B - Potential and Conditions For LNG Fuelled Short Sea Shipping in East Asia (LNG As Bunker)

oLenLlal and condlLlons for LnC fueled shorL sea shlpplng
ln LasL Asla
!"#$%& () *+,%-+% ./%#,#

HENRIK ANDERSSON
KASPER WINROTH

ueparLmenL of Shlpplng and Marlne 1echnology
0,1,#,(- () *2#$",-"34% 5&(624#,(-
CPALML8S unlvL8Sl1? Cl 1LCPnCLCC?
CLeborg, Sweden, 2010
8eporL no. x-10/243

8LC81 nC. x-10/243

ln LasL Asla

PLn8lk AnuL8SSCn
kASL8 Wln8C1P

CPALML8S unlvL8Sl1? Cl 1LCPnCLCC?
CLeborg, SWLuLn 2010

ln LasL Asla

PLn8lk AnuL8SSCn
kASL8 Wln8C1P

PLn8lk AnuL8SSCn Anu kASL8 Wln8C1P, 2010

1echnlcal reporL no x-10/243
Chalmers unlverslLy of 1echnology
SL-412 96 CLeborg
Sweden
1elephone + 46 (0)31-772 1000

Cover: ConLalnerlasL, hoLographer: nlcklas Lll[egren (www.s[ofarLsverkeL.se)
rlnLed by: 8epro Servlce Chalmers 1eknlska Pgskola
CLeborg, Sweden 2010
oLenLlal and condlLlons for LnC fueled shorL sea shlpplng ln LasL Asla

PLn8lk AnuL8SSCn
kASL8 Wln8C1P
Chalmers unlverslLy of 1echnology

!"#$%&'$
1he world ls faclng sLrlcLer regulaLlons when lL comes Lo emlsslons from shlps. ln norway some shlp
are fueled by LnC, a fuel source produclng slgnlflcanLly less emlsslons Lhan convenLlonal shlp fuel.
1hls Lhesls lnvesLlgaLes Lhe poLenLlal of and necessary condlLlons for LnC as shlp fuel for shorL sea
shlpplng ln LasL Asla. Asla ls Lhe world's largesL seaborne Lrade area and ls Lherefore lnLeresLlng Lo
lnvesLlgaLe from a fuel change perspecLlve.
llve aspecLs of a fuel change Lo LnC ln LasL Asla has been lnvesLlgaLed and analyzed. 1hese aspecLs
are LnC Lechnology, seaborne Lrade ln LasL Asla, envlronmenLal lmpacL and leglslaLlon, LnC
lnfrasLrucLure and a case sLudy of Lhe Chlnese coasL lncludlng 1alwan. lnformaLlon has been gaLhered
Lhrough prevlous research, onllne lnformaLlon and from meeLlngs wlLh lndusLry players ln 1alwan,
Pong kong and Shanghal.
1he concluslons LhaL are drawn from Lhls Lhesls work ls LhaL greaL poLenLlal exlsLs ln LasL Asla for LnC
as shlp fuel buL LhaL cerLaln condlLlons have Lo be fulfllled before lL can become reallLy. oLenLlal
exlsLs especlally for conLalner feeder Lrafflc whlch ls a subsLanLlal shlpplng segmenL ln LasL Asla.
8elevanL LnC lnfrasLrucLure already exlsLs ln Lhe reglon buL flexlble bunkerlng sysLems needs Lo be
developed before LnC can be used for Lhe conLalner feeder fleeL. Also before Lhe LnC as shlp fuel"
markeL ls efflclenL enough Lo make shlp owners choose lL naLurally some klnd of economlc lncenLlve
needs Lo be creaLed Lo make shlp owners lnvesL ln Lhe new Lechnology.
keywords: LnC, LasL Asla, shorL sea shlpplng, emlsslon, conLalner feeder Lrafflc, LnC lnfrasLrucLure,
case sLudy

l
)%*+&'*
1hls Lhesls ls a parL of Lhe requlremenLs for a masLer degree aL Chalmers unlverslLy of 1echnology.
1he Lhesls has been carrled ouL aL ueL norske verlLas 1alpel, branch ln 1alwan and Lhe pro[ecL was
commlssloned by ueL norske verlLas PeadquarLers ln Pvlk, norway.
We would llke Lo Lhank our examlner AssoclaLe rofessor Sven LyngfeldL aL Lhe deparLmenL of
shlpplng and marlne Lechnology, for hls commlLmenL and supporL durlng Lhls pro[ecL.
We would also llke Lo Lhank our supervlsor AssoclaLe rofessor karln Andersson aL Lhe deparLmenL of
shlpplng and marlne Lechnology, for her commlLmenL and help durlng Lhls pro[ecL.
lurLher we would llke Lo Lhank our supervlsor Ldward Wu aL ueL norske verlLas 1alpel branch for hls
commlLmenL, supporL and local knowledge durlng Lhls pro[ecL.
AL ueL norske verlLas PeadquarLers we would llke Lo Lhank Pennlng Mohn for hls commlLmenL and
help and experlence durlng Lhls pro[ecL.
AL ueL norske verlLas Shanghal branch we would llke Lo Lhank !ames Wu for hls lnsplraLlon and
conLacLs sharlng durlng Lhls pro[ecL.
We would also llke Lo Lhank Arl Mar[amaa and Pelge Permundsgrd aL ueL norske verlLas
PeadquarLers for Lhelr supporL and lnlLlaLlve Lo Lhls pro[ecL.
We would llke Lo acknowledge and Lhank all lndusLry represenLaLlves LhaL have helped us durlng Lhls
pro[ecL, wlLhouL Lhelr lnformaLlon sharlng Lhls pro[ecL would never have been posslble. We would
llke Lo Lhank Lhe followlng persons:
Cla SLephanson, key AccounL Manager, WarLslla Sweden
Magnus Wlkander, MarkeLlng & Sales Manager, lkA8 Marlne ueslgn
!ohn Chachamopolous, Ceneral Manager, lkA8 Shanghal
MaskoL k.C Psu, ulrecLor of Shlpplng and navlgaLlon depL., keelung Parbor 8ureau
lu, Shlh-?l, Chlef of 1echnlcal SecLlon, keelung Parbor 8ureau
capL. C.1 1un, !unlor vlce resldenL CperaLlons depL., ?ang Mlng Llnes
Alex Ll, Senlor Manager, ?ang Mlng Llnes
Lrlk Penrlksen, reglonal offshore manager, unv Shanghal
lrode 8ernLsen, Pead of sLaLuLory & plplng ln SPAAC
Cheng, ?eung-mlng, Chlef MarlLlme ollcy, Marlne uepL. CovernmenL of Pong kong
hu uaohua Zhang, Senlor Lnglneer, uPl Shanghal
Selma 8engLsson, h.u. sLudenL, Chalmers unlverslLy of 1echnology
llnally we would Lo Lhank all employees aL ueL norske verlLas 1alpel branch for your help, supporL
and for Laklng such good care of us Lhls sprlng ln 1alwan.
1alpel May 2010
Penrlk Andersson & kasper WlnroLh
ll
,-#$ .+ &""%*/-&$-.0#
lMC lnLernaLlonal MarlLlme CrganlzaLlon
LCA Lmlsslon ConLrol Area
SLCA Sulfur Lmlsslon ConLrol Area
MA8CL lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlon for Lhe revenLlon of olluLlon from Shlps
PlC Peavy luel Cll
MCC Marlne Casollne Cll
LnC Llquefled naLural Cas
1Lu 1wenLy fooL LqulvalenL unlL
ClLCL lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlon for Lhe revenLlon of olluLlon of Lhe Sea by Cll
Lv LnvlronmenLal roLecLlon ueparLmenL
ACL Advlsory Councll on Lhe LnvlronmenL
uLSu ulLra Low Sulfur ulesel

lll

1

!"#$% '( )'*+%*+,
1 8ackground ...................................................................................................................................... 4
2 Cb[ecLlve.......................................................................................................................................... 3
3 Scope ............................................................................................................................................... 3
4 MeLhod ............................................................................................................................................ 6
3 uellmlLaLlons ................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1 LnC Lechnology ....................................................................................................................... 7
3.2 Seaborne 1rade LasL Asla ........................................................................................................ 7
3.3 LnvlronmenLal lmpacL LnC ..................................................................................................... 7
3.4 LnC lnfrasLrucLure ................................................................................................................... 7
6 1echnlcal background ...................................................................................................................... 8
6.1 naLural gas and llquefled naLural gas (LnC) ............................................................................ 8
6.2 1ransporLaLlon of LnC ............................................................................................................. 8
6.3 Lnglne 1echnology................................................................................................................... 9
6.4 luellng LnC............................................................................................................................ 12
6.3 8ange of LnC fuelled shlps .................................................................................................... 13
6.6 SafeLy regulaLlons regardlng LnC .......................................................................................... 14
7 Analysls of seaborne Lrade ln LasL Asla ......................................................................................... 13
7.1 Shlpplng SegmenL sulLable for LnC Lrade ............................................................................. 13
7.2 1he ConLalner feeder Lrafflc ln LasL Asla ............................................................................... 13
7.3 MeLhodology ......................................................................................................................... 16
7.4 8esulLs from conLalner feeder analysls ................................................................................. 17
8 Shlpplng emlsslons and leglslaLlon ................................................................................................ 20
8.1 Lmlsslons from shlpplng ........................................................................................................ 20
8.2 LnvlronmenLal leglslaLlon ...................................................................................................... 20
9 LnC supply and fuellng lnfrasLrucLure .......................................................................................... 24
9.1 LnC demand and supply ....................................................................................................... 24
9.2 Clobal LransporLaLlon of LnC ................................................................................................ 24
9.3 Long Lerm supply conLracLs ................................................................................................... 24
9.4 LnC resource alLernaLlves for LasL Asla ................................................................................ 24
9.3 CurrenL LnC lnfrasLrucLure .................................................................................................... 23
10 Case sLudy of Area C .................................................................................................................. 28
10.1 Analysls of emlsslons ............................................................................................................. 28
10.1.1 MeLhodology ................................................................................................................. 29
2

10.1.2 8esulL LnvlronmenLal lmpacL ........................................................................................ 30
10.2 LnC lnfrasLrucLure ................................................................................................................. 32
10.3 orL and marlLlme lndusLry sLudy ......................................................................................... 32
10.3.1 keelung Parbour ............................................................................................................ 33
10.3.2 1he porL of kaohslung ................................................................................................... 33
10.3.3 Shanghal orL ................................................................................................................ 37
10.3.4 Pong kong orL .............................................................................................................. 39
10.3.3 ?ang Mlng Llnes ............................................................................................................. 42
11 ulscusslon .................................................................................................................................. 44
11.1 8eflecLlon and furLher work .................................................................................................. 43
12 Concluslons ................................................................................................................................ 48
13 8eferences ................................................................................................................................. 30
Appendlx A - rouLe daLabase ................................................................................................................... l
Appendlx 8 - LlsL of porLs ........................................................................................................................ v
Appendlx C - ulscarded rouLes ............................................................................................................ vlll
Appendlx u - lnformaLlon fleeL ln area C ................................................................................................ x

