- MATE-221: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS -

SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT INFORMATION OBJECTIVES: To understand the basic properties related to the mechanical behavior of various materials. To observe the response of engineering materials during tensile and impact tests. To determine the tensile Stress-Strain curve and the Impact Energy vs. Testing Temperature curve for each material tested. To determine the yield strength, tensile strength, ductility and impact energy for the materials tested. To determine the effect of the rate of deformation, the temperature at which the testing is carried out, and the geometry of the specimen on the mechanical properties of the materials. To observe the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature of representative metals and polymers. To observe the appearance of the fracture surfaces of the tensile and impact specimens tested.

REPORT: There is no laboratory report for this laboratory. Instead, however, there will be a 1-hr, closed-book e amination on the laboratory. The date for the e amination will be announced. GRADING: The grading for the materials laboratory will be based on the e amination that will be scheduled following the laboratory e periments. In the e amination, you may be asked to provide engineering and true tensile stress-strain graphs and!or impact energy vs. testing temperature graphs for the materials you tested. "ou should therefore take the raw data obtained during the e periments conducted in this class, analy#e them properly and plot the appropriate tensile stress vs. strain and impact energy vs. testing temperature graphs. $t the time of the e amination, you must bring along the engineering and true tensile stress!strain graphs for both the round and flat tensile specimens of the aluminum alloy, and the tensile stress!strain graphs for the polymers tested at each of the two different rates of deformation. "ou must also bring with you to the e amination the impact energy vs. testing temperature graphs for the steel, aluminum alloy and polymer samples that you tested at the various temperatures. In the e amination, you may be asked to determine and!or e plain information from one or more of these graphs. $lso, make sure that you understand all of the steps involved in the data analysis, since you may be asked to describe some of them in greater detail in the e amination.

- MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: THE TENSILE TEST Object !e": To observe the tensile response of two engineering materials typical of a metal and a polymer. To determine the engineering stress!engineering strain and!or true stress!true strain curves for each material tested. To determine the elastic modulus, yield stress, tensile strength, fracture stress and ductility of these materials. To understand the relationships between bonding, microstructure and tensile responses for these materials. G#$% &': &hile no formal laboratory report is re'uired, the grading for this component of the course will be based on a 1-hr closed-book e amination that will be scheduled following the laboratory e ercises. In the e amination you may be asked to provide the engineering and!or true stress!strain plots for the materials you tested. Therefore, you should take the raw data generated during the e periments conducted in this class, analy#e it properly and plot out the appropriate stress!strain plots and bring them along with you when you take the e amination. "ou may be asked to attach one or more plots to your answer sheet. $lso, make sure that you understand all the steps involved in the data analyses, since you will be asked to describe some of them in detail in the e amination. I&t#(%)ct (&: &hen materials are sub(ected to e ternal forces or loads, stresses and strains develop which can lead to failure as a result of e cessive deflection or bending, permanent changes in shape, or fracture into two or more pieces. )echanical or structural engineers perform loading analyses of structures and predict the distribution and magnitude of the stresses and strains present. )aterials engineers select and fabricate materials that will meet the service re'uirements predicted from stress analyses. $ wide range of engineering materials is available for use in structural components and systems. The mechanical properties of these materials vary widely. *onse'uently, choosing the right material to satisfy the design and operating re'uirements is critical in the production of a high 'uality and safe product. )echanical properties that are commonly considered during the design stage are+ yield strength, toughness, ductility and stiffness. These properties are measured by performing well-defined tests. ,f these, the tensile test is fre'uently used to determine mechanical properties. In this test, the material is sub(ected to a unia ial load, which is gradually increased until fracture occurs. Elongation of the material and the corresponding load are monitored and the data are used to generate the stress!strain response of the material. In turn, the yield strength, tensile strength, fracture strength and ductility can be determined from the stress!strain curve and an appro imate measure of the elastic or "oung-s modulus and toughness can be obtained.

