EDUCATION AND LANGUAGE FACULTY

SEMESTER MAY / 2013

OUMH 2103 ENGLISH FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL PURPOSES

NO. MATRICULATION NO. I/C NO. TELEPHONE E-MEL LEARNING CENTRE

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831121025026001 831121-02-5026 016-4940358 j !!"#$%&!'(')*+,-#%) PETALING .AYA LEARNING CENTRE

OUMH 2103

OUMH 2103
1 Introduction- Definition, history and practice of bribery 3 2 Economic analysis on the act of bribery 4 3 Legal analysis on the act of bribery 6 4 Ethical analysis on the act of bribery ! "onclusion 1# 6 $eferences 11

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Behind the struggle to address global warming and climate change lies the increase in greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.

OUMH 2103
A greenhouse gas is any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere. By increasing the heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect, which ultimately leads to global warming.

Solar radiation and the greenhouse effect

The sun bombards Earth with enormous amounts of radiation, which strike Earth's atmosphere in the form of visible light, plus ultraviolet ( !", infrared (#$" and other types of radiation that are invisible to the human eye. About %& percent of the radiation striking the Earth is reflected back out to space by clouds, ice and other reflective surfaces. The remaining '& percent is absorbed by the oceans, the land and the atmosphere, according to (A)A. As they absorb radiation and heat up, the oceans, land and atmosphere release heat in the form of #$ thermal radiation, which passes out of the atmosphere into space. The balance between incoming and outgoing radiation keeps Earth's overall average temperature at about *+ , (-* .". This e/change of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms Earth is often referred to as the 0greenhouse effect0 because a greenhouse works in much the same way. #ncoming ! radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is absorbed by the plants and hard surfaces inside. 1eaker #$ radiation, however, has difficulty passing out through the glass walls and is trapped inside, warming the greenhouse.

How greenhouse gases impact global warming

The gases in the atmosphere that absorb radiation are known as 0greenhouse gases0 (sometimes abbreviated as 232" because they are largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect, in turn, is one of the leading causes of global warming. The most significant greenhouse gases are water vapor (3 45", carbon dio/ide (.54", methane (.36" and nitrous o/ide ((45", according to the Environmental 7rotection Agency (E7A". ,luorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur he/afluoride, are created during industrial processes and are also considered greenhouse gases. Though they are present in very small concentrations, they trap heat very effectively, making them high 0global8warming potential0 (217" gases. .hlorofluorocarbons (.,.s", once used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants until they were phased out by international agreement, are also greenhouse gases. Three factors affect the degree to which any greenhouse gas will influence global warming9

its abundance in the atmosphere how long it stays in the atmosphere

OUMH 2103

its global8warming potential

.arbon dio/ide has a significant impact on global warming partly because of its abundance in the atmosphere9 #n 4&--, .54 composed :6 percent of .). greenhouse emissions, according to the E7A. Additionally, .54 stays in the atmosphere for thousands of years. 3owever, methane is about 4- times more efficient at absorbing radiation than .5 4, giving it a high 217 rating, even though it stays in the atmosphere only about -& years.

Sources of greenhouse gases

)ome greenhouse gases, like methane, are produced through agricultural practices including livestock manure management. 5thers, like .54, largely result from natural processes like respiration and from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. )ince the beginning of the #ndustrial $evolution in the early -:&&s, humans have been burning fossils fuels at an ever8increasing rate. #n the nited )tates, like most other industriali;ed nations, burning fossil fuels is the single greatest manmade source of greenhouse gases. According to the E7A, the production of electricity is the source of %% percent of .). greenhouse gas emissions. 5ver '& percent of .). electricity comes from plants that burn fossil fuels, usually coal and natural gas. Transportation is a close second, contributing about 4: percent of .). greenhouse gas emissions. Almost all cars, trucks, ships, trains and airplanes run on gasoline or diesel fuels. <anufacturing and other industries contribute about 4& percent of .). greenhouse gas emissions, followed by residential and commercial sources (-- percent" and agriculture (: percent". #t's worth noting that forestry and other land8use practices offset some of these greenhouse gas emissions, according to the E7A. Because trees and other plants absorb .5 4 from the atmosphere, they reduce our overall greenhouse gas emissions by roughly -6 percent. 1orldwide, however, the output of greenhouse gases is a source of grave concern9 ,rom the time the #ndustrial $evolution began to the year 4&&+, atmospheric .5 4 levels have increased almost %: percent and methane levels have increased a whopping -6: percent, according to (A)A = and most of that increase has been in the past *& years. #f these trends continue, scientists, government officials and a growing number of citi;ens fear that the worst effects of global warming = e/treme weather, rising sea levels, plant and animal e/tinctions, ocean acidification, ma>or shifts in climate and unprecedented social upheaval = will be inevitable.