3

4

- ."/012'3*4
1he world ls under change, more and more goods are LransporLed beLween and around hlghly
populaLed areas. 1hls requlres an effecLlve loglsLlc sysLem and shlpplng ls an lmporLanL parL of Lhls
sysLem. ShorL sea shlpplng ls deflned by Lhe norweglan governmenL (2010) as an alLernaLlve Lo road
haulage and a way Lo LransporL goods efflclenLly beLween porLs wlLhln a reglon. Accordlng Lo uohlle
& koren (2009) a way Lo solve Lrafflc congesLlon problems as well as lssues regardlng alr polluLlon ln
hlghly populaLed areas ls Lo shlfL LransporLaLlon mode from land based haullng Lo shorL sea shlpplng.
1he marlLlme lndusLry lncludlng shorL sea shlpplng has for many years been sub[ecL Lo llghL
envlronmenLal and emlsslon regulaLlons. ln 1973 Lhe lnLernaLlonal MarlLlme CrganlzaLlon (lMC)
esLabllshed lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlon for Lhe revenLlon of olluLlon from Shlps (MA8CL), whlch ls a
convenLlon regulaLlng polluLlon by chemlcals, oll, sewage and garbage from Lhe marlLlme lndusLry.
Annex vl of MA8CL has slnce 1973 been revlsed and wlll ln dlfferenL sLeps slgnlflcanLly reduce Lhe
emlsslons of SC
x
, nC
x
, and parLlculaLe maLLer. 1hrough Annex vl lMC ls also lmplemenLlng
deslgnaLed (Sulfur) Lmlsslon ConLrol Areas, (S)LCAs aL several places around Lhe world where
emlsslon regulaLlons wlll be exLra sLrlcL.
ln 1997 MA8CL approved a global 4,3 cap on sulfur ln bunker fuel, MA8CL 93/97 Annex vl
(llLCA, 2007). MA8CL Annex vl was ln 2008 revlsed and from 1
sL
of !anuary 2012, Lhe global cap for
sulfur ln bunker fuel wlll be seL Lo 3,3 and by 2020 Lhe alm ls Lo lower Lhe llmlL Lo 0,3. lor SLCAs
MA8CL Annex vl sLlpulaLes a cap of 1 effecLlve from 1
sL
of !uly 2010 and a decrease down Lo 0,1
by 2013. 8egardlng emlsslons of nC
x
, lMC has seL up Lhree 1ler classes wlLh dlfferenL llmlLs for
emlsslons. 1he revlsed MA8CL Annex vl says LhaL englnes lnsLalled afLer 1
sL
of !anuary 2016 LhaL are
Lrafflcklng (S)LCAs wlll have Lo be of 1ler lll" class. 1he amounL of nC
x
LhaL ls allowed Lo emlL under
Lhe dlfferenL 1lers depend on Lhe englnes maxlmum operaLlng speed and rpm (www.lmo.org, 2010).
As menLloned, Lhere are several LCAs planned around Lhe world and some have already been Laken
lnLo pracLlce. lmplemenLlng LCAs wlll mosL llkely lmprove Lhe alr and waLer quallLy slgnlflcanLly ln
Lhese areas. lor example, Lhe sLaLe of Callfornla, unlLed SLaLes was one of Lhe flrsL Lo lmplemenL
llmlLs on emlsslons. 1he flrsL sLep of emlsslons conLrol was lmplemenLed along Lhe coasL llne ln !uly
2009 (Callfornla Alr 8escue 8oard, 2009). 1wo examples of effecLs of Annex vl are Lhe regulaLlons of
Lhe norLh Sea and Lhe 8alLlc Sea, whlch slnce 2003 and 2007 respecLlvely are deslgnaLed LCAs
(www.lmo.org, 2010). 1he whole marlLlme lndusLry ls now forced Lo acL ln order Lo comply wlLh Lhe
lMC-agreemenL.
Peavy luel Cll (PlC) ls Loday used as Lhe maln fuel ln Lhe marlLlme lndusLry all over Lhe world. lL ls a
resldual oll producL and conLalns hlgh amounLs of sulfur, nlLrogen and parLlculaLe maLLer. When Lhe
measures of Lhe lMC-agreemenL have fully been Laken ln Lo pracLlce, lL wlll noL be allowed Lo use
PlC as fuel wlLhouL any form of exhausL gas LreaLmenL. Lven Lhe emlsslons of Lhe more
envlronmenLal frlendly fuel alLernaLlve Marlne ulesel Cll (MuC) are noL low enough Lo be allowed Lo
use ln Lhe year 2020 (Mohn, 2010). 1he marlLlme lndusLry ls Lherefore now lnvesLlgaLlng how Lo
lower Lhe emlsslons, elLher Lhrough exhausL gas LreaLmenL or Lhrough swlLchlng Lo anoLher fuel
source.
Llquefled naLural Cas (LnC) ls a fuel LhaL when combusLed only emlLs a fracLlon of SC
x
, nC
x
, and
parLlculaLe maLLer compared Lo Lhe convenLlonal alLernaLlves (MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008). 1he LnC
Lechnology ls already on Lhe markeL and ls belleved by many Lo be a good alLernaLlve Lo Lhe fuels
3

used Loday. 1he sLrlcLer regulaLlons and Lhe low emlsslons from LnC make LnC powered shlpplng
lnLeresLlng for furLher lnvesLlgaLlon. Powever, powerlng shlps wlLh LnC wlll noL lead Lo any
slgnlflcanL decrease ln greenhouse gas emlsslons when Laklng Lhe fuel chaln from well lnLo accounL.
uurlng Lhe pasL decades, Lhe economy of many counLrles ln LasL Asla has grown rapldly. CounLrles
LhaL used Lo be consldered as developlng, have now become hlghly developed urban areas and aL Lhe
same Llme sLlll provldlng Lhe world wlLh dlfferenL klnds of goods. 1oday Asla ls Lhe world's largesL
area for sea Lradlng (SLopford, 2009), whlch opens up for enormous posslble emlsslon reducLlon.
uurlng Lhe fall 2009, a pro[ecL almlng Lo lnvesLlgaLe Lhe poLenLlal for LnC shlpplng ln Scandlnavla,
whlch ls an LCA, was carrled ouL by unv Pvlk. 1he pro[ecL resulLed ln suggesLed bunkerlng sLaLlons
and proposal over shlp Lypes LhaL are sulLable for LnC propulslon. 1he alm of Lhls masLer Lhesls ls Lo
lnvesLlgaLe Lhe fuLure poLenLlal of LnC powered shlpplng ln LasL Asla.
5 6#7%/+89%
1he ob[ecLlve of Lhls Lhesls ls Lo glve new knowledge abouL Lhe poLenLlal of LnC powered shorL sea
shlpplng ln Lhe LasL Asla reglon. 1he ob[ecLlve can be summarlzed by Lhe followlng quesLlons.
wbot ls tbe poteotlol of lNC foeleJ sbott seo sblpploq lo ost Aslo?
wbot ote oecessoty cooJltloos fot o soccessfol lmplemeototloo of lNC os foel sootce fot sbott seo
sblpploq lo ost Aslo?
: ;/'<%
1he scope of Lhls reporL ls four general parLs and a case sLudy. 1he general parLs of Lhe reporL are a
Lechnology revlew, a seaborne Lrade analysls, a revlew of envlronmenLal regulaLlons and a LnC
lnfrasLrucLure revlew.
An lnvesLlgaLlon of LnC propulslon Lechnology has been performed Lo show Lhe sLaLe of Lhe arL
englne Lechnology Loday. Also Lhe Lechnology needed Lo sLore LnC aboard a shlp has been revlewed
as well as Lhe Lechnology of fuelllng shlps wlLh LnC.
1o flnd ouL whaL shlpplng segmenLs and whlch Lrades LhaL could be sulLable for a change Lo LnC as
fuel source, an analysls has been made of Lhe currenL seaborne Lrade ln LasL Asla. 1he resulL of Lhls ls
an overvlew of Lhe seaborne Lrade ln Lhe reglon. LasL Asla lncludes !apan, SouLh korea, Chlna, Pong
kong, 1alwan, 1he hlllpplnes, vleLnam and Slngapore. lrom Lhls overvlew, a cerLaln shlp Lype and a
conflned are has been chosen Lo sLudy ln more deLall ln a case sLudy. 1he shlp Lype has been chosen
dependlng on for example dlsLance beLween porLs, rouLe frequency and access Lo lnformaLlon
regardlng shlp Lype and Lrade.
ln Lhe nexL parL a revlew of Lhe rules and regulaLlons LhaL mlghL come Lo affecL Lhe reglon when lL
comes Lo envlronmenLal lssues has been carrled ouL. 1he reason for Lhls was Lo flnd ouL whaL
lncenLlves or lack of lncenLlves Lhere are ln Lhe reglon Lo change source of fuel from Loday's dlrLy
alLernaLlves. lurLher a sLudy of Lhe currenL LnC lnfrasLrucLure ln LasL Asla has been performed Lo see
whaL supply of LnC LhaL exlsL Loday and whaL wlll be needed lf a change Lo LnC ln shorL sea shlpplng
shall be made.
6

lor Lhe case sLudy a conflned area and a speclflc shlp Lype has been chosen and lnvesLlgaLed furLher.
1he cholce of area and shlp Lype was based on Lhe analysls of Lhe seaborne Lrade ln LasL Asla. 1he
case sLudy conslsLs of an envlronmenLal lmpacL esLlmaLlon of a fuel change. lL also conLalns an LnC
lnfrasLrucLure sLudy of Lhe area. Pere posslble bunkerlng sLaLlons are lnvesLlgaLed. ln Lhe case sLudy
also economlc aspecLs of a fuel change are analyzed and dlscussed.
1he general parLs abouL LnC Lechnology, envlronmenLal leglslaLlon, Aslan seaborne Lrade and LnC
lnfrasLrucLure LogeLher wlLh Lhe case sLudy ls almlng Lo glve lnslghL and an lndlcaLlon of poLenLlal for
LnC as fuel source for shorL sea shlpplng ln LasL Asla.
= >%+?'4
1hls Lhesls conslsLs of slx parLs and each of Lhese parLs has been carrled ouL ln Lhelr own way. 1he
general way of flndlng lnformaLlon ln Lhls Lhesls work has been Lhrough lnLervlews and llLeraLure
sLudles. lnLervlews have been made wlLh acLors ln varlous shlpplng segmenLs, porL auLhorlLles and
oLher acLors who could conLrlbuLe wlLh lnformaLlon Lo Lhls pro[ecL. When posslble, academlc books,
arLlcles, prevlous research reporLs and oLher relevanL llLeraLure have been sLudled Lo galn useful
knowledge.
More speclflcally lnformaLlon needed Lo carry ouL Lhe LnC Lechnology revlew has been found by
conLacLlng englne manufacLurers as well as sLudylng prevlous research on Lhe sub[ecL. ln Lhe second
parL Lhe alm ls Lo flnd Lrades ln LasL Asla sulLable for a change Lo LnC as fuel source. 1hls has been
done by sLudylng Lrade sLaLlsLlcs and analyzlng whaL shlp Lypes and slzes LhaL are sulLable for LnC as
fuel source. lnformaLlon necessary for Lhls Lask has been galned wlLh Lhe ald of unv 1alpel.
8y dlscusslon wlLh researchers of Lhe deparLmenL of Shlpplng and Marlne 1echnology, MarlLlme
LnvlronmenL Croup lnformaLlon and meLhodology regardlng Lhe envlronmenLal lmpacL of a change
Lo LnC as fuel source has been obLalned. 8ules regardlng envlronmenLal leglslaLlon were obLalned
Lhrough lnLerneL search and Lhrough dlscusslon wlLh unv 1alpel.
lnformaLlon requlred Lo revlew LnC sources and lnfrasLrucLure ln LasL Asla has been gaLhered by
lnLervlews wlLh harbor represenLaLlves, unv Shanghal and unv 1alpel employees. SulLable
meLhodology and lnpuL for Lhe economlc analysls ln Lhe case sLudy has been obLalned from llLeraLure
sLudles as well as from dlscusslons wlLh unv 1alpel and unv Pvlk.
@ A%$8B8+"+8'*,
1he sLaLed quesLlon ln Lhe problem deflnlLlon ln Lhls Lhesls ls wlde. 1o make a comprehenslve
lnvesLlgaLlon abouL Lhe problem aL hand where all aspecL are Laken lnLo accounL ls a [ob much
greaLer Lhan a masLer Lhesls of 20 weeks. 1he goal of Lhls Lhesls ls hence Lo glve an lndlcaLlon of Lhe
poLenLlal of and necessary condlLlons for LnC powered shorL sea shlpplng ln LasL Asla. 1hls ls raLher
Lhan explalnlng exacLly how such a change wlll or should Lake place. 8ecause of Lhls facL cerLaln
llmlLaLlons was seL up for Lhls Lhesls work. lollowlng here are Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhls Lhesls grouped
LogeLher dependlng on whlch parL of Lhe Lhesls Lhey belong Lo.
7

@C- DEF +%/?*'$'1G
-no revlew of fuLure LnC englne Lechnology
-no revlew of LnC producLlon Lechnology
@C5 ;%"#'2*% !2"4% H",+ I,8"
- noL all shlpplng segmenLs LhaL can be sub[ecLed Lo a change Lo LnC are dealL wlLh ln Lhls Lhesls,
lnsLead a cholce of one shlpplng segmenL Lo be represenLaLlve for shorL sea shlpplng ls made. 1he
shlpplng segmenL chosen ls analyzed more Lhoroughly ln a case sLudy.
-fuLure seaborne Lrade ln Lhe reglon ls noL predlcLed
@C: H*982'*B%*+"$ 8B<"/+ DEF
-Lhe envlronmenLal lmpacL of LnC producLlon process ls noL dealL wlLh
-no analysls of envlronmenLal lmpacL of dlfferenL Lypes of LnC englnes ls performed
-no chemlcal or blologlcal analysls of LnC and Lhe envlronmenL ls carrled ouL
@C= DEF 8*(2",+23/+32%
-no compleLe lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhe LnC lnfrasLrucLure ln LasL-Asla ls performed. A conflned area ls
chosen and lnvesLlgaLed ln deLall ln a case sLudy.

