxies. In General Relativity, Homogeneous isotropic universe means that we can find a coordinates in which curvature is constant. This does not mean that the universe is flat. In fact, there are three solutions. The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 only if the universe if flat. If its close, its more that 180. If its open, its less. But for small distances, it looks 180.

22.2.

Robertson-Walker model

The RobertsonWalker model is an exact solution of Einstein's field equations of general relativity; it describes a homogeneous, isotropic expanding or contracting universe that may be simply connected or multiply connected. This model is sometimes called the Standard Model of modern cosmology. This model is compatible with the Cosmological redshift. If we assume that the universe if expanding, distance will grow between now (t0) and the future, because the universe sphere will grow. The scale factor a(t) gives the increase in distance between comoving observers: D(t) = a(t) . D0 where we choose a(t0)=1. Light moves along geodesics of space (e.g. straightest line) D(t) = D(t0). [1 + H0.(t-t0)] for H0|t-t0| <<1 We can estimate acceleration at time t* based on acceleration at time t

From now on, we will assume the universe is a RW model.

22.3.

Angular size distance (k=0)

Remember that the redshift indicates by how much the distance from the object has expanded, since the light has been emitted, since the light beam has been continuously expanded during its journey. Therefore, to obtain the real distance from a distance we observe, we need to correct it by dividing by (1+z). We define the angular size distance (or also angular diameter distance) as:

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where D0 is the distance observed to the object (when light was emitted), and DA is the real distance to the object (when light was emitted) factoring the redshift in. This is NOT the distance to the object now. Objects appear bigger that they really were.

22.4.

Luminosity distance (k=0)

Observing the luminosity of a star, light that we observe has lost energy because of the redshift (!(1+z) factor), and there are less photons by unit of time (!(1+z) factor). Therefore, the real brightness is where:

Luminosity distance and

Distance used to compute brightness Distance observed, or comoving transverse distance Distance real

the real brightness, factoring the redshift in.

Everything is observed in the past

22.5.

Correcting the temperature for redshift

Using Wien law ( #max . T= b), we deduce that temperatures observed get also affected by the redshift:

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22.6.

Correcting the galaxy speeds for redshift

Redshift also means that clocks observed in the past seem to run slower. Since v=x/t, galaxies observed in the past seem to speed 4 times slower than they really did.

22.7.

Einstein field equations

The Einstein field equations (EFE) may be written in the form: and Cosmological constant where R0 is R at t=t0 and k= k=1 k=0 k=-1 positive curvature flat universe negative curvature

where R- is the Ricci curvature tensor, R the scalar curvature of space, g- the metric tensor, G is Newtons gravitational constant, c the speed of light in vacuum, and T- the stressenergy tensor. The EFE is a tensor equation relating a set of symmetric 4 x 4 tensors. Each tensor has 10 independent components. The scalar curvature of space, R, represents the amount by which the volume of a ball in a curved space deviates from that of the standard ball in Euclidean space. The Ricci curvature tensor R-, named after Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, represents the amount by which the volume element 7V in a curved space deviates from a flat Euclidean space, to a curved space. Indeed in a curved space, the sum of the angles of a triangle is not 180. The metric tensor g- captures all the geometric and causal structure of spacetime. For example, in special relativity, the metric tensor is , which corresponds to .

The stress-energy tensor T- (or stress-energy-momentum tensor) describes the density of energy and the flux of energy in spacetime, generalizing the stress tensor of Newtonian physics (which is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within the body on which internal forces act). It is an attribute of matter, radiation, and non-gravitational force fields. The stressenergy tensor is the source of the gravitational field in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, just as mass density is the source of such a field in Newtonian gravity. When gravity is negligible, T- = 7 T- = 0 The cosmological constant was introduced by Einstein to make the universe static (as he though it was) but Hubble showed it was not needed, since the universe is not static. For Einstein: P=0 Page 84/91

k=1

Einstein later removed it, but we discovered much later that this can actually be used if assuming dark matter.

22.8.

Isotropic Homogenous Matter

Matter can be described by a constant energy density 0(t) and a constant pressure P(t) density 0(t) Matter pressure P(t)

Pressure and density are related by the equation of state. They are both constant at very large distances, far from galaxies perturbations. In particular: For massive objects moving at slow velocity called dust - (galaxies for example), P=0 because only gravitation plays a role. For gas of massless particles moving at very high velocity, close to speed of light called radiation P= 0.c2/3

22.9.

Friedmann equations
where

From Einstein equations we can deduce a set of 2 equations:

From those equations we can express the scale factor as: a(t) % a(t*).[1+H(t-t*) q.H2/2.(t-t*)2] =a/a The curvature of space is determined by density and velocity Deceleration is due to gravitating energy. Energy conservation gives then: Dust Radiation (-4 because of redshift effect)

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22.10.