%he climate system can respond to changes in external forcings.&!1'&!2' E(ternal forcings can )push) the climate in the direction of *arming or cooling+ &!3' E(amples of e(ternal forcings include changes in atmospheric composition ,e+g+, increased concentrations of greenhouse gases-, solar luminosity, .olcanic eruptions, and .ariations in Earth/s orbit around the 0un+&!4' 1rbital cycles .ary slo*ly o.er tens of thousands of years and at present are in an o.erall cooling trend *hich *ould be e(pected to lead to*ards an ice age, but the 2#th century instrumental temperature record sho*s a sudden rise in global temperatures+&!!'

OUMH 2103

Greenhouse gases
Main articles: Greenhouse gas, Greenhouse effect, Radiative forcing, and Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere %he greenhouse effect is the process by *hich absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere *arm a planet/s lo*er atmosphere and surface+ It *as proposed by 2oseph 3ourier in 1424, disco.ered in 146# by 2ohn %yndall&!6' and *as first in.estigated 5uantitati.ely by 0.ante 6rrheniusin 1476+&! '

6nnual *orld greenhouse gas emissions, in 2##!, by sector+ 8ubble diagram sho*ing the share of global cumulati.e energy-related carbon dio(ide emissions for ma9or emitters bet*een 147#-2## +&!4'

:aturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases ha.e a mean *arming effect of about 33 ;" ,!7 ;3-+&!7'&"'<ithout the earth/s atmosphere the temperature across almost the entire surface of the earth *ould be belo* free=ing+ &6#' %he ma9or greenhouse gases are *ater .apor, *hich causes about 36> #? of the greenhouse effect@ carbon dio(ide ,"12-, *hich causes 7> 26?@ methane ,"A4-, *hich causes 4>7?@ and o=one ,13-, *hich causes 3> ?+&61'&62'&63' "louds also affect the radiation balance through cloud forcings similar to greenhouse gases+ Auman acti.ity since the Industrial $e.olution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiati.e forcing from "1 2, methane, tropospheric o=one, "3"s and nitrous o(ide+ 6ccording to *orB published in 2## , the concentrations of "12 and methane ha.e increased by 36? and 144? respecti.ely since 1 !#+ &64' %hese le.els are much higher than at any time during the last 4##,### years, the period for *hich reliable data has been e(tracted from ice cores+&6!'&66'&6 '&64' Less direct geological e.idence indicates that "12 .alues higher than this *ere last seen about 2# million years ago+ &67' 3ossil fuelburning has produced about three-5uarters of the increase in "12 from human acti.ity o.er the past 2# years+ %he rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-use, particularly deforestation+& #' Estimates of global "12 emissions in 2#11 from fossil fuel combustion, including cement production and gas flaring, *as 34+4 billion tonnes ,7+! C #+! Dg"-, an increase of !4? abo.e emissions in 177#+ "oal burning *as responsible for 43? of the total emissions, oil 34?, gas 14?, cement 4+7? and gas flaring #+ ?& 1' In Eay 2#13, it *as reported that readings for "1 2 taBen at the *orld/s primary benchmarB site in Eauna Loa surpassed 4## ppm+ 6ccording to professor 8rian AosBins , this is liBely the first time "12 le.els ha.e been this high for about 4+! million years+ & 2' & 3'

OUMH 2103
1.er the last three decades of the 2#th century, gross domestic product per capita and population gro*th *ere the main dri.ers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions+ & 4' "12 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change+ & !' & 6'F 1 Emissions can be attributed to different regions, e+g+, see the figure opposite+ 6ttribution of emissions due to land-use change is a contro.ersial issue+ & '& 4'F247 Emissions scenarios, estimates of changes in future emission le.els of greenhouse gases, ha.e been pro9ected that depend upon uncertain economic,sociological, technological, and natural de.elopments+& 7' In most scenarios, emissions continue to rise o.er the century, *hile in a fe*, emissions are reduced+&4#'&41' 3ossil fuel reser.es are abundant, and *ill not limit carbon emissions in the 21st century+&42' Emission scenarios, combined *ith modelling of the carbon cycle, ha.e been used to produce estimates of ho* atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change in the future+ Gsing the si( ID"" 0$E0 )marBer) scenarios, models suggest that by the year 21##, the atmospheric concentration of "12 could range bet*een !41 and 7 # ppm+&43' %his is an increase of 7#>2!#? abo.e the concentration in the year 1 !#+ %he popular media and the public often confuse global *arming *ith o=one depletion, i+e+, the destruction of stratospheric o=one by chlorofluorocarbons+&44'&4!' 6lthough there are a fe* areas of linBage, the relationship bet*een the t*o is not strong+ $educed stratospheric o=one has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures, *hile increased tropospheric o=one has had a some*hat larger *arming effect+&46'