8

J !%/?*8/"$ #"/012'3*4
1hls parL of Lhe reporL ls lnLended Lo glve a brlef Lechnlcal background Lo LnC powered shlpplng.
WhaL naLural gas ls, how lL ls LransporLed and how shlps are fuelled wlLh lL are dlscussed shorLly.
lurLher an overvlew of Lhe gas englne markeL ls glven and Lhe dlfferences beLween Lhe Lwo mosL
common Lypes of gas englnes are explalned brlefly. llnally a dlscusslon regardlng ranges for LnC
fueled shlps and safeLy regulaLlons regardlng LnC ls provlded.
JC- E"+32"$ 1", "*4 $8K3%(8%4 *"+32"$ 1", LDEFM
As Lhe name lmplles naLural gas ls a gas LhaL exlsLs naLurally on our planeL. lL ls a fossll fuel, l.e. a non
renewable resource. MosL of Lhe gas ls Lrapped ln underground reservolrs and ls broughL up Lo Lhe
surface Lhrough drllllng and capLurlng. naLural gas ls a mlxLure of malnly hydrocarbon gases and ls, ln
lLs pure form, boLh odorless and colorless (www.naLuralgas.org, 2010). 1he denslLy ls 0.7 - 0.9 kg/m
3

aL 0
o
C and aLmospherlc pressure, whlch can be compared wlLh Lhe denslLy of alr (1.293 kg/m
3
) under
Lhe same condlLlons (www.englneerlngLoolbox.com, 2010). 1he gas reservolrs are locaLed on every
conLlnenL of Lhe world and Lhe maln produclng counLrles are 8ussla, unlLed SLaLes, Luropean unlon,
Canada, lran and norway (www.cla.gov, 2010). 1yplcal composlLlon for naLural gas can be found ln
1able 6-1.
1ab|e 6-1: Compos|t|on of natura| gas (www.natura|gas.org, 2010)

ln order Lo be able Lo sLore and/or LransporL Lhe naLural gas lL ls llquefled Lhrough a coollng process.
ln aLmospherlc pressure naLural gas wlll be llquefled aL -162
o
C and Lhe volume wlll be a slx
hundredLh of Lhe orlglnal volume (www.lngfacLs.org/, 2010). Llquefylng naLural gas requlres
approxlmaLely 10-13 of lLs energy conLenLs (ueparLmenL of Shlpplng and Marlne 1echnology,
2010).
JC5 !2"*,<'2+"+8'* '( DEF
1here are malnly Lwo ways of LransporLlng LnC. 1rucks are sulLable for shorL dlsLance LransporLaLlon,
whlle shlps are beLLer for longer dlsLances. 1o LransporL LnC by Lrucks ls also a very good alLernaLlve
when lL comes Lo small quanLlLles of LnC and when flexlblllLy ls requlred. Slnce Lhe volume a normal
LnC Lanker Lruck can LransporL ls abouL 33 m
3
, road LransporLaLlon of LnC wlll never become as cosL
efflclenL as LransporLaLlon by shlp for long dlsLances or large volumes. 8uL as long as Lhe road sysLem
and lnfrasLrucLure for handllng and Lransshlpplng LnC ln porLs and sLorage locaLlons are well
MeLhane CP
4
70-90
LLhane C
2
P
6
ropane C
3
P
8
8uLane C
4
P
10
Carbon uloxlde CC
2
0-8
Cxygen C
2
0-0.2
nlLrogen n
2
0-3
Pydrogen sulphlde P
2
S 0-3
8are gases A, Pe, ne, xe Lrace
0-20
9

developed, LransporLaLlon by Lruck ls a good complemenL Lo LransporLaLlon on waLer. 1ransporLaLlon
by Lruck ls especlally convenlenL and useful when lL comes Lo local dlsLrlbuLlon beLween harbors or
beLween dlfferenL fuellng sLaLlons. (MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008)
When lL comes Lo long dlsLance LransporLaLlon and LransporLaLlon of large volumes, shlpplng ls Lhe
economlcally mosL beneflclal alLernaLlve. Clobal LransporLaLlon ls malnly done wlLh Lanker shlps wlLh
a capaclLy exceedlng 100.000 m
3
, whlch makes Lhe cosL per LransporLed unlL LnC very low
(MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008).
An example of a LnC Lanker shlp ls Lhe Al Wakrah", whlch has a capaclLy of 133.000 m
3
and ls shown
ln llgure 6-1. lL ls operaLlng for CaLargas by Lhe !apanese MlLsul C.S.k Llnes and has a maxlmum
speed of 20.3 knoLs. 1he LnC carrler ls able Lo flnlsh a roundLrlp beLween CaLar and !apan, whlch ls
Lhe normal rouLe lL ls Lrafflcklng, wlLhln 30 days. (moblle.qp.com, 2010) 8lg LnC Lankers have
LradlLlonally been fuelled by Lhe boll-off from Lhelr cargo and Lhe boll-off has been used Lo run a
sLeam Lurblne englne. When Lhe boll-off has noL been sufflclenL, on for example reLurn voyages, Lhe
LnC Lankers have been runnlng on heavy bunker fuel. (MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008)

I|gure 6-1: A| Wakrah LNG tanker (www.vesse|tracker.com, 2010)
lor shorLer dlsLances over sea or smaller volumes, LransporLaLlon by shlp ls becomlng a more
frequenLly used alLernaLlve, ln some cases even Lhe only posslble alLernaLlve. Smaller shlps are for
example sulLable for dlsLrlbuLlon of LnC beLween large sLorage hubs and smaller fuellng sLaLlons.
norweglan flagged loneer knuLsen" ls an example of a small scale LnC dlsLrlbuLlon vessel. lL ls
owned by knuLsen kysL CAS k/S and ls operaLlng along Lhe norweglan wesL cosL. lL has a cargo
capaclLy of 1100 m
3
and lLs Lwo maln englnes are powered by LnC. (8e, 2010)
JC: H*18*% !%/?*'$'1G
1here are Lwo maln acLors ln Lhe gas englne markeL Loday and Lhese are WarLslla (see llgure 6-2) and
8olls 8oyce (MarlnLek eL al, 2008). Also MlLsublshl has developed gas englnes, for example ln Lhe
norweglan coasLal ferry CluLra a MlLsublshl englne ls lnsLalled (8oaldsoy, 2002). AL MAn dlesel's
homepage one can read LhaL Lhey are currenLly furLher developlng gas englnes for marlne use and
LhaL Lhey have had slnce 1994 Lwo-sLroke ML-Cl englnes powered by LnC (www.mandlesel.com,
2010).
10

I|gure 6-2: Wrts|| dua| fue| eng|ne. (www.warts||a.com, 2010)
All of Lhe manufacLurers have dlfferenL soluLlons for Lhelr gas drlven englnes buL Lwo dlfferenL
approaches can be dlsLlngulshed. WarLslla's soluLlon ls a dual fuel soluLlon whlch can be run on elLher
llquld fuel (MCC, PlC) or gaseous fuel (vaporlzed LnC). 1he englne runs on an CLLo cycle when ln
gas fuel-mode and a dlesel cycle when ln llquld fuel-mode. When ln gas mode Lhe gas ls lgnlLed by a
llquld plloL fuel whlch ls ln[ecLed lnLo Lhe cyllnders. When Lhe englne ls runnlng aL full load Lhe plloL
fuel consumpLlon corresponds Lo 1 of Lhe LoLal consumpLlon. 1here are Lhree dlfferenL fuel sysLems
servlng Lhe dual fuel englne, one for llquld fuel, one for gaseous fuel and one for Lhe plloL fuel. lL ls
posslble Lo shlfL beLween fuel sources whlle runnlng Lhe englne and when Lhe englne ls sLarLed lL ls ln
llquld fuel mode. As soon as Lhe englne ls runnlng smooLhly on all cyllnders Lhe fuel source can be
shlfLed Lo gas. Accordlng Lo WarLslla beneflLs wlLh uual fuel englnes comprlse hlgh efflclency, low gas
pressure and fuel flexlblllLy. (WarLslla, 2008 & 2009)
8olls 8oyce's gas englnes as well as MlLsublshl's englne ln CluLra are pure gas englnes and Lhe gas ls
here lgnlLed by a spark plug. Slnce only gas flows Lhrough Lhese sparkplug englnes Lhere ls only need
for one fuel sysLem and Lhe englnes are somewhaL less complex Lhan Lhe dual fuel englne. 1he dual
fuel englne on Lhe oLher hand has a hlgher degree of redundancy slnce Lhere are Lwo separaLe fuel
sources. When lL comes Lo emlsslons Lhey are more or less Lhe same for a dual fuel englne runnlng ln
gas mode and for a sparkplug gas englne (SLephansson WarLslla Sweden, 2010). lL needs Lo be sald
here LhaL Lhls only holds for a dual fuel englne fuelled wlLh a mlnlmum of regular fuel. 1here ls a Lhlrd
Lype of gas englne whlch runs on a dlesel cycle and uLlllzes a hlgh pressure plloL fuel and gas ln[ecLlon.
8oLh WarLslla and MAn 8&W have Lhls klnd of englne and lL feaLures reduced meLhane sllp buL an
lncrease ln nC
x
emlsslon.
Some gas englnes used ln shlps Loday are of Lhe gas-elecLrlc klnd. 1hls means LhaL Lhe maln englne ls
connecLed Lo a generaLor LhaL produces elecLrlclLy. 1he elecLrlclLy ls used Lo power an elecLrlcal
11

englne whlch ls connecLed Lo Lhe propulslon unlL. An advanLage wlLh Lhls seLup ls LhaL Lhe englne can
be slLuaLed qulLe freely onboard buL a dlsadvanLage ls LhaL Lhe efflclency of Lhe whole propulslon
sysLem wlll go down due Lo elecLrlcal losses.
1he gas ls supplled Lo an LnC englne from cryogenlc Lanks onboard where lL ls sLored ln llquefled
form. llgure 6-3 shows a LnC ln a norweglan supply shlp. Comlng from Lhe cryogenlc Lank Lhe
llquefled gas ls evaporaLed and supplled Lo Lhe englne for combusLlon. Some of Lhe gas ls lead back
lnLo Lhe Lank Lo keep gauge pressure lnslde Lhe cryogenlc Lank. When Lhe Lank ls full of gas, aL close
Lo aLmospherlc pressure lnsLead of sllghLly pressurlzed llquefled gas, lL ls Llme Lo reflll Lhe Lanks
(SLephansson, WarLslla Sweden, 2010). 1he LnC Lanks normally conslsL of an lnner pressurlzed Lank
capable of holdlng a pressure of 10 bar. 1he lnner Lank ls slLuaLed lnslde an ouLer vacuum Lank and
Lhe dlsLance ln beLween Lhe Lanks ls abouL 10 cenLlmeLer. 1he volume beLween Lhe Lanks ls normally
fllled wlLh perllLe and ls vacuum LreaLed Lo aLLaln good lsolaLlon capablllLy (!ansson ACA Cryo, 2009).
LnC Lanks have LradlLlonally been cyllndrlcally shaped for sLrucLural reasons. 1hls ls a dlsadvanLage
for LnC as fuel source slnce Lhe Lank arrangemenL requlres approxlmaLely 3-4 Llmes as much space
as a convenLlonal MCC Lank. 1oday lL ls posslble Lo manufacLure Lanks ln oLher shapes Lhan
cyllndrlcal ln Lhe fuLure Lhe space Laken from cargo requlred for LnC Lanks wlll mosL llkely decrease
(unv, 2010).