- T*e Te&" +e Te"t 1, E&' &ee# &' St#e"" !", E&' &ee# &' St#$ &: The engineering stress, , can be calculated from measurements of the applied load, P, and the original cross-sectional area, A(+ / 0!$o 112

The engineering strain, , is defined as the change in length, l, divided by the original length, l(+

/ l!lo

1%2

3epresentative engineering stress!strain curves for a number of engineering materials in tension are illustrated in 4igure 1. The material-s response during a tensile test can be broken into four 567 regions, as illustrated for a ductile metal in 4igure %. - Re' (& I: Elastic Deformation - Elastic deformation does not result in any permanent change in shape after removal of the load. In the elastic region, the stress is proportional to the strain+ / E 1.2

&here E is the elastic or "oung-s modulus of the material. Its magnitude is e'ual to the slope of the stress!strain curve in 3egion I. - Re' (& II: Plastic Deformation - 0lastic deformation results in permanent strain after removal of the load. There is a permanent change in the dimensions of the sample. There are several ways to define the limit of elastic deformation, or the onset of plastic deformation+ 5i7 The Elastic 8imit or 0roportional 8imit - the ma imum stress that the material can withstand without permanent deformation. 5ii7 The "ield Strength - the stress re'uired to produce a specified small amount of permanent strain. It is measured as an offset yield 5sometimes also called a proof stress7 and is given by the stress that corresponds to a small level of permanent strain 5e.g. 9.% :7. The 9.% : offset yield is determined from the engineering stress!engineering strain curve by constructing a line parallel to the elastic slope 53egion I of 4igure %7 that intersects the strain a is at 9.% :. The intersection of this line with the stress!strain curve defines the offset yield. Notes: 1. 9.% : strain / 9.99% strain. %. 4or polymeric materials, the yield strength corresponds to the first ma imum in the engineering stress!engineering strain curve. - Re' (& III: Necking - This corresponds to a localized reduction in the cross-sectional area of the tensile specimen, as shown in 4igure ..
6

- Re' (& IV: Fracture - This is the culmination of the tensile test and occurs at the end of 3egion III, as denoted by the ;X<. *eramic materials usually fracture in tension at the elastic limit. In metals and many polymers, fracture is preceded by e tensive plastic deformation. $ measure of the ductility of a material is the magnitude of the plastic strain at fracture. =uctility can be specified in terms of either : elongation 5: E87 or : reduction in area 5: 3$7+
5l f l o 7 : E8 / lo

199

162

5 A f Ao 7 : 3$ / Ao

199

1>2

where l( and lf refer to the initial and final specimen lengths, respectively and Ao and Af refer to the initial and final cross-sectional areas of the specimen. 2, T#)e St#e"" !", T#)e St#$ & C)#!e: Engineering stress and engineering strain are based on the original dimensions of the specimen. ?ecause these dimensions change during the tensile test, the engineering stress vs. engineering strain curve does not give a true measure of the material-s response. In comparison, true stress and true strain are calculated using the instantaneous cross-sectional area and length of the sample. The largest discrepancy between the two curves occurs after necking begins in the specimen because of the large decrease in area. The true stress, . is defined as the ratio of the instantaneous load, P, to the instantaneous minimum cross-sectional area, $i, supporting the load+

= P/Ai

1@2

True strain. , is defined as the integral of the ratio of the incremental change in length, dl, to the instantaneous length of the sample, li+

1 / 1 l n ( 1 1 T = d 0= i/ o)
1 o

1A2

This e'uation is applicable only until the onset of necking. $fter necking, the strain must be based on the instantaneous cross-sectional area of the specimen, A+

= ln Ao/Ai!

1B2

The difference between the engineering stress!engineering strain and true stress!true strain curves is illustrated in 4igure 6. $ssuming conservation of volume during the deformation of a metal, it can be shown that+

= " # !