What Causes Global Warming? 0cientists ha.e spent decades figuring out *hat is causing global *arming+ %hey/.e looBed at the natural cycles and e.ents that are Bno*n to influence climate+ 8ut the amount and pattern of *arming that/s been measured can/t be e(plained by these factors alone+ %he only *ay to e(plain the pattern is to include the effect of greenhouse gases ,HAHs- emitted by humans+ %o bring all this information together, the Gnited :ations formed a group of scientists called the Intergo.ernmental Danel on "limate "hange, or ID""+ %he ID"" meets e.ery fe* years to re.ie* the latest scientific findings and *rite a report summari=ing all that is Bno*n about global *arming+ Each report represents a consensus, or agreement, among hundreds of leading scientists+ 1ne of the first things scientists learned is that there are se.eral greenhouse gases responsible for *arming, and humans emit them in a .ariety of *ays+ Eost come from the combustion of fossil fuels in cars, factories and electricity production+ %he gas responsible for the most *arming is carbon dio(ide, also called "12+ 1ther contributors include methane released from landfills and agriculture ,especially from the digesti.e systems of gra=ing animals-, nitrous o(ide from fertili=ers, gases used for refrigeration and industrial processes, and the loss of forests that *ould other*ise store "12+ Different greenhouse gases ha.e .ery different heat-trapping abilities+ 0ome of them can e.en trap more heat than "12+ 6 molecule of methane produces more than 2# times the *arming of a molecule of "12+ :itrous o(ide is 3## times more po*erful than "12+ 1ther gases, such as chlorofluorocarbons ,*hich ha.e been banned in much of the *orld because they also degrade the o=one layer-, ha.e heat-trapping potential thousands of times greater than "12+ 8ut because their concentrations are much lo*er than "12, none of these gases adds as much *armth to the atmosphere as "12 does+ In order to understand the effects of all the gases together, scientists tend to talB about all greenhouse gases in terms of the e5ui.alent amount of "12+ 0ince 177#, yearly emissions ha.e gone up by about 6 billion metric tons of )carbon dio(ide e5ui.alent) *orld*ide, more than a 2# percent increase+

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Global Warming Solutions

%he e.idence that humans are causing global *arming is strong, but the 5uestion of *hat to do about it remains contro.ersial+ Economics, sociology, and politics are all important factors in planning for the future+ E.en if *e stopped emitting greenhouse gases ,HAHs- today, the Earth *ould still *arm by another degree 3ahrenheit or so+ 8ut *hat *e do from today for*ard maBes a big difference+ Depending on our choices, scientists predict that the Earth could e.entually *arm by as little as 2+! degrees or as much as 1# degrees 3ahrenheit+ 6 commonly cited goal is to stabili=e HAH concentrations around 4!#-!!# parts per million ,ppm-, or about t*ice pre-industrial le.els+ %his is the point at *hich many belie.e the most damaging impacts of climate change can be a.oided+ "urrent concentrations are about 34# ppm, *hich means there isn/t much time to lose+ 6ccording to the ID"", *e/d ha.e to reduce HAH emissions by !#? to 4#? of *hat they/re on tracB to be in the ne(t century to reach this le.el+ Is this possible? Eany people and go.ernments are already *orBing hard to cut greenhouse gases, and e.eryone can help+ $esearchers 0tephen Dacala and $obert 0ocolo* at Drinceton Gni.ersity ha.e suggested one approach that they call )stabili=ation *edges+) %his means reducing HAH emissions from a .ariety of sources *ith technologies a.ailable in the ne(t fe* decades, rather than relying on an enormous change in a single area+ %hey suggest *edges that could each reduce emissions, and all of them together could hold emissions at appro(imately current le.els for the ne(t !# years, putting us on a potential path to stabili=e around !## ppm+ %here are many possible *edges, including impro.ements to energy efficiency and .ehicle fuel economy ,so less energy has to be produced-, and increases in *ind and solar po*er, hydrogen produced from rene*able sources, biofuels ,produced from crops-, natural gas, and nuclear po*er+ %here is also the potential to capture the carbon dio(ide emitted from fossil fuels and store it undergroundIa process called )carbon se5uestration+) In addition to reducing the gases *e emit to the atmosphere, *e can also increase the amount of gases *e taBe out of the atmosphere+ Dlants and trees absorb "12 as they gro*, )se5uestering) carbon naturally+ Increasing forestlands and maBing changes to the *ay *e farm could increase the amount of carbon *e/re storing+ 0ome of these technologies ha.e dra*bacBs, and different communities *ill maBe different decisions about ho* to po*er their li.es, but the good ne*s is that there are a .ariety of options to put us on a path to*ard a stable climate+

reenhouse gases in our atmosphere. A greenhouse gas is any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere. By increasing the heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect, which ultimately leads to global warming.