I|gure 6-3: LNG fue| tank |n Norweg|an supp|y sh|p. (SWLCC, 2009)
Cas englnes are Loday more expenslve Lhan convenLlonal englnes. 1he englnes Lhemselves are up Lo
3 more expenslve and Lo be added Lo LhaL should be necessary addlLlonal sysLems requlred for gas
englnes. Accordlng Lo SLephansson, WarLslla Sweden (2010) Lhe flnal englne lnvesLmenL ls
approxlmaLely 23 more expenslve Lhan for a convenLlonal englne. ln Lhe MACALCC pro[ecL
(MarlnLek eL al, 2008) Lhe auLhors appreclaLed Lhe lnvesLmenL cosL for a gas drlven shlp Lo be
approxlmaLely 10-13 more Lhan convenLlonal shlps. lL needs Lo be sald here LhaL Lhe slze of a shlp
fuelled wlLh LnC mlghL need Lo be lncreased compared Lo one fuelled on convenLlonal fuel due Lo
Lhe losses of cargo space lncurred by Lhe shape of LnC Lanks. naLural gas ls a much cleaner fuel Lhan
PlC and because of Lhls Lhe Llme beLween malnLenance can be prolonged. Also Lhe wearlng of
12

componenLs lnslde englne wlll be decreased lf Lhe englne ls runnlng on gas lnsLead of a resldual oll as
PlC (unv, 2010).
1he maln advanLages wlLh a gas englne Loday ls lLs reduced envlronmenLal lmpacL compared Lo a
convenLlonal englne as well a reduced wear of componenLs and need for malnLenance. ln Lhe fuLure
also flnanclal beneflLs from uslng LnC englnes could become reallLy. 1hese beneflLs are llkely Lo helr
from a more esLabllshed gas markeL and lower englne prlces due Lo scale effecLs. 1he downsldes of
uslng gas englne comprlse malnly hlgh lnvesLmenL cosLs, lncreased complexlLy onboard and hlgh
space requlremenLs for Lanks.
JC= N3%$8*1 DEF
luellng LnC ls a crlLlcal operaLlon when lL comes Lo fuLure usage of LnC as fuel. 1o have a chance as
a fuLure fuel source, belng compeLlLlve only ln Lhe aspecL of emlsslons ls noL enough. LnC also has Lo
be compeLlLlve ln fuellng capaclLy, speed and flexlblllLy compared Lo bunkerlng wlLh convenLlonal
fuel. 1oday malnly Lhree ways of fuellng LnC Lo shlps are Laken ln Lo pracLlce or are under furLher
lnvesLlgaLlon. 1he Lhree bunkerlng operaLlons are made from elLher Lruck, flxed fllllng llnes or barge
and Lhey all have dlfferenL capaclLy, speed and flexlblllLy (MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008). lor example ln
norway, boLh fuellng from Lruck and fuellng from a flxed fllllng llne are operaLlons already used.
luellng from barges ln porLs ls currenLly noL a convenLlonal Lechnology buL Lhe organlzaLlon lorum
for Swedlsh Marlne 1echnology ls for example lnvesLlgaLlng how such an operaLlon could be posslble
ln Lhe fuLure (www.smLf.se, 2010). llgure 6-4 shows barge of PlC. 1he ma[or obsLacle wlLh fuellng
LnC from barges Loday ls fully developed rules and regulaLlons from auLhorlLles, Lhe Lechnology
already exlsLs (Wlkander lkA8, 2010).

I|gure 6-4: 8arge bunker|ng of nIC (MAGALCG, 2008)
lor LnC fuelllng from Lrucks, all of Lhe LnC and Lhe equlpmenL needed for fuellng are carrled on Lhe
Lruck, whlch makes lL a flexlble operaLlon. 1he Lruck can drlve up Lo Lhe slde of Lhe shlp and from
13

Lhere pump Lhe fuel ln Lo Lhe shlp. A sLandard Lruck can carry 33 m3 of LnC, and Lo dlscharge Lakes
abouL 1.3 hours. (MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008)
When lL comes Lo larger volumes of LnC, fuellng from a flxed fllllng llne ln porL ls Loday Lhe mosL
used alLernaLlve. A sLaLlonary sysLem can provlde large amounLs of fuel and ls more rellable Lhan a
sysLem on Lrucks (unv, 2010). ln many porLs, especlally larger cargo porLs, space ls crlLlcal buL as long
as Lhe fuellng sysLem does noL Lake any space from cargo LransshlpmenL lL ls a very good alLernaLlve.
Cne dlsadvanLage ls LhaL people LhaL llve close Lo harbors and porLs mlghL be a llLLle blL relucLanL Lo
have large LnC Lanks close Lo where Lhey llve. An example of a harbor, where a sysLem for LnC
fuelllng from flxed llne already ls lnsLalled and ln use, ls Palh[em ferry porL ln norway. lL ls currenLly
supplylng shlps wlLh LnC wlLh a capaclLy of 100 m
3
per hour, whlch ls abouL Lhree Llmes fasLer Lhan
fuellng from Lrucks. (MA8ln1Lk eL al, 2008)
1he Llme necessary for fuelllng a shlp depends on Lhe meLhod for fuellng and Lank slze. 1he Lank slze
of a shlp depends on fuel consumpLlon and Lhe shlps range. As a reference Lhe concepL lkA8 Clean
shlp and Lhe norweglan ferry M/S 8ergensf[ord are chosen. 1he lkA8 CleanShlp ls a 199 m 8o8o
vessel wlLh a servlce speed of 22 knoLs. 1he proposed machlnery onboard ls Lwo WarLslla 12v30ul of
11 400 kW each. 1he range sLeamlng on LnC ls Lhree days and Lhe Lank capaclLy requlred for Lhls ls
337 m
3
(CusLln & Larsson, 2009). luelllng Lhls amounL of LnC from P[alhem ferry porL ln norway
would Lhus Lake a blL over 3 hours. 1he norweglan ferry M/S 8ergensf[ord, whlch was dellvered ln
2007, ls a 130 m double-ended vessel whlch ls Lrafflcklng a dlsLance of 11 nauLlcal mlles across a
norweglan f[ord. 1hls shlp ls equlpped wlLh Lwo 8olls 8oyce kvC12C4 LnC and Lwo 8olls 8oyce
kvC16C4 LnC of a LoLal effecL of 12 370 kW (SWLCC, 2009). 1he lnsLalled Lank capaclLy ls 2x 123 m
3
.
8efuellng M/S 8ergensf[ord normally Lakes Lwo hours and ls done every Lhree days (Llnang, 2009).
1he refuellng ls normally done durlng nlghL. When fuellng LnC, gas ls usually sprayed ln Lo Lhe Lanks
Lo avold excesslve pressure bulld-up lnslde Lhe LnC Lanks. (8oaldsoy, 2002)
JC@ O"*1% '( DEF (3%$$%4 ,?8<,
1o be able Lo deLermlne Lhe sulLablllLy of LnC as fuel for shlps ln LasL Asla posslble ranges of Lhe
shlps need Lo be menLloned. lL ls Lechnlcally posslble Lo run shlps on LnC for very long dlsLances, you
only need Lo bulld large enough Lanks. 1he problem ls LhaL Lhe larger Lanks you flL on a shlp, Lhe less
volume you have for cargo. Less cargo onboard or larger shlp Lo cargo raLlo cosL money. 1o make
such soluLlons aLLracLlve Lo markeL players Lhe alLernaLlve soluLlons have Lo cosL even more money
Lhan Lhe LnC alLernaLlve. A more envlronmenLal frlendly alLernaLlve llke LnC can be made more
aLLracLlve Lhrough for example LaxaLlon of oLher alLernaLlves. CLher alLernaLlves can also be
prohlblLed by regulaLlons.
unv (2009) predlcLs LhaL LnC ln Lhe fuLure very well may be a flnanclally preferable fuel Lype for
shlpplng, especlally wlLh emlsslon Laxes presenL and lncreaslng oll prlces. luLure cosL reducLlons for
LnC Lechnology as well as Lhe fuel lLself are also Lwo Lhlngs LhaL could make a LnC fuel soluLlon more
aLLracLlve. Such cosL reducLlons are llkely Lo occur due Lo lncreased compeLlLlon and economles of
scale among suppllers (Mohn, 2010).
1o make predlcLlons of posslble ranges of LnC fuelled vessels ls very dlfflculL. 1hls ls because lL
depends on Lhe slze of Lhe lncenLlves Lo use LnC ln Lhe flrsL place. lf for example regulaLlons were seL
up Lo forbld all oLher fuels buL LnC, Lhen Lhe range of Lhe LnC shlps would noL be an lssue. 1o glve an
example of posslble ranges norweglan 8o8o shlpplng can be used. Sea-Cargo AS ordered ln 2008 Lwo
14

3600 dwL 8o8o shlps. 1he lnLended Lrafflc for Lhese shlps ls beLween norway, uk and Lhe Luropean
conLlnenL (MACALCC, 2008). 1he dlsLance beLween 8ergen ln norway and 1llbury ln Lhe uk ls 640
nauLlcal mlles. ln LasL Asla Lhls almosL corresponds Lo Lhe dlsLance beLween Pong kong and Shanghal
(787 nM), well coverlng Lhe feeder neLworks for each of Lhe Lwo shlpplng hubs.
lL ls here lmporLanL Lo sLress LhaL Lhe Sea-Cargo shlps are 8o8o shlps. 8o8o shlps normally have
unused space under lower deck LhaL can be, and ln Lhe Sea Cargo case ls, used for LnC Lanks. lor Lhe
case of conLalner shlps or Lankers Lhls soluLlon mlghL noL be as effecLlve.
JCJ ;"(%+G 2%13$"+8'*, 2%1"248*1 DEF
lf handled ln a wrong way naLural gas can be a dangerous fuel source and Lherefore Lhere are many
rules and regulaLlons regardlng LnC onboard. ln 2001 unv became Lhe flrsL classlflcaLlon socleLy Lo
seL up rules for how Lo safely use gas as fuel source on shlps (unv, 2010).
When naLural gas ls mlxed wlLh Lhe rlghL amounL of alr, lL can be very exploslve. 1wo efflclenL ways
Lo avold exploslons onboard are Lo prevenL any klnd of lgnlLlon source ln rlsk areas and also Lo make
sure LhaL rlsk areas are well venLllaLed. A venLllaLlon sysLem LhaL ls hlghly efflclenL and have hlgh
capaclLy wlll prevenL a mlxLure of gas and alr Lo reach an exploslve sLaLe. (unv, 2010)
1he regulaLlons demand double plplng wlLh lnerL gas or for Lhe plpes Lo be slLuaLed ln areas wlLh
venLllaLlon and gas deLecLlon equlpmenL. unllke compressed gas Lanks LhaL have Lo be sLored above
deck, LnC Lanks can be sLored under deck. lf LnC ls Lhe only fuel onboard Lhe fuel has Lo be dlvlded
lnLo aL leasL Lwo dlfferenL Lanks. (unv, 2010)