1C2

>

 = ln " # !
The shape and position of either stress!strain curve depends on+ )icrostructure and bonding type )aterial composition!purity Deat treatment 0rior plastic deformation The rate of loading or ;strain rate< 5particularly for polymers7 The test temperature 5particularly for polymers7

1192

Be*$! (# (/ Met$+". Ce#$0 c" $&% P(+10e#": Metals: The general shape of the engineering stress!engineering strain curve for metals is shown in 4igure %. $ metal behaves linearly in the elastic region. There is no permanent deformation in this region, and on the atomic scale the bonds are stretched, but not broken. &hen the stress e ceeds a value corresponding to the yield strength, the specimen undergoes plastic deformation. If the load is released in this region, the specimen will remain permanently deformed. ,n the atomic level, the yield strength is reached when the normal applied stress has a large enough shear stress component to cause dislocation motion. $s dislocations move through the material, they result in a permanent change in shape. $s the sample is elongated further, the number of dislocations in the material increases, and as the dislocations get closer together, the shear stress needed for dislocation motion increases. The material becomes harder and a higher stress is re'uired to continue the plastic deformation. This phenomenon occurs in all ductile metals and is called $ork%hardening or strain%hardening. The strain-hardening behavior can be e pressed as a simple power law curve+

= & n

1112

where 2 is the strength coefficient 5with the same units as "oungEs modulus7 and & is the strainhardening e ponent. 4or most metals, the value of n is between 9.1 and 9.>. &hen the incremental decrease in cross-sectional area becomes greater than the incremental increase in load due to work-hardening, necking begins in the specimen+ %dA/A ' d/ 11%2

$t this point, the load re'uired to deform the specimen decreases until fracture. The ma imum engineering stress reached is defined as the ultimate tensile strength 5FTS7. Gote that the true stress!true strain response of the material does not go through such a ma imum. In materials that fracture without necking, the tensile strength and the fracture strength are the same. Ceramics: In tension, ceramics e hibit only elastic behavior. Ionically bonded ceramics are brittle because of the limited number of slip systems and the large ?urgers vector. The slip systems are
@

limited because of the *oulombic repulsion between like ions. In covalently bonded ceramics, on the other hand, the directional nature of the covalent bonds, make dislocation motion difficult. 4igure 1 shows the typical tensile response of a ceramic. Polymers: The stress!strain behavior of polymers is sensitive to the polymer morphology, temperature, the rate of deformation and the chemical environment of the test 5i.e. water, o ygen, organic solvents7. The linear elastic region, if present, is small. 4igure > shows the typical behavior of a highly cross-linked thermoset, a semicrystalline thermoplastic and an elastomer. The elastic behavior of all polymers is time-dependent, and is called (iscoelastic. 3emember that the molecular structure of a thermoset is a cross-linked network. The molecular structure of a thermoplastic is linear or branched. Elastomers have a lightly cross-linked network structure. This results in markedly different tensile behavior between the three classes of polymers. In general, the atomic level behavior of polymers during deformation is as follows. =uring elastic deformation, the bonds stretch and there is some uncoiling or untwisting of the polymer chains. In order for plastic deformation to occur, there must also be chain sliding. There are no dislocations in polymers, so in order to have a permanent change in shape, the chains must slide past one another. The chain sliding causes chain alignment. The "oungEs modulus of most polymers is very low because the load is pulling secondary bonds apart, which have shallow energy wells. Thermosets below their glass transition temperature, T g, tend to have a higher modulus than thermoplastics or elastomers. =uring elastic deformation there is stretching of bonds and some rearrangement of coiled molecules. Thermosets show very little plastic deformation because the cross-links prevent chains from sliding past one another. Therefore, thermosets are brittle compared to other polymers 5although not compared to ceramics7. Thermoplastics are especially sensitive to temperature. The modulus and yield stress decrease as the temperature increases. ?elow the glass transition temperature, thermoplastics are more brittle and show only slight necking before failure. This is because the molecules are Hfro#en in placeH and do not have sufficient room for chain sliding. $bove the glass transition temperature, the modulus is low, and a great deal of necking and chain alignment can occur before failure. $t very high plastic strains, the chains become highly aligned. Therefore, (ust before failure of a thermoplastic, the modulus often increases because the load is pulling along the chain length and is thus pulling along primary covalent bonds instead of weaker secondary bonds. Elastomers are elastic up to large strainsI the e planation for this is comple and will not be discussed here. $ stable neck is formed when a thermoplastic polymer yields. This is because at the point of necking, the chains are highly aligned, and stronger than the surrounding material. Therefore, plastic deformation begins in the regions surrounding the neck and the neck becomes stable. $t some point, the entire gage section of the sample will have necked, and higher stresses are necessary for fracture. 4igure . shows an e ample of a stable polymer neck.