Cosmological parameters
which is the density at which the universe is flat

If we define the critical density

(because k=0), then we can rewrite Friedmann equations as: where and q defined such that: Best data we have gives: with Doing the sum shows baryonic matter therefore the universe is (locally) flat! (D is for dust, or matter)

22.11.

The Early universe: radiation era

The Early universe was denser (because 0D(t)= 0D,0.a(t)-3 ) The Early universe was hotter (because v(t) = v(t0).a(t)-1 ) Radiation dominated until zRT~3300, tRT~55ky, aRT =1.58.10-4 (computed as 8R,D/ 8D,0) In radiation era: Temperature was so high that particles were relativistic: if Radiation has energy density of photons: ! relativistic

in J/m3 where g=2

22.12.

Matter-dominance era

Matter dominated until zMT~0.4, tMT~0.59t0=8.18 Gy, aMT =0.706 (computed as 8D,0/ 85,0)1/3 or

The density of baryonic matter today is 4.17210328 kg/m3

22.13.

Dark-energy-dominance era
or also where t0 is now distance covered by a photon between t1 and t2 Page 86/91

Dark energy dominates from 8.18Gy, so we are in this period now.

22.14.

The Particle horizon

The particle horizon (also called the cosmological horizon, the light horizon, or the cosmic light horizon) is the maximum distance from which particles could have traveled to the observer in the age of the universe. Two effects must be taken into account: 1. Because space expands by R(t), the distance covered by light in T second is expanded by R(t). 2. But time gets contracted by the scale factor

The particle horizon is simply: in Radiation era in Matter era in Dark energy era This gives: in Radiation era in Matter era

And we know R(t):

Gyr, in Dark energy era (has to be numerically integrated) Intuitively, in radiation era, the universe expands much faster than in matter-dominated era: R(t)=t^(2/3) vs. R(t)=t^(1/2). Which means that the time contraction effect becomes greater in the radiation-era than in the matter-era (that's (2)), and the total distance gets therefore reduced. Today, DH(t0)=46 Gy, which means in theory we can observe even before the big bang. This is the observable universe (e.g. we can get information on), not necessarily the visible universe (e.g. which includes only signals emitted since recombination, because earlier light was masked).

22.15.

The event horizon

The event horizon is a boundary in spacetime beyond which events cannot affect an outside observer. It represents the maximum extent of the particle horizon. It separates events from which light will reach us someday, from those we will never see because of the expansion. As object approaches even horizon its light is indefinitely redshifted. Today, even horizon ~60Gyr.

22.16.
CMB

Cosmic microwave background

The cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation is thermal radiation filling the observable universe almost uniformly. Page 87/91

The CMBR has a thermal black body spectrum at a temperature of 2.7 K. The spectral density peaks in the microwave range of frequencies. The glow is very nearly uniform in all directions, but the tiny residual variations show the same pattern as that expected of a fairly uniformly distributed hot gas that has expanded to the current size of the universe. In particular, the spatial variation in spectral density (the derivative of the spectral density function with respect to the angle of observation in the sky) contains small anisotropies, or irregularities, which vary with the size of the region examined. They match what would be expected if small thermal variations, generated by quantum fluctuations of matter in a very tiny space, had expanded to the size of the observable universe we see today. This is the most distance light that we will ever see!

Angular Power Spectrum of the CMB

In the case of the CMB, the sky is divided up into polar coordinates 1 and 9, and the observed temperature field can be decomposed into spherical harmonics, via the following formula:

A 2-dimensional angular power spectrum measures the power of a particular angular scale. This is the Angular power spectrum of the CMB: the power of the temperature, as a function of the angular scale (where the sky is divided up into 90 angle). A small angular scale means that this is the temperatures power that we observe in front of us, while a larger angular scale (90) means the temperature's power above us. 1. The angular scale of the first peak determines the curvature of the universe (but not the topology of the universe). Since the angle is very low, we conclude the universe is nearly flat (e.g. within a 1 angle). 2. The next peakratio of the odd peaks to the even peaksdetermines the reduced baryon density. 3. The third peak can be used to get information about the dark matter density.

22.17.

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Big Bang nucleosynthesis (or primordial nucleosynthesis, BBN) refers to the production of nuclei other than those of H-1 (i.e. the normal, light isotope of hydrogen, whose nuclei consist of a single proton each) during the early phases of the universe. Primordial nucleosynthesis took place just a few moments after the Big Bang and is responsible for the formation of a heavier isotope of hydrogen known as deuterium (H2 or D), the helium isotopes He3 and He4, and the lithium isotopes Li6 and Li7. In addition to these stable nuclei some unstable, or radioactive, isotopes were also produced: tritium (H3), beryllium (Be7), and beryllium (Be8). These unstable isotopes either decayed or fused with other nuclei to make one of the stable isotopes. Two important characteristics: The corresponding time interval was from a few tenths of a second to up to 103 seconds It was widespread, encompassing the entire observable universe.