13

P I*"$G,8, '( ,%"#'2*% +2"4% 8* H",+ I,8"
1hls chapLer deals wlLh Lhe seaborne Lrade ln LasL Asla. Shlpplng segmenLs sulLable for propulslon
powered by LnC ls dlscussed and an analysls ls made of whlch or whaL shlpplng segmenL Lo use as
base for furLher research ln Lhls pro[ecL. 1he chosen shlpplng segmenL ls analyzed wlLh regards Lo lLs
scope and lLs dlsLrlbuLlon ln LasL Asla. AfLer Lhls a conflned area wlLhln LasL Asla Lyplcal for Lhe
chosen shlpplng segmenL ls chosen and presenLed.
PC- ;?8<<8*1 ;%1B%*+ ,38+"#$% ('2 DEF +2"4%
ln Lhe MACALCC reporL (MarlnLek eL al, 2008), whlch ls an lnvesLlgaLlon of fuLure use of LnC as shlp
fuel ln norLhern Lurope, a number of dlfferenL shlp Lypes were llsLed as sulLable for LnC as fuel
source. lor a shlp Lype Lo be sulLable for LnC use cerLaln crlLerla need Lo be fulfllled. llrsL of all Lhe
shlp Lype should sall on a flxed rouLe and secondly Lhe rouLe should be shorL so LhaL Lhe shlp can
refuel ofLen. 1he need for a flxed rouLe comes from Lhe facL LhaL LnC Loday ls noL a common fuel
source for shlps (excepL LnC carrlers) and LhaL ln Lhe near fuLure lL ls noL very llkely LhaL bunkerlng
sLaLlons wlll be bulld ln every porL. lf Lhe shlp salls on a flxed rouLe lL can refuel ln a predeLermlned
porL. 1he need for a shorL rouLe also comes from Lhe probable lack of a mulLlLude of bunkerlng
sLaLlons for LnC ln Lhe near fuLure. lL ls convenlenL wlLh shorL rouLes because lL decreases Lhe
requlred Lank slze compared Lo shlps salllng longer dlsLances. Cne of Lhe downsldes Loday of LnC use
ln shlps ls LhaL Lhe Lanks Lake up a loL of space lnslde Lhe shlp due Lo Lhe cyllndrlcal shape of Lhe
Lanks. 8ecause of Lhls Lhe shlps salllng shorL dlsLances or shlps were volume lnslde Lhe shlp ls noL
cruclal ls mosL sulLable for LnC use. ln Lhe fuLure addlLlonal shapes of Lanks wlll be able Lo be
produced whlch wlll lncrease Lhe number of shlp Lypes LhaL can be run on LnC. 1he llsLed shlp Lypes
ln MACALCC were:
CoasLal ferrles for vehlcles and passengers Cffshore supply vessels
CoasL guard vessels Conta|ner feeder sh|ps
Shlps for rolllng cargo (8o8o) vehlcle and passenger ferrles (8oax)
Plgh Speed vessels for vehlcles and passengers vessels for lnland waLerways
Small bulk and Lanker vessels assenger boaLs
1ugboaLs and lcebreakers llshlng boaLs
ln SWLCC's reporL lNC fot fottyqsJtlft l 5vetlqe (2009) abouL LnC use for shlps ln Sweden a slmllar
llsL as Lhe one ln MACALCC was presenLed. ln Lhe LasL Aslan area many of Lhe above shlp Lypes are
presenL and especlally conLalner feeder Lrafflc was broughL forward as a promlslng shlp Lype for LnC
glven Lhe above crlLerla of flxed and shorL dlsLance rouLes (Wu, 2009). ConLalner feeder shlps
Lyplcally sall beLween Lwo or a few porLs where one Lhe porLs are funcLlonlng as a shlpplng hub. AL
Lhe shlpplng hub Lhe feeder dlscharges lLs conLalners whlch are redlsLrlbuLed on larger vessels LhaL
carry Lhe conLalners longer dlsLances, ofLen LransconLlnenLal. LasL Asla has an exLenslve shlpplng of
conLalners and Lhls ls someLhlng LhaL makes conLalner feeders an especlally lnLeresLlng shlp Lype Lo
lnvesLlgaLe furLher.
PC5 !?% )'*+"8*%2 (%%4%2 +2"((8/ 8* H",+ I,8"
Asla as a whole ls Lhe world's largesL seaborne Lrade area and conLalner shlpplng ls a subsLanLlal parL
of lLs Lrafflc. !apan ls a ma[or player ln Lhe world economy and lLs exporLs conslsL malnly of
manufacLured goods. A loL of Lhe !apanese manufacLures are exporLed vla conLalner vessels Lo lLs
end consumers. Chlna ls Lhe blggesL counLry ln world wlLh over 1.3 bllllon people and a Cn growLh
16

raLe of abouL 10 (2003). Chlnas producLlon ls consLanLly growlng and Lhe ma[orlLy of lLs exporL ls ln
Lhe form of conLalnerlzed cargo. Shanghal, slLuaLed ln Lhe mlddle of Lhe Chlnese coasL, ls Chlnas
blggesL porL and one of Lhe largesL conLalner porLs ln Lhe world. (SLopford, 2006)
Pong kong a blL souLh on Lhe Chlnese coasL and Slngapore furLher down ln Asla belong Lo Lhe world's
largesL conLalner porLs. Pong kong has for long funcLloned as a LransshlpmenL gaLeway for exporLs
produced ln Chlna and ln year 2000 lL was Lhe world's buslesL porL handllng 18.1 mllllon 1Lus. lL ls
also one of Lhe mosL efflclenL porLs wlLh a record LhroughpuL of 68 conLalner moves per hour and
crane (Slack & Wang, 2003). Slngapore ls slLuaLed ln Lhe end of Lhe Malaccan sLralLs whlch ls one of
Lhe world's mosL busy shlpplng lanes. 1hls has been a naLural advanLage for Lhe porL and one of Lhe
reasons lL has become Lhe slze lL ls Loday. 1he porL ls run by SA, a governmenLally owned company,
whlch offers a range of servlces connecLed Lo shlpplng. Servlces LhaL are offered comprlse bunkerlng,
plloLage, vessel repalr and warehouslng (www.aLlmes.com). Accordlng Lo orLworld (2010),
Slngapore was llsLed as Lhe largesL conLalner porL ln Lhe world year 2009, wlLh a LoLal conLalner
LhroughpuL of almosL 26 mllllon 1Lus (www.mpa.gov.sg, 2010 ). 1he Pong kong and Slngapore porLs
emerged as hub cenLers for conLalner Lrafflc malnly due Lo Lhelr early adopLlon of conLalners and
close connecLlon Lo world economy (8odrlgue eL al, 1997).
Ma[or porLs ln Asla as Slngapore, Pong kong, Shanghal, kaohslung (1alwan) and uallen (norLh Chlna)
funcLlon as shlpplng hubs l.e. Lhey are supplled from Lhelr respecLlve nearby smaller porLs (spokes)
wlLh conLalners. AL Lhe hubs Lhe conLalners are redlsLrlbuLed Lo larger shlps whlch LransporL Lhe
conLalners furLher. 1he concepL of hub and spoke porLs and wheLher lL ls opLlmal or noL are
dlscussed ln Lhe llLeraLure by for example lmal, ShlnLanl and apadlmlLrlou (2009) ln Lhelr LexL Moltl-
pott vs. nob-ooJ-5poke pott colls by cootoloetsblps and by Psua and Psleha (2006) ln kootloq, sblp
slze, ooJ sollloq ftepoeocy Jeclsloo-mokloq fot o motltlme bob-ooJ-spoke cootoloet oetwotk. 1he
former malnly dlscusses conLalner managemenL cosLs. When accounLlng for Lhese ln opLlmlzaLlon
models Lhey Lend Lo favor a shlp mulLl call sysLem raLher Lhan a hub and spoke sysLem. Psua and
Psleha (2006) dlscusses dlsperse cargo dlsLrlbuLlons, secondary cosLs and Lhe effecLs of Lhese ln hub
and spoke sysLems conLra mulLl porL call sysLems.
Lven Lhough argumenLs agalnsL hub and spoke sysLems exlsL, facL remalns LhaL Lhey do exlsL and Lhe
maln reasons for Lhls ls large conLalner shlps and economles of scale. Larger and larger conLalner
shlps are belng used and Lhese requlre porLs wlLh sufflclenL depLh and efflclenL porL cargo handllng
sysLems LhaL mlnlmlze Lhelr Llme ln porL. Cnly calllng on a number of porLs also lncreases Lhe shlps
salllng Llme and hence efflclency slnce porL approaches, docklng eLc. ls puL Lo a mlnlmum. All Lhe
areas around Lhe larger porLs ln Asla are Lrafflcked by feeder shlps plcklng up conLalners and shlpplng
Lhem Lo Lhe hubs for furLher LransporLaLlon.
leeder shlps exlsL ln a wlde range of slzes buL a normal slze ls around 1000-1300 1Lu. Larger vessels
are employed on feeder rouLes wlLh exLenslve Lrafflc and Lhese shlps can be up Lo 4000 1Lu.
(SLopford, 2009)
PC: >%+?'4'$'1G
ln order Lo geL useful lnformaLlon regardlng conLalner feeder rouLes and porL call frequency for
ma[or porLs ln LasL Asla, an analysls of onllne lnformaLlon from Lhe 20 largesL conLalner shlpplng
companles was made. 1he approxlmaLely 300 rouLes were llsLed ln a daLa base and hence wanLed
lnformaLlon could easlly be obLalned. 1he mosL frequenLly vlslLed areas where made areas of lnLeresL
17

and Lhe dlfferenL feeder rouLes servlng Lhese areas where caLegorlzed accordlng Lo Lhelr locaLlon.
1he dlfferenL areas are:
Area A: Slngapore, Malacca SLralLs, SouLh lndonesla, LasL Malaysla, SouLh vleLnam and 1halland,
Area 8: 1he hlllpplnes,
Area C: Pong kong, norLh vleLnam, 1alwan and Lhe Chlnese coasL up Lo Shanghal,
Area u: SLarLlng from Shanghal, norLh Chlna, korea and !apan.
1he focus of Lhls reporL has been rouLes where shlps Lravel shorL dlsLances. 1hls ls because shorL
rouLes are more sulLable for a use of LnC as fuel Lhan shlps Lravellng long dlsLance. 1he rouLe llsL was
hence correcLed for Lhls and cerLaln rouLes were dlscarded. 1he baslc rule used Lo dlscard rouLes
where Lo selecL and dlsregard Lhe rouLes LhaL were spannlng over Lhree of Lhe areas descrlbed above.
lor a deLalled descrlpLlon of whlch rouLes LhaL were dlsregarded please see Appendlx C 1he
lnformaLlon used ln Lhe analysls was Laken from Lhe followlng companles whlch accordlng Lo
SLopford (2009) represenL 73 of Lhe world's conLalner shlpplng ln year 2003.
CCSCC CCN1AINLk LINLS LVLkGkLLN LINL
MALkSk LINL MLul1L88AnLAn SPllnC CCMAn?
ANG MING MAkINL 1kANSCk1 CCkCkA1ICN nANIIN SnIING
k" LlnL Ml1Sul C.S.k. LlnLS
PMM nAAG L|oyd
AL CMA CGN
CnINA SnIING Nk LINL
CCCL LINL CSAv/SuuAML8lCAnA
2IM CCN1AINLk LINL PAM8unC-Suu
ACIIIC IN1LkNA1ICNAL LINLS WAN nAI LINLS
1he 14 companles wrlLLen ln bolded fonL are Lhe ones LhaL were Lrafflcklng LasL Asla and provlded
relevanL rouLe lnformaLlon onllne or by emall. 1hese companles can be consldered Lo represenL a
ma[or parL of Lhe conLalner feeder Lrafflc and Lhe lnLra reglon conLalner Lrafflc ln LasL Asla (Wu,
2010).
Cn Lhe rlvers of Chlna and along lLs coasL a loL of very small shlps sall carrylng a mlxLure of cargo,
conLalners, bulk, general cargo eLc. 1hese shlps are normally run as famlly enLerprlses wlLh llLLle
resources Lo lnvesL ln new Lechnology. 1hese shlps have been excluded from Lhls lnvesLlgaLlon.
PC= O%,3$+, (2'B /'*+"8*%2 (%%4%2 "*"$G,8,
1he area LhaL was sub[ecL for Lhe analysls spans from WesL Malaysla Lo norLh !apan and lncludes 300
rouLes and 117 dlfferenL porLs. 1he analysls gave an overvlew of whlch rouLes LhaL can be consldered
sulLable for an lmplemenLaLlon of LnC as fuel source. lL also resulLed ln a dlvlslon of geographlcal
areas wlLh Lhelr respecLlve conLalner feeder sysLems. AfLer dlscardlng long rouLes, abouL 200 rouLes
and 103 porLs can be consldered Lo be a parL of Lhe conLalner feeder Lrafflc LhaL serves Lhe enLlre
LasL Asla. A llsL of Lhese rouLes and porLs can be found ln Appendlx A & 8 respecLlvely. llgure 7-1
shows dlvlslon of areas ln Lhls analysls.
18