S$03+e": Each group will be provided with four 567 tensile samples. These include two 5%7 metal and two 5%7 polymer samples. ,ne of the metal samples has a circular cross-section, while the other has a rectangular cross-section. This will allow you to study the influence of sample geometry on the tensile response of the material, since both the metal samples are produced from the same alloy. ?oth the polymer samples have a rectangular cross-section. The polymer samples, however, will be tested at two different cross-head speeds to e amine the influence of strain rate on the tensile stress!strain behavior of the polymers. P#(ce%)#e: )easure and record the dimensions of the tensile specimens before each test. This includes width, thickness and length of the gage section for the flat specimen, and the diameter and length of the gage section for the cylindrical specimens. N(te: )emem*er to use the +, system of units-mm or m, not cm. $fter the test is completed, remove the two pieces of the failed sample. 4it the fractured surfaces together and re-measure the 5final7 gage length, l f, at fracture. Jnowing the original gage length, lo, you can thus calculate the strain at fracture. Estimate the percent reduction in cross-sectional area 5: 3$7 at the fracture site. 3ecall that earlier you measured the original cross-sectional area in the gage section. $fter the laboratory you will be E-mailed the raw load vs. displacement data from the 6 tensile tests. *onvert this data into stress!strain data 5both engineering and true7 and estimate the elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, fracture strength, ductility and any other relevant material property. 3emember to work in SI unitsKG!m% or 0ascals 50a7 for stress, etc.

T$b+e 1: Te&" +e Te"t D$t$ Test Go. 5 7 )aterial+ Specimen Type 5 7 *ylindrical 5check one7 Initial 8o =o =imensions 5units7 4inal 8f =f =imensions 5units7 )odulus of Elasticity / 5units7 Tensile Strength / 5units7 0ercent Elongation / *ondition+ 5 7 4lat $o $f 8o 8f to tf wo wf $o $f

"ield Strength / 5units7 4racture Stress / 5units7 0ercent $rea 3eduction /

$ppearance of 4racture Surface+

*omments+

T$b+e 2: Te&" +e Te"t D$t$ Test Go. 5 7 )aterial+ Specimen Type 5 7 *ylindrical 5check one7 Initial 8o =o =imensions 5units7 4inal 8f =f =imensions 5units7 )odulus of Elasticity / 5units7 Tensile Strength / 5units7 0ercent Elongation / *ondition+ 5 7 4lat $o $f 8o 8f to tf wo wf $o $f

"ield Strength / 5units7 4racture Stress / 5units7 0ercent $rea 3eduction /

$ppearance of 4racture Surface+

*omments+

19

T$b+e 4: Te&" +e Te"t D$t$ Test Go. 5 7 )aterial+ Specimen Type 5 7 *ylindrical 5check one7 Initial 8o =o =imensions 5units7 4inal 8f =f =imensions 5units7 )odulus of Elasticity / 5units7 Tensile Strength / 5units7 0ercent Elongation / *ondition+ 5 7 4lat $o $f 8o 8f to tf wo wf $o $f

"ield Strength / 5units7 4racture Stress / 5units7 0ercent $rea 3eduction /

$ppearance of 4racture Surface+

*omments+

11

T$b+e 5: Te&" +e Te"t D$t$ Test Go. 5 7 )aterial+ Specimen Type 5 7 *ylindrical 5check one7 Initial 8o =o =imensions 5units7 4inal 8f =f =imensions 5units7 )odulus of Elasticity / 5units7 Tensile Strength / 5units7 0ercent Elongation / *ondition+ 5 7 4lat $o $f 8o 8f to tf wo wf $o $f

"ield Strength / 5units7 4racture Stress / 5units7 0ercent $rea 3eduction /

$ppearance of 4racture Surface+

*omments+

1%

466 Ce#$0 c Met$+

St#e"" 7MP$8

266

166 P(+10e# 96,1: ;:

St#$ &

F ')#e 1, Schematic showing typical tensile responses of a metal, ceramic and polymer.