Solar radiation and the greenhouse effect

9

OUMH 2103
The sun bombards Earth with enormous amounts of radiation, which strike Earth's atmosphere in the form of visible light, plus ultraviolet ( !", infrared (#$" and other types of radiation that are invisible to the human eye. About %& percent of the radiation striking the Earth is reflected back out to space by clouds, ice and other reflective surfaces. The remaining '& percent is absorbed by the oceans, the land and the atmosphere, according to (A)A. As they absorb radiation and heat up, the oceans, land and atmosphere release heat in the form of #$ thermal radiation, which passes out of the atmosphere into space. The balance between incoming and outgoing radiation keeps Earth's overall average temperature at about *+ , (-* .". This e/change of incoming and outgoing radiation that warms Earth is often referred to as the 0greenhouse effect0 because a greenhouse works in much the same way. #ncoming ! radiation easily passes through the glass walls of a greenhouse and is absorbed by the plants and hard surfaces inside. 1eaker #$ radiation, however, has difficulty passing out through the glass walls and is trapped inside, warming the greenhouse.

How greenhouse gases impact global warming

The gases in the atmosphere that absorb radiation are known as 0greenhouse gases0 (sometimes abbreviated as 232" because they are largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect, in turn, is one of the leading causes of global warming. The most significant greenhouse gases are water vapor (3 45", carbon dio/ide (.54", methane (.36" and nitrous o/ide ((45", according to the Environmental 7rotection Agency (E7A". ,luorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur he/afluoride, are created during industrial processes and are also considered greenhouse gases. Though they are present in very small concentrations, they trap heat very effectively, making them high 0global8warming potential0 (217" gases. .hlorofluorocarbons (.,.s", once used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants until they were phased out by international agreement, are also greenhouse gases. Three factors affect the degree to which any greenhouse gas will influence global warming9

its abundance in the atmosphere how long it stays in the atmosphere its global8warming potential

.arbon dio/ide has a significant impact on global warming partly because of its abundance in the atmosphere9 #n 4&--, .54 composed :6 percent of .). greenhouse emissions, according to the E7A. Additionally, .54 stays in the atmosphere for thousands of years. 3owever, methane is about 4- times more efficient at absorbing radiation than .5 4, giving it a high 217 rating, even though it stays in the atmosphere only about -& years.

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OUMH 2103

Sources of greenhouse gases

)ome greenhouse gases, like methane, are produced through agricultural practices including livestock manure management. 5thers, like .54, largely result from natural processes like respiration and from the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. )ince the beginning of the #ndustrial $evolution in the early -:&&s, humans have been burning fossils fuels at an ever8increasing rate. #n the nited )tates, like most other industriali;ed nations, burning fossil fuels is the single greatest manmade source of greenhouse gases. According to the E7A, the production of electricity is the source of %% percent of .). greenhouse gas emissions. 5ver '& percent of .). electricity comes from plants that burn fossil fuels, usually coal and natural gas. Transportation is a close second, contributing about 4: percent of .). greenhouse gas emissions. Almost all cars, trucks, ships, trains and airplanes run on gasoline or diesel fuels. <anufacturing and other industries contribute about 4& percent of .). greenhouse gas emissions, followed by residential and commercial sources (-- percent" and agriculture (: percent". #t's worth noting that forestry and other land8use practices offset some of these greenhouse gas emissions, according to the E7A. Because trees and other plants absorb .5 4 from the atmosphere, they reduce our overall greenhouse gas emissions by roughly -6 percent. 1orldwide, however, the output of greenhouse gases is a source of grave concern9 ,rom the time the #ndustrial $evolution began to the year 4&&+, atmospheric .5 4 levels have increased almost %: percent and methane levels have increased a whopping -6: percent, according to (A)A = and most of that increase has been in the past *& years. #f these trends continue, scientists, government officials and a growing number of citi;ens fear that the worst effects of global warming = e/treme weather, rising sea levels, plant and animal e/tinctions, ocean acidification, ma>or shifts in climate and unprecedented social upheaval = will be inevitable.