I|gure 7-1: Conta|ner feeder sh|pp|ng areas |n Last As|a. (Source: maps.goog|e.com).
1he 10 mosL frequenLly vlslLed porLs, llsLed by Lhe mosL vlslLed flrsL and Lhen ln falllng order, are Lhe
porLs ln Slngapore, kaohslung (1alwan), Pong kong, keelung (1alwan), 1alchung (1alwan), Shanghal,
1an[ung elepas (Slngapore), uallan (Chlna), Po Chl Mlnh (vleLnam) and orL klang (Malaysla). 1he
rouLes lncludlng Lhese porLs LogeLher represenL 43 of Lhe rouLes ln Lhe enLlre analysls. As
menLloned ln secLlon 7.2 1he ConLalner feeder Lrafflc ln LasL Asla, Slngapore was llsLed as Lhe largesL
conLalner porL ln Lhe world year 2009. WlLh lLs sLraLeglc geographlcal locaLlon Lhe porL funcLlons as a
hub for conLalner dlsLrlbuLlon beLween Lurope/AusLralla and LasL Asla (Slack & Wang, 2003). 1he
analysls made ln Lhls reporL shows LhaL Slngapore ls Lhe mosL frequenLly vlslLed porL area when lL
comes Lo conLalner feeder Lrafflc ln LasL Asla. lL also shows LhaL 1alwan, wlLh Lhree porLs among Lhe
Lop flve buslesL, ls a hlghly Lrafflcked area when lL comes Lo feeder Lrafflc. 1he porL of kaohslung ls
Lhe buslesL porL ln 1alwan and was ln 2007 llsLed as Lhe 12
Lh
buslesL conLalner porL ln Lhe world
(www.ukporLsandloglsLlcs.com, 2010). 8ecause of 1alwan's lndusLry and Lhe almosL 23 mllllon people
llvlng Lhere (www.cla.gov, 2010), Lhe waLer around Lhe lsland ls one of Lhe busler ln LasL Asla.
llgure 7-2 shows Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of conLalner feeder Lrafflc rouLes ln four geographlcal areas ln LasL
Asla. Area A wlLh Slngapore as cenLer ls Lhe buslesL area buL also Lhe area beLween Pong kong,
1alwan and malnland Chlna, whlch ln Lhls analysls ls called area C, ls Lrafflcked by many conLalner
feeder rouLes. Area u, coverlng !apan and korea, ls also Lrafflcked by many conLalner feeder rouLes.
19

very few rouLes ln Lhe analysls are coverlng boLh A and C or boLh 8 and C. 1hls facL ls Lo some exLenL
valldaLlng Lhe dlvlslon lnLo Lhe dlfferenL areas. 1here are a number of rouLes coverlng boLh area C
and u whlch ls someLhlng LhaL suggesLs LhaL a flner dlvlslon of rouLes could have been done here.
8ouLes LhaL was lncludlng porLs from boLh area A and area u, area 8 and u or porLs from all Lhree
areas was excluded from Lhe analysls because Lhey were consldered Loo long Lo be consldered as
conLalner feeder rouLes.

I|gure 7-2: D|str|but|on of port ca|| frequency. (Source: Andersson & W|nroth)

72
8
1
12
40
33
29
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
70
80
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
f
r
o
u
t
e
s
ort ca|| frequency
A: SlnCAC8L, MALACA S18Al1S, SCu1P lnuCnLSlA, LAS1 MALA?SlA, SCu1P vlL1nAM,
1PAlLAnu
A,C
8: PlLllnLS
8,C
C: nC81P vlL1nAM, PCnC kCnC, 1AlWAn, SPAnCPAl
C,u
u: SPAnCPAl, nC81 CPlnA, kC8LA, !AAn
20

Q ;?8<<8*1 %B8,,8'*, "*4 $%18,$"+8'*
1hls chapLer conLalns a brlef revlew of Lhe exhausL emlsslons from shlpplng as well as an overvlew of
Lhe lnLernaLlonal emlsslon regulaLlons regardlng shlpplng. Also local emlsslon regulaLlons regardlng
shlpplng are broughL forward.
QC- HB8,,8'*, (2'B ,?8<<8*1
1he world's shlp fleeL ls more Lhan 970 mllllon dead welghL Lons (www.marlLlmecareers.com.sg,
2006) and Lhese shlp's englnes run mosLly on fossll fuels. Shlps are noL ma[or alr polluLanLs globally
buL ln ocean corrldors where a loL of shlps sall, especlally along cerLaln coasL llnes, shlps are blg
conLrlbuLors Lo poor alr quallLy (MACALCC, 2008).
When emlsslons from shlps are dlscussed Lhe followlng four Lypes of emlsslons are normally
consldered, SC
x
, nC
x
, M and CC
2
. 1helr effecLs on Lhe envlronmenL are brlefly explalned ln llgure
8-1 , lnformaLlon based on www.epa.gov (2010) and MACALCC (2008).

QC5 H*982'*B%*+"$ $%18,$"+8'*
As menLloned ln Lhe background of Lhe reporL, Lhe marlLlme lndusLry lncludlng shorL sea shlpplng has
for many years been sub[ecL Lo emlsslon regulaLlons. lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlon for Lhe revenLlon of
olluLlon of Lhe Sea by Cll (ClLCL), whlch was adopLed ln Lhe unlLed klngdom ln 1934 and Laken ln
!"#$"% '()*+ *,-))-./
!"! !"#$%$ "!'( )"'* +,'!, ,#)-$
!"#$% '() *+,-),(.%/
!"#$%&'( *+",'-
!"#$%&$ $(($)*& +,
!"#$%!&'(!) #)#'"+ &,-
!"#$%&'($)* $" $,)
!"#$%&'"( "! *#"+(,
!"#"! %&%'"(
!"#$%&'("$) +"$$)#
!"#$"%&"' )*+, -*+#./0+1 +0+!
!"#"$ &'"(# "##")*+ ",-
!""#!"#$!% #'$()# !$*+
!"#$%& ()%*)+,
!" $ %&''( )*+"' %$"
!"# %&' '()**)+" ,+-.#
!"#$ "& ' (')*+
!"#$%&'($"% $" *+"',+
!"#$%&'(
!"#$!" $%&''&()' *"(% '+&,' -"$
!"#$%&#!' &# !"#!!"# %&''&() *()+
!""#!$$% !!! #$%&# '(%) *# (+,$
!"#$!" $% $&& '() *$!"# %&!!'(" )*+
!"#$%&'() '+ ,-&%.(/
!"#$$#%&$ ()%" $*#+$
!"# % &'((')* +)*,-.#!"/
!"##$%&"'()'* ," -./0
!" $%& '!()*!! #$#%&'
I|gure 8-1: Andersson & W|nroth
21

Lo force by Lhe lnLernaLlonal MarlLlme CrganlzaLlon (lMC) convenLlon 1938, regulaLed Lhe polluLlon
from ordlnary Lanker operaLlons and oll wasLes from propulslon sysLems. ln 1973 lMC esLabllshed
lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlon for Lhe revenLlon of olluLlon from Shlps (MA8CL). 1hls ls a convenLlon
regulaLlng polluLlon by chemlcals, oll, sewage and garbage from shlpplng.
ln 1997 MA8CL approved a global 4,3 cap on sulfur ln bunker fuel, MA8CL 93/97 Annex vl
(llLCA, 2007). 1he cap came lnLo force ln 2003 and also lncluded Lhe creaLlon of SC
x
Lmlsslon
ConLrol Areas, SLCAs, ln whlch sulfur llmlL ls regulaLed aL 1,3. ln 2007 Lhe 8alLlc Sea and Lhe norLh
sea/Lngllsh channel were deslgnaLed as SLCAs. 1he MA8CL 93/97 Annex vl also lncludes some
oLher regulaLlons, for example regardlng volaLlle Crganlc Compounds, fuel sampllng and record
keeplng.
ln 2008 Lhe MA8CL Annex vl was revlsed and from 1
sL
of !anuary 2012 Lhe global cap on sulfur ln
bunker fuel wlll be seL Lo 3,3. 1he cap wlll progresslvely be lowered and by 2020 be seL Lo 0,3. A
feaslblllLy sLudy of Lhe regulaLlon shall be performed aL laLesL by 2018. lor SLCAs MA8CL Annex vl
sLlpulaLes a cap of 1 effecLlve from 1
sL
of !uly 2010 and a decrease down Lo 0,1 by 2013. ln Lhe
revlslon of Lhe Annex vl, regulaLlons regardlng nC
x
emlsslon were also agreed upon. Lnglnes
lnsLalled afLer 1
sL
of !anuary 2016 LhaL are Lrafflcklng (S)LCAs wlll have Lo be of 1ler lll" class. (lMC)
nC
x
emlsslon llmlLs for dlesel englnes are seL ln Lhree levels wlLh varylng sLrlngency. 1ler l (2000), 1ler
ll (2011) and 1ler lll (2016 ln LCAs). 1he amounL of nC
x
LhaL ls allowed Lo be emlLLed under Lhe
dlfferenL 1lers depends on Lhe englnes maxlmum operaLlng speed and rpm. ln 1able 8-1: nC
x

emlsslon levels, daLa from www.dleselneL.com.1able 8-1 and llgure 8-2 are Lhe llmlLs and a graphlcal
funcLlon of Lhe 8M dependence shown.
1ab|e 8-1: NC
x
em|ss|on |eve|s, data from www.d|ese|net.com.
1ler uaLe nC
x
LlmlL, g/kWh
n < 130 130 = n < 2000 n = 2000
1ler l 2000 17.0 43 n-0.2 9.8
1ler ll 2011 14.4 44 n-0.23 7.7
1ler lll 2016 3.4 9 n-0.2 1.96
1ler lll ln nC
x
Lmlsslon ConLrol Areas (1ler ll sLandards apply ouLslde LCAs).

I|gure 8-2
Some counLrles have sLlpulaLed emlsslon regulaLlons more sLrlngenL Lhan Lhe MA8CL regulaLlons. ln
norway for example a nC
x
emlsslon Lax became effecLlve ln !anuary 2007. 1he Lax depends on Lhe
amounL of fuel burned and Lhe Lype of fuel used ln Lhe englnes
nC
x
Lax, for example shlps Lrafflcklng forelgn porLs, flshlng vessels ln remoLe waLers and shlp wlLh a
nC
x
reduclng agreemenL wlLh Lhe norweglan mlnlsLry of envlronmenL. (
Sweden shlps salllng Lo and from Swedlsh harbors are sub[ecLed Lo a falrway charge whlch parLly
depends on Lhe shlps envlronmenLal lmpacL. 1he falrway charge ls dependlng on Lhe shlp's slze,
cargo, fuel Lype (sulfur conLenL) and ls only
2009)
ln Chlna and 1alwan no local leglslaLlon when lL comes Lo shlpplng emlsslon exlsLs buL a proposlLlon
from Lhe Chlnese governmenL suggesLs
1oday's proposlLlon lncludes shlpplng buL lf a regulaLlon wlll come lnLo force and whaL lL wlll look llke
ls noL clear (Wu, 2010).

22
2: NC
x
em|ss|on |eve|s, data from www.d|ese|net.com
amounL of fuel burned and Lhe Lype of fuel used ln Lhe englnes. Some shlps are exempLed from Lhe
reduclng agreemenL wlLh Lhe norweglan mlnlsLry of envlronmenL. (www.s[ofar
cargo, fuel Lype (sulfur conLenL) and ls only charged for a flxed number of Llmes per year.
from Lhe Chlnese governmenL suggesLs CC
2
emlsslon cuLs naLlonally by 40 by Lhe year 2020.