Strain to 4racture Fniform Strain

E&' &ee# &' St#e"". s

Gecking ?egins

II

III

IV

,ffset "ield Strength

Tensile Strength

4racture Stress

I
6,2 : E&' &ee# &' St#$ &.

F ')#e 2, Schematic of a typical tensile engineering stress!strain curve for a metal.

1.

TS

Metal Polymer

St#e""

F St#e""
/)ef. 0allister, 1th Edition2

St#$ & St#$ & F ')#e 4, Schematic showing the necking behavior in 5a7 a metal, and 5b7 a polymer in tension.

True stress!true strain curve

St#e""

*orrected for necking Engineering stress!strain curve )a imum load o 4racture o

St#$ & F ')#e 5, *omparison of tensile engineering and true stress!strain curves. /Adapted from 0allister,
1th Edition2

16

St#e"" 7MP$8

B C

St#$ & F ')#e ;, Schematic showing the tensile stress!strain behavior or a typical thermoset 5$7, thermoplastic 5?7 and elastomer 5*7. /)ef. 0allister, 1th Edition2

1>

- INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONDUCTING THE TENSILE TEST <S$tec Te"te# O&+1= -

1. %. .. 6.

Turn on the Satec machine 5there are two ON switches, one on the base of the test stand and another on the rear of the control panel7. Fsing the MODE button on the control panel, set the data display screen to ;)ode >< 5data includes strain, position, real-time load and peak load7. Set the load to Lero by using the LOAD knobs on the console. Set the crosshead travel speed to 9.> in!min using the two sliding speed controllers on the control panel. These two speed controllers act additively in that the total crosshead speed is the sum of the speeds indicated by the two controllers 5note that the left-hand slider is for larger and coarser speed control, while the right-hand slider is for finer speed control7. The desired speed of 9.> in!min 5for the $luminum samples7 is attained by setting the left-side slider to Lero and the right-hand slider to 9.> in!min. 0lace one end of the metal specimen into the upper grip. This is accomplished by pulling the lever on the back of the top grip up, away from the open end of the grip. Such movement of this lever causes the spring-loaded (aws of the grips to open, allowing you to insert the specimen. 3eleasing the lever then allows the (aws to close back onto the specimen. ,pen the lower grip by pulling its lever down, away from the open end of the grip. Fsing the DO>N (og button on the base of the test stand, carefully move the crosshead down until the bottom end of the specimen can be placed into the lower grip 5the speed of the (og can be ad(usted on the control panel using the JOG SPEED knob7. ,n the appropriate computer, open the PUBLIC directory or folder, then double-click on the Hsatec.libH icon and select file Hsatec.viH 5wait for the re'uired files to load7. $ schematic of the tester will then appear on the computer screen. 0rior to initiating a tensile test, click on the RECORD button to begin recording data from the Satec machine 5note that the computer and the program serve only as data ac'uisition devices and do not control the test7. Simultaneously, on the Satec control panel, press the TENSILE button to initiate the tensile test 5check the control panel again to verify that the crosshead speed is set to 9.> in!min7.

>.

@.

A.

B.

C.

>ARNING: If anything goes wrong during a test, press the red STOP button on the test stand.

1@

-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: THE IMPACT TEST Object !e": To determine fracture toughness in terms of absorbed fracture energy for steel, an aluminum alloy and a polymer. To characteri#e the ductile%to%*rittle transition temperature of a plain carbon steel. To study the appearance of fracture surfaces as a function of temperature.