Hreenhouse gases normally 9ust Beep the planet *arm+ 8ut *hen man started adding e(tra greenhouse gases ,carbon dio(ide, methane and "3"s- the atmosphere started heating up+

Read on:

Greenhouse gases are any gases in the atmosphere *ith three or more atoms+ %hey catchthe sun/s heat as it is being radiated out from the *arm earth and stop some of it going bacB out into space+ %his is called the greenhouse effect and it has been going on for millions of years+

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$ecently ,*ell, since about 1 !#-, at the start of the Industrial 6ge, humans disco.ered coal, and later oil and natural gas+ <e burned these fossil fuels to dri.e industry, transport and to generate electricity+ <hen burnt, these fuels release the carbon that had been trapped for 3## million years+ 0o for 2!# years *e ha.e been pumping extra carbon dioxide ,"12- into the atmosphere, adding to the usual amount ,24# parts per million or ppm-+ %he concentration of "12 is no* around 37# ppm, a 4#? increase+ %here ha.e been other greenhouse gases that *e are responsible for adding, mainly methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs.

6ll these extra greenhouse gases absorb more and more heat and are causing global *arming+ Hlobal *arming causes climate change, *hich means some areas *ill flood, others *ill ha.e drought, *eather e.ents liBe storms may become more fre5uent and more se.ere and rising sea le.el may cause coastal damage and flooding+

T$ C*/3%! D+%9+5 G/ !$%&0 E11 #2

In the 19th century, scientists realized that gases in the atmosphere cause a "greenhouse effect" which affects the planet's temperature. These scientists were interested chiefly in the possibility that a lower level of carbon dio ide gas might e plain the ice ages of the distant past. !t the turn of the century, "vante !rrhenius calculated that emissions from human industry might someday bring a global warming. #ther scientists dismissed his idea as faulty. In 19$%, &.". 'allendar argued that the level of carbon dio ide was climbing and raising global temperature, but most scientists found his arguments implausible. It was almost by chance that a few researchers in the 19()s discovered that global warming truly was possible. In the early 19*)s, '.+. ,eeling measured the level of carbon dio ide in the atmosphere- it was rising fast. .esearchers began to ta/e an interest, struggling to understand how the level of carbon dio ide had changed in the past, and how the level was influenced by chemical and biological forces. They found that the gas plays a
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crucial role in climate change, so that the rising level could gravely affect our future. 0This essay covers only developments relating directly to carbon dio ide, with a separate essay for #ther &reenhouse &ases.

Question: 1hat are 2reenhouse 2ases? Answer: <any greenhouse gases occur naturally, such as water vapor, carbon dio/ide, methane, nitrous o/ide, and o;one. 5thers such as hydrofluorocarbons (3,.s",perfluorocarbons (7,.s", and sulfur hexafluoride (),@" result e/clusively from human industrial processes. Human Activities and G een!"use Gases H&)*! *#2+6+2+ 0 *,0% *55 0+'!+1+#*!2," 2% 2$ , 6 , %1 !*2&/*,," %##&//+!' '/ !$%&0 '*0 0C 'arbon dio ide +0 / , *0 5 +!2% 2$ *2)%04$ / 3" 2$ 3&/!+!' %1 0%,+5 7*02 8 7%%5 *!5 7%%5 4/%5&#208 *!5

1%00+, 1& ,0 >%+,8 !*2&/*, '*08 *!5 #%*,?1itrous o ide )+00+%!0 %##&/ 5&/+!' 6*/+%&0 *'/+#&,2&/*, *!5 +!5&02/+*, 4/%# 00 08 *!5 7$ ! 0%,+5 7*02 %/ 1%00+, 1& ,0 */ 3&/! 52ethane +0 )+22 5 7$ ! %/'*!+# 7*02 5 #%)4%0 08 7$ 2$ / +! ,*!51+,,0 %/ +! #%!! #2+%! 7+2$ ,+6 02%#; 1*/)+!'- M 2$*! )+00+%!0 *,0% %##&/ 5&/+!' 2$ 4/%5&#2+%! *!5 2/*!04%/2 %1 1%00+, 1& ,0-

The Properties of Greenhouse Gases 2reenhouse gases vary in their ability to absorb and hold heat in the atmosphere, a phenomenon known as the 0'/ !$%&0 11 #2.0 3,.s and 7,.s are the most heat8absorbent, but there are also wide differences between naturally occurring gases. ,or e/ample, nitrous o/ide absorbs 4'& times more heat per molecule than carbon dio/ide, and methane absorbs 4times more heat per molecule than carbon dio/ide.

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ATTACHMENT

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