. Some shlps are exempLed from Lhe
www.s[ofarLsdlr.no, 2010) ln
charged for a flxed number of Llmes per year. (SWLCC,
emlsslon cuLs naLlonally by 40 by Lhe year 2020.
23

24

R DEF ,3<<$G "*4 (3%$8*1 8*(2",+23/+32%
1hls chapLer alms Lo brlefly explaln Lhe supply chaln of LnC Lo LasL Asla. Close LnC resources are
llsLed as well as Lhe exlsLlng and planned LnC porL Lermlnals. ln chapLer 10 10Case sLudy of Area C,
an analysls of Lhe ma[or porLs ln area C can be found along wlLh Lhelr sulLablllLy for LnC bunkerlng.
RC- DEF 4%B"*4 "*4 ,3<<$G
naLural gas LogeLher wlLh solar and wlnd power ls by many green energy proponenLs belleved Lo be
an lmporLanL parL of Lhe world's fuLure energy resources. Accordlng Lo ClA - 1he World lacLbook
(2010), Lhe LoLal amounL of proven naLural gas reserves ln Lhe world exceeds 173.000.000 mllllon m3
and Lhe largesL reserves are locaLed ln 8ussla, lran, CaLar 1urkmenlsLan and Saudl Arabla. Accordlng
Lo Lhe same source, gas flelds are also locaLed ln LasL Asla and counLrles LhaL possess Lhe largesL
volumes here are lndonesla, Chlna, Malaysla and vleLnam.
1he global consumpLlon of naLural gas was ln year 2006 almosL 2.900.000 mllllon m3 buL ls predlcLed
Lo sLeadlly lncrease ln Lhe fuLure and by year 2030 reach 4.300.000 mllllon m3. 1he gas ls Loday
malnly used ln elecLrlc power producLlon and for lndusLrlal purposes, buL naLural gas ls expecLed by
Lhe uS energy lnformaLlon admlnlsLraLlon Lo replace oll wherever posslble". Slnce many of Lhe
reservolrs and Lhe consumers are noL locaLed wlLhln Lhe same geographlcal area, Lhe predlcLed
lncreased usage of naLural gas and LnC seLs hlgh requlremenLs on Lhe supply chaln.
(www.ela.doe.gov, 2010)
RC5 F$'#"$ +2"*,<'2+"+8'* '( DEF
1oday large volumes of naLural gas are malnly LransporLed elLher Lhrough plpellnes or by LnC ocean
carrlers. 1ransporLaLlon Lhrough plpellnes ls malnly sulLable for shorLer dlsLances buL ls a good
supplemenL Lo seaborne LransporLaLlon, (MarlnLek eL al, 2008). A large LnC carrler of Loday has a
capaclLy of up Lo 140.000 m3 LnC buL vessels wlLh a capaclLy of abouL 200.000 m3 or more belng
developed. Accordlng Lo Azfar ShaukaL, ulrecLor of Lhe Cll & Cas ulvlslon aL MoLL Macuonald, Lhe
load capaclLy on shlps ls Lhe crlLlcal polnL ln fuLure exLended usage of LnC (Wahlln, 2006).
RC: D'*1 +%2B ,3<<$G /'*+2"/+,
lnLernaLlonal conLracLs concernlng LnC supply ofLen span over 20 years, someLlmes even longer. 1he
maln reason for Lhls ls Lhe lnvesLmenL ln lnfrasLrucLure requlred for LransporLaLlon and handllng of
Lhe gas or LnC (MarlnLek eL al, 2008). 1he recourses and lnvesLmenLs requlred ln lnfrasLrucLure are
Lwo of Lhe facLors ln Lhe LnC supply chaln LhaL mlghL slow down lncreased usage and furLher
exploraLlon of LnC as energy source (Wahlln, 2006).
RC= DEF 2%,'32/% "$+%2*"+89%, ('2 H",+ I,8"
As menLloned ln Lhe beglnnlng of Lhls chapLer, naLural gas reserves are spread ouL over many places
ln Lhe world. Many of Lhe largesL are locaLed ln Lhe Mlddle LasL where lran and CaLar are Lhe Lwo
counLrles LhaL possess Lhe largesL volumes of naLural gas (www.cla.gov, 2010). Accordlng Lo
(www.arablanbuslness.com, 2010), CaLar ls Lhe blggesL exporLer of LnC ln Lhe world and Lhe counLry
has long Lerm supply conLracLs wlLh 1alwan, Chlna, !apan and SouLh korea (www.seaLradeasla-
onllne.com, 2010), (www.ela.doe.gov, 2010).
1he blggesL exporLers of LnC ln LasL Asla are lndonesla and Malaysla, number 12 and 13 on ClA's llsL
over provlded gas reserves ln Lhe world (www.cla.gov, 2010). 8oLh of Lhe naLlons have supply
23

conLracLs wlLh malnly !apan buL also smaller volumes are annually exporLed Lo 1alwan and SouLh
korea www.ela.doe.gov, (2010). Cn place number 28 on ClA's llsL over provlded gas reserves ln Lhe
world ls AusLralla found. lL ls Lhe world's slxLh blggesL suppller of LnC and slgned durlng year 2009
supply conLracLs wlLh !apan, SouLh korea and Chlna www.bloomberg.com, (2010). Compared Lo
source gas from ouLslde of Lhe reglon, Aslan buyers are poslLlve Lo do lL from AusLralla because lL
offers a secure supply. 8y purchaslng LnC from AusLralla carrlers wlll noL have Lo pass pollLlcally
unsLable reglons such as Lhe Mlddle LasL. (SouLh Chlna Mornlng osL, 2010)
A soluLlon Lo Lhe quesLlon of how LnC should be LransporLed and dlsLrlbuLed wlLhln LasL Asla ls LhaL
LhaL each counLry lmporLs lLs own LnC dlrecLly from Lhe source. An alLernaLlve soluLlon ls LhaL one
counLry acLs as a dlsLrlbuLlon hub and LhaL nelghborlng counLrles buys LnC from Lhe hub. lnvesLors ln
!apan are conslderlng lnvesLlng ln such a hub ln LasL Asla and by dolng so Lhey would also make lL
easler for oLher counLrles Lo exLend Lhelr consumpLlon of LnC. Wahlln (2006)
RC@ )322%*+ DEF 8*(2",+23/+32%
Accordlng Lo Callfornla Lnergy Commlsslon (2009), LnC re-gaslflcaLlon Lermlnals are Lhe mosL
common LnC faclllLles ln LasL Asla. A few llquefacLlon faclllLles are locaLed or planned ln Lhe
hlllpplnes, 8runel, Malaysla and lndonesla buL Lhe area ls malnly domlnaLed by recepLlon Lermlnals
locaLed close Lo Lhe ma[or porLs. !apan ls Lopplng Lhe llsL over number of re-gaslflcaLlon unlLs wlLh 28
exlsLlng and 6 planned faclllLles spread ouL along Lhe whole coasL llne. ln SouLh korea four Lermlnals
are ln use, Lhey are all slLuaLed close Lo Lhe ma[or clLles Seoul and 8usan. 1wo Lermlnals are locaLed
ln 1alwan and Lhree exlsL and anoLher seven are planned ln Malnland Chlna. 1he ones ln Malnland
Chlna are locaLed ln lu[lan, Shanghal and Cuangdong, close Lo Pong kong, buL anoLher seven
Lermlnals are proposed, under consLrucLlon or already approved ln Lhe counLry.
(www.globallnglnfo.com, 2010)
Cne Lermlnal LhaL ls planned Lo be operaLlonal ln 2011 ls Lhe one ln uallan ln norLheasL Chlna. 1he
fuLure LnC re-gaslflcaLlon faclllLy ln uallan wlll malnly serve Lhe Llaonlng provlnce and ls a parL of Lhe
plan Lo provlde LnC Lo Chlna. LnC consumpLlon ln Chlna ls predlcLed Lo double wlLhln flve years,
www.porLworld.com (2010).
1he fuLure Lermlnals wlll be spread ouL along Lhe whole Chlnese coasL and buL Lhe urban areas
around Shanghal, ?ancheng-Clngdao and bay close Lo 8el[lng have clearly been prlorlLlzed. !apan,
1alwan, Slngapore and 1halland, Lhe hlllpplnes and SouLh korea are also plannlng or have already
sLarLed Lo bulld new LnC re-gaslflcaLlon faclllLles. lor more lnformaLlon and a map over exlsLlng and
planned LnC lnfrasLrucLure, see llgure 9-1 Callfornla Lnergy Commlsslon (2009). 1he green and Lhe
red doLs lndlcaLe exlsLlng lnfrasLrucLure, whlLe and blue ones lndlcaLe proposed or planned pro[ecLs.
26

I|gure 9-1: LNG fac|||t|es |n Last As|a, Ca||forn|a Lnergy Comm|ss|on (2009).
27

28

-S )",% ,+34G '( I2%" )
ln Lhls reporL Lhe area C of Lhe seaborne Lrade analysls has been lnvesLlgaLed ln a case sLudy. 1hls has
been done Lo obLaln more deLalled lnformaLlon regardlng Lhe area. Area C spans from Shanghal on
Lhe Chlnese coasL ln Lhe norLh down Lo Pal pong ln vleLnam ln Lhe souLh. 1he area also lncludes
1alwan and Lhe enLlre area can be seen ln llgure 10-1. 1he reason for chooslng area C as sub[ecL for
Lhls case sLudy ls LhaL lL lncludes Lwo of Lhe world's largesL porLs (Pong kong and Shanghal) and LhaL
Lhe area ls showlng a sLeady economlc growLh. Chlna ls developlng whlch has lead Lo LhaL more and
more manufacLurlng Lakes place ln Lhe counLry. 1he manufacLured goods are ofLen LransporLed on
Lhe sea and because of Lhls Lhe porL and shlpplng acLlvlLy ln Lhe reglon has lncreased.
1he case sLudy ls dlvlded lnLo Lhree parLs. An envlronmenLal galn sLudy from changlng fuel source Lo
LnC, a LnC lnfrasLrucLure sLudy of Lhe reglon and a marlLlme lndusLry and porL sLudy.

I|gure 10-1: Conta|ner feeder sh|pp|ng areas C w|th the most frequent|y v|s|ted ports and some of the most traff|cked
routes marked |n b|ue. (Source: maps.goog|e.com).
-SC- I*"$G,8, '( %B8,,8'*,
1hls parL of Lhe case sLudy ls lnLended Lo esLlmaLe Lhe envlronmenLal galn of a change of fuel source
from convenLlonal bunker Lo LnC ln area C. 1he currenL emlsslons, when Lhe shlps run on
convenLlonal fuel, are esLlmaLed and compared Lo a slLuaLlon where Lhe fleeL runs on llquefled
naLural gas. 1o puL Lhls analysls ln perspecLlve a case has been made calculaLlons on where all shlps
reglsLered ln Chlna, Pong kong and 1alwan are lncorporaLed. llrsL Lhe meLhodology used ls explalned
followed by Lhe resulLs of Lhe calculaLlons.
29