G#$% &': The grading for this component of the course will be based on an e amination that will be scheduled following the laboratory e ercises. In the e amination, you may be asked to provide plots and!or values based on what you did in class. Therefore, you should take the raw data obtained during the e periments conducted in this class, analy#e it properly 5as described in this handout7, and draw the appropriate plots and bring them along with you when you take the e amination. "ou may be asked to attach one or more plots to your answer sheet. $lso, make sure that you understand all of the steps involved in the data analyses, since you will be asked to describe some of them in detail in the e amination. B$c?'#()&%: Toughness is one of the primary mechanical properties used to predict failure in structural components and must be considered when designing engineering structures. Toughness can be defined as a materialEs resistance to crack propagation. It is also a measure of the ability of the material to absorb energy prior to fracture. 4or e ample, material ;?< whose stress!strain response is shown schematically in 4igure 1, is said to be tougher than material ;$< 5note that the energy re'uired for fracture is indicated by the area under the stress!strain curve7. In fact, material ;$< is typically classified as being *rittle, while material ;?< is classified as being ductile. It is important to understand the difference between toughness and strength. The strength of a material denotes its ability to sustain stress before failure. 4or e ample, material ;$< in 4igure 1 has a higher strength than material ;?<, but has a lower toughness. Toughness, like strength, depends on the temperature and the rate of loading. In general, ferritic steels and other body-centered-cubic 5?**7 materials go through a transition from ductile to brittle behavior over a narrow temperature range. $bove this temperature range, the material is ductile and can absorb large amounts of energy before fracture. ?elow this temperature, the material is brittle and can only absorb a small amount of energy before fracture. This transition dictates the need to design large structural components like ships, pressure vessels, tanks, pipelines and bridges against brittle fracture using a service temperature well above the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature of the material selected. Toughness can be measured in either of two ways+ 17 8ow strain rate, 'uasi-static loading tests 5tensile tests7, and!or

1A

%7 Digh strain-rate impact tests. These tests normally give significantly different values for toughness because there is an effect of strain-rate on the ability of the material to absorb energy. 3esistance to fracture decreases with increasing loading rate. *onse'uently, the fracture toughness obtained from the impact test is a more conservative value than the value obtained from 'uasi-static loading tests. 1, T*e I03$ct Te"t: The impact test is the simplest and most commonly used high strain-rate test for measuring toughness. Digh loading rates are obtained by a free-falling hammer-like striker and the stress is concentrated by means of a notch machined into the sample. This test has been found to predict the likelihood of brittle fracture. The essential re'uirements of an impact test are+ a7 $ suitable specimen, b7 $n anvil or support on which the test specimen is placed to receive the blow from the moving mass, c7 $ moving mass of known kinetic energyI the latter must be high enough to break the test specimen placed in its path, and d) A means of measuring the energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture. 2, C*$#31@IA(% I03$ct Te"t: &hile there are several types of impact tests, methods fre'uently used in the laboratory are the 0harpy and the ,zod test. The testing machine for both tests is shown schematically in 4igure %. The principle of both tests is simpleI the energy re'uired to fracture the test piece is calculated from the difference in the initial and final heights of the swinging pendulum. To control the fracture process, a M-notch is machined in the sample to concentrate the stress at that location. Se'uentially, the specimen is sub(ected to elastic deformation, plastic deformation and fracture. Theoretically, the potential energy of the system *efore releasing the pendulum 50E17 is given by+ PE" = m g h" and the potential energy of the system at the end of swing 50E%7 is+ PE3 = m g h3 1%2 112

where+ m g / weight of the falling pendulum 5mass the acceleration due to gravity7. h1,h% / the heights of the hammer before release and at the end of the swing, 54igure %7. The energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture is then given by+

PE = m g h" % h3!
The energy can be read directly from the scale on the impact tester, as shown in 4igure %.