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22.18.

LCDM Cosmology

Lambda Cold Dark Matter (LCDM) Cosmology is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant, denoted by Lambda, and cold dark matter. It is frequently referred to as the standard model of Big Bang cosmology. The universe is probably infinite, but the observable universe is not. Big bangs curvature was infinite. 3 problems have to be solved: 1. Why is the CMBR so uniform? Different regions of the universe have not "contacted" each other because of the great distances between them, but nevertheless they have the same temperature and other physical properties. This should not be possible, given that the transfer of information (or energy, heat, etc.) can occur, at most, at the speed of light. 2. Why is the universe so close to being flat today? From the Friedmann equations, it appears that 8total is very sensitive: add 1 gram, and the universe collapses. Remove 1 gram, and the universe will expand forever. So, in order to reach 8total % 1 now, 8total must have been VERY close to 1 in the early universe. 3. Why are there no magnetic monopoles in the universe today? The extensions of standard model (GUTs) predict the formation of stable magnetic monopoles and other defects. But searches discover no monopoles. Where are they?

22.19.

Inflation

Cosmic inflation, cosmological inflation or just inflation is the theorized extremely rapid exponential expansion of the early universe by a factor of at least 1078 in volume, driven by a negative-pressure vacuum energy density. It lasted from 10336 seconds after the Big Bang to sometime between 10333 and 10332 seconds. Following the inflationary period, the universe continued to expand, but at a slower rate. The inflationary hypothesis was originally proposed in 1980 by American physicist Alan Guth, who named it "inflation". Inflation theory solves the 3 problems: 1. The CMBR is uniform because all regions were connected 2. while H is constant, therefore since at inflation, the scale factor a

became huge, 8 was forced to 1. 3. Relics have been diluted by inflation The multiverse (or meta-universe) is the hypothetical set of multiple possible universes (including the historical universe we consistently experience) that together comprise everything that exists and can exist: the entirety of space, time, matter, and energy as well as the physical laws and constants that describe them. Each universe would have its own cosmological constants. They would arise because small regions of the universe could reach different false vacua of energy, thereby reaching different inflation rates. They would expand less than the remaining universe, leading to disconnected patched and disappearing for our universe. We are now in exponential inflation, which leads to freezing fluctuations, forming the seeds for structure formations leading to clusters and galaxies.

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22.20. Exercise: compute the distance when the light was emitted, and the distance now, from a galaxy
From the redshift z measured now, we can compute the scale factor at the time the object emitted that light: From the scale factor, we can compute the time t when the light was emitted, or when the galaxy is observed. In dust matter-dominated era, t being the time since the beginning of the era: or ! t in sec since the eras beginning

To find how long ago the light was emitted, we need to compute t0-t where t0 is the time from the beginning of the era to now. Now: a(t0)=1! t0 = 2/(3.H0). From the scale factor a and the time t0 when light was emitted, we can compute the distance NOW to the object. In dust matter-dominated era: t0 is the time now since the beginning of the era. This is not t0-t. Notice that a is the scale factor at the time the object emitted that light, i.e. computed from the redshift. It is not the scale factor today.

From the redshift and the current distance D0 to the object, we can find the distance to the object when the light was emitted:

To compute the temperature of the universe (e.g. CMB) at that time, we can use where Tobs is the temperature of the CMB observed now (2.726K), and Tem the temperature of the CMB at the time.

22.21. Exercise: compute the distance angular radius of an object

If we know the radius R of the object, we can evaluate its angular radius using

22.22. Exercise: compute the brightness of an object, knowing its luminosity

From the Luminosity we can compute the brightness observed, using where

(one factor comes from the loss of energy because of the redshift, a second factor because there are less photons by unit of time).

22.23. Exercise: compute the observed luminosity period, knowing its real luminosity period (e.g. when light was emitted)
If a star has a luminosity period P of 40 days, to compute the observed luminosity period Pobs, we simply need to take into account time expansion: Pobs=P.(1+z) Page 90/91

22.24. Plasma and Ionization

A collection of non-aqueous gas-like ions, or more generally a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a plasma. Greater than 99.9% of visible matter in the Universe may be in the form of plasmas. These include our Sun and other stars and the space between planets, as well as the space in between stars. Plasmas are often called the fourth state of matter because their properties are substantially different from those of solids, liquids, and gases. Astrophysical plasmas predominantly contain a mixture of electrons and protons (ionized hydrogen). Ionization is the process of converting an atom or molecule into an ion by adding or removing charged particles such as electrons or ions. In the case of ionization of a gas, ion pairs are created consisting of a free electron and a positive ion.

The Ionization energy of an atom and its temperature are linked through: at z = 0 At z : 0, where T0 is the temperature now (at z=0), and Tz the temperature of the at

the time of the redshift. The proportion of H atoms with enough energy to ionize Hydrogen are given by:

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