5.7

1B

The following parameters are usually measured and observed using both the *harpy and I#od impact tests. 517 Gotch fracture energy. 5%7 4racture appearance. These 'uantities are strongly dependent on temperature in ?** or body-centered-cubic 54erritic7 steelsI this temperature dependence results in an increase in toughness and ductility over a small temperature range, as shown in 4igure .. 4, P#(ce%)#e: (1) Standard ,zod and 0harpy test pieces have been machined from 196> steel, @9@1 aluminum alloy and a polymer, with dimensions as shown in 4igure 6. The steel was heat treated to the ;normali#ed< condition. The aluminum alloy was heat treated to the T@1 condition. To verify dimensions record the length, breadth, height and notch si#e. 5N(te: The polymer 5high density polyethylene or D=0E7 does not absolutely re'uire a notch for this test7. 5%7 To calibrate the machine, the hammer is released from its initial position without a specimen in the anvil. The pointer should rotate to the #ero position on the scale. If this is not the case, it is necessary to change the initial position of the pointer N you might have to do this by iteration. 5.7 Specimens of the steel, aluminum alloy and polymer will be tested at two temperatures+ air at room temperature 5O%> P*7 and in li'uid nitrogen 5-1C@ P*7. 567 The test piece is removed as 'uickly as possible from the cooling 5or heating if elevated temperatures are included in the testing7 medium, placed vertically in the anvil of the machine with the notch facing the hammer, and the hammer is released. Gote the position of the pointer on the scale after the test. 5>7 The hammer starts at an elevation h1, swings through its arc, strikes and breaks the specimen, and reaches a lower final elevation h% 54igure %7. 4rom the initial and final elevations, the difference in potential energy can be calculatedI this is the energy absorbed by the specimen during fracture, i.e. the impact energy. The scale on the machine is calibrated in units of foot-pounds 5ft-lb7. 4or SI units, this should be converted to Qoules, where 1 ft-lb / 1..@ Q. 5@7 3ecord the impact energy for the steel, aluminum alloy and the polymer at each of the temperatures tested. 5A7 E amine the two matching fracture surfaces using a low power stereomicroscope. Sketch the appearance of the surfaces. 5B7 The percentage of fi*rous fracture in the specimen should be determined by comparing the appearance of the fracture surface of the specimen with the fracture appearance chart shown in 4igure >.

1C

4rittle B Ductile

St#e"" A

C F ')#e 1, Schematic representation of the tensile stress!strain response of brittle and ductile materials. /)ef. 0allister, 1th Edition2 Scale

St#$ &

0ointer

Starting 0osit

Dammer

*1 *2

F ')#e 2, Schematic of a *harpy impact testing machine.

%9

Ab"(#be% E&e#'1

B# tt+e

D)ct +e

T#$&" t (& Te03e#$t)#e

Te"t Te03e#$t)#e
F ')#e 4, Schematic of impact energy as a function of testing temperature for steel.
B mm 19..% in.2

19 mm 19..C in.2

19 mm 19..C in.2

I od

Charpy

F ')#e 5, =imensions and test geometry of standard I#od and *harpy impact test specimens.
/)ef. 0allister, 1th Edition2

%1

199 :

B> :

A9 :

@9 :

>9 :

69 :

.9 :

%9 :

19 :

9:

5a7

4racture appearance charts and percent shear fracture comparator.

19

%9

.9

69

>9

@9

A9

B9

C9

5b7

Ruide for estimating fracture appearance.

Test E36%78 9+tandard Test 5ethods for Notched 4ar ,mpact Testing of 5etallic 5aterials: A+T5, ";; 4arr <ar*or Dri(e, =est 0onshohocken, PA, "778!2

F ')#e ;, 4racture appearance chart and percent fibrous fracture comparator /)ef. A+T5 +tandard

%%

DATA SHEET: IMPACT TEST LAB 3ecord the results from the ,zod and 0harpy impact tests carried out in the lab. in the table below. 3emember to convert the impact energy from ft-lb to SI units 5Qoules7, where 1 ft-lb / 1..@ Q. M$te# $+ STEEL 3oom Temperature 1%> P*!%CB J2 Te03e#$t)#e I03$ct E&e#'1 7/t-+b8 7J()+e"8 F#$ct)#e

8i'uid Gitrogen 1-1C@ P*!AA J2

B6B1-TB ALUMINUM ALLOY 3oom Temperature 1%> P*!%CB J2

8i'uid Gitrogen 1-1C@ P*!AA J2

POLYMER 7HDPE8 3oom Temperature 1%> P*!%CB J2

8i'uid Gitrogen 1-1C@ P*!AA J2

%.