-SC-C- >%+?'4'$'1G
When esLlmaLlng emlsslon from shlp Lrafflc Lwo common meLhods exlsL, boLLom-up approach and
Lop-down approach. 1he boLLom-up approach bases Lhe emlsslon esLlmaLlon on Lhe fleeL and lLs
acLual fuel consumpLlon. 1he LoLal lnsLalled effecL ls normally deLermlned along wlLh englne loads
and englne runnlng hours. 1hls ls Lhe meLhod normally used for emlsslon esLlmaLlons ln porLs or for
reglonal sLudles (CorbeLL & khler, 2003). Lxamples of boLLom-up sLudles are mlssloos ftom
lotetootloool sblpploq lo tbe 8elqloo pott of tbe Nottb 5eo ooJ tbe 8elqloo seopotts by ue Meyera,
Maesa & volckaerL, (2007) and 5blp emlssloos ooJ tbelt extetoolltles fot tbe pott of lltoeos - Cteece
by LrnesLos 1zannaLos (2009).
lnsLead of uslng lnsLalled effecL onboard and usage paLLerns, a Lop-down approach uses bunker sales
sLaLlsLlcs as base for fuel consumpLlon and emlsslons. 1he maln problem wlLh Lhls approach ls
unrellable bunker fuel sLaLlsLlcs (sarafLls & konLovas, 2009). lor example are dlfferenL deflnlLlons of
lnLernaLlonal bunker used ln dlfferenL counLrles. When sLudylng a porL or reglon a Lop-down
approach ls dlfflculL Lo use because of Lhe dlfflculLy of knowlng how much of Lhe bunker purchased ln
Lhe area LhaL ls used ln Lhe area and how much of lL LhaL ls used elsewhere. Shlps LhaL sall wlLhln Lhe
area LhaL bunker elsewhere also has Lo be consldered.
lor reasons dlscussed a boLLom-up approach ls sulLable for Lhls sLudy. 1he meLhodology used here
follows ln prlnclple Lhe one used by Lyrlng, khler, van Aardenne & Lauer. (2003) and CorbeLL &
khler (2003). 1he emlsslons were calculaLed as equaLlon 10-1. LxplanaLlon of Lhe facLors ln Lhe
equaLlon follows underneaLh.
!"#$$#%& ( ) *+#&$,-../0 /11/2,3 4 56784 $/- ,#"/ 4 /"#$$#%& 1-2,%9 ( (eq. 10-1)
lnsLalled effecL
A llsL over Lhe conLalner feeder vessels LhaL are salllng ln Lhe area was creaLed. lnformaLlon was
gaLhered from Lhe shlpplng company webslLes and an onllne vessel lnformaLlon servlce called
Lquasls (www.equasls.com). 31 unlque shlps were ldenLlfled servlng Lhe 40 conLalner feeder rouLes
ln Lhe area. Among Lhese 31 shlps, lnformaLlon regardlng age, dead welghL Lonnage and gross
Lonnage was obLalned for 23 shlps. lor Lhe remalnlng elghL shlps an average of Lhe 23 shlps was
applled. 1he average shlp ln Lhe fleeL was bulld ln 1993 and has a dead welghL of 14 384 Lones. 1hls
corresponds Lo a shlp wlLh Lhe capablllLy of carrylng around 1000 1Lus.
lnformaLlon abouL each shlp's maln and auxlllary englne was noL posslble Lo obLaln onllne and
lnsLead an approxlmaLlon based each shlp's dead welgh Lonnage was used. An approxlmaLlon
formula (Lndresen eL al, 2003) based on 6300 unv classes shlp was used. LquaLlon 10-2 shows Lhe
formula where ls maln englne effecL (kW) and x ls Lhe shlp's dead welghL Lonnage (Lones). 1he
parameLers o and are speclflc for Lhe shlp Lype and ln Lhe case for conLalner shlps Lhey are 2,6 and
0,86 respecLlvely.
: ); (
<
(eq. 10-2)
1he shlps auxlllary englnes where lncorporaLed ln Lhe calculaLlon as an addlLlonal 10 of Lhe maln
englne effecL. A shlp Lyplcally has auxlllary power lnsLalled LhaL corresponds Lo 20 of Lhe maln
englne (43 for reefers and passenger vessels) buL Laklng redundancy requlremenLs and englnes
loads lnLo accounL makes 10 a reasonable approxlmaLlon (Lndresen eL. al, 2003).
30

Lnglne load & Sea Llme
Lnglne load facLor, as percenLage of MC8 (englne power avallable for long Llme nonsLop) was Laken
from CorbeLL & khler (2003) for small conLalner vessels. 1he parameLer was seL Lo 80 . 1he sea
Llme ls Lhe amounL of Llme per year LhaL a shlp ls salllng. 1hls amounL of Llme depends of number of
sLops and porL Llme. 1hls parameLer was also Laken from CorbeLL & khler (2003) for small conLalner
vessels and was seL Lo 6300 hours/year.
Lmlsslon facLors
Lmlsslon facLors are used Lo calculaLe Lhe amounL of emlsslons produced by Lhe fleeL. values of Lhe
emlsslon facLors are Laken from MACALCC (MarlnLek eL. al, 2008) for LnC and from Lyrlng, khler,
van Aardenne & Lauer (2003) for convenLlonal fuel. 1able 10-1 shows Lhe emlsslon facLors used ln
Lhe calculaLlon.
1ab|e 10-1: Lm|ss|on factors nIC & LNG
Iue| 1ype SC
x
(g]kWh) NC_x (g]kWh) M(g]kWh) CC
2
(g]kWh)
PlC (2,4-2,6 sulphur) 9,47 13 1,23 630
LnC 0 2 0 430

PlC wlLh a sulphur conLenL of 2,4-2,6 can be assumed represenLaLlve for convenLlonal bunker fuel
used ln Lhe reglon (Wu, 2010).
-SC-C5 O%,3$+ H*982'*B%*+"$ 8B<"/+
As menLloned ln chapLer 10.1.1 MeLhodology, emlsslons were flrsL calculaLed for all of Lhe 31 shlps
Lrafflcklng Lhe rouLes Loday wlLh PlC. 1he same calculaLlons were Lhen performed wlLh Lhe daLa
represenLlng LnC from 1able 10-1, l.e. a scenarlo when all of Lhe shlps are fueled on LnC. 1able 10-2
shows Lhe resulL of Lhe calculaLlons for all of Lhe shlps LogeLher. 1he full calculaLlons and resulLs for
every shlp can be found ln Appendlx u.
1ab|e 10-2: Ca|cu|ated em|ss|ons of SC
x
, NC
x
, M and CC
2
of the ana|yzed f|eet (Andersson and W|nroth 2010).
Iue| 1ype SC
x
(ton]year) NC
x
(ton]year) M (ton]year) CC
2
(ton]year)
PlC (2,4-2,6
sulphur)
18 384 29 119 2 427 1 164 731
LnC 0 3 883 0 873 363
dlfference -18 384 -23 236 -2 427 -291 188

Slnce Lhe values of SC
x
and M used ln Lhe calculaLlons are zero, Lhe emlsslons of course zero as well.
ln llgure 10-2 Lhe emlsslons of nC
x
and CC
2
for Lhe Lwo dlfferenL scenarlos are compared. lf Lhe fleeL
would have been powered by LnC lnsLead of PlC Lhe reduced amounL of emlLLed nC
x
would
annually be more Lhan 23.000 Lons and almosL 300.000 Lons for CC
2
.
18.000 Lons of SC
x
can be compared Lo Lhe SC
x
emlsslon LhaL Sweden emlLLed durlng year 2008. ln
2008 Lhe Swedlsh emlsslons of SC
x
were 31.000 Lons (www.naLurvardsverkeL.se, 2010). 18.000 Lons
of SC
x
can be compared Lo Lhe SC
x
emlsslon LhaL Sweden emlLLed durlng year 2008. ln 2008 Lhe
Swedlsh emlsslons of SC
x
were 31.000 Lons (www.naLurvardsverkeL.se, 2010). 291.188 Lons of CC
2

31

correspond Lo Lhe amounL LhaL a modern clean car wlLh low fuel consumpLlon would emlL lf lL drove
722 laps around Lhe world
1
. 1hls ls also Lhe same amounL LhaL 147.000 modern clean cars ln average
emlL durlng one year
2
(Andersson and WlnroLh, 2010).

I|gure 10-2: Lm|ss|ons from conta|ner feeder vesse|s powered by nIC and LNG. (Andersson and W|nroth, 2010).
As a comparlson Lo above resulLs a case has been made where calculaLlons on all shlps reglsLered ln
Chlna, Pong kong and 1alwan are lncorporaLed. lor Lhls case no conslderaLlon has been Laken Lo Lhe
Lype of operaLlon LhaL Lhe shlps are lnvolved ln or wheLher Lhe shlps sall and bunker ln Asla or noL.
1he same operaLlon paLLern as for Lhe area c case has been used. 1hls resulL ls only lnLended as a
comparlson and value of Lhls resulL ls lndeed quesLlonable. lf all shlps reglsLered ln Lhese counLrles
were Lo run on LnC lnsLead of convenLlonal fuel Lhe emlsslons reduced would be as shown ln 1able
10-3.
1ab|e 10-3: Ca|cu|ated em|ss|ons of SC
x
, NC
x
, M and CC
2
of a|| of the reg|stered vesse|s |n Ch|na, nong kong and 1a|wan
(Andersson and W|nroth 2010).
Iue| 1ype SC
x
(ton]year) NC
x
(ton]year) M (ton]year) CC
2
(ton]year)
PlC (2,4-2,6
sulphur)
348 997 869 383 72 463 34 783 323
LnC 0 113 944 0 26 087 493
dlfference -348 997 -733 639 -72 463 -8 693 831

1
Clrcumferens of Lhe earLh = 399 18,82 km, car emlLs 99 g/km (volvocars.com, 2010)
2
1he cars were assumed Lo drlve 2000 km per year.
0
3 000
10 000
13 000
20 000
23 000
30 000
33 000
NCx (ton]year)
LS1lMA1Lu CCnSuM1lCn Anu
LMlSSlCnS PlC (2,4-2,6 sulphur)
LMlSSlCnS LnC
0
200 000
400 000
600 000
800 000
1 000 000
1 200 000
1 400 000
CC
2
(ton]year)
LMlSSlCnS PlC (2,4-2,6 sulphur)
LMlSSlCnS LnC
32

-SC5 DEF 8*(2",+23/+32%
1oday flve LnC lmporL Lermlnals exlsL wlLhln area C, Lhose are locaLed ln Shanghal (?angshan), lu[lan,
uapeng (Cuangdong), kaohslung and 1alchung, buL as menLloned ln chapLer 9.3 CurrenL LnC
lnfrasLrucLure, seven oLher ones are planned or pro[ecLed (Callfornla Lnergy Commlsslon 2009).
llgure 10-3 shows a map over Lhe exlsLlng and planned re-gaslflcaLlon Lermlnals, geographlcally
spannlng from Shanghal ln norLh Lo Palnan ln souLh. 1he green and Lhe red doLs lndlcaLe exlsLlng
lnfrasLrucLure, whlLe and blue ones lndlcaLe proposed or planned pro[ecLs.

I|gure 10-3: Lx|st|ng and p|anned LNG term|na|s w|th|n area C, Ca||forn|a Lnergy Comm|ss|on (2009).
All of Lhese Lermlnals can LheoreLlcally provlde LnC for Lhe shlpplng lndusLry buL some of Lhem
would be beLLer as bunker Lermlnals Lhan oLhers. A bunkerlng sLaLlon has Lo be locaLed along Lhe
rouLes of Lhe shlps LhaL are uslng LnC. lf Lhe shlp has Lo Lake a deLour ln order Lo bunker, Llme wlll be
losL and Lhls wlll mosL llkely lead Lo a negaLlve aLLlLude, regardlng LnC as shlp fuel, from Lhe shlpplng
lndusLry. 1he LnC can, however, be LransporLed vla barge, plpellne or a small carrler from a close by
locaLed Lermlnal Lo a bunkerlng sLaLlon ln porL. Wu, (2010)
1he mosL frequenLly vlslLed porLs ln Lhe analysls of conLalner feeder Lrafflc for area C ln chapLer7.4
8esulLs from conLalner feeder analysls, are ln falllng order kaohslung, Pong kong, 1alchung, keelung
and Shanghal. As menLloned ln chapLer 6.3 8ange of LnC fuelled shlps, lL ls very hard Lo deLermlne
Lhe longesL dlsLance LhaL ls sulLable for conLalner feeder shlpplng powered by LnC. lf bunkerlng
sLaLlons are esLabllshed ln Pong kong, Shanghal and kaohslung, all or aL leasL mosL of Lhe rouLes ln
Area C wlll be able Lo be called upon by LnC fuelled vessels. 1hese Lhree porLs are also locaLed close
Lo already operaLlng or fuLure LnC Lermlnals and are ln Lhls porL suggesLed as LnC bunkerlng sLaLlons
ln area C.
-SC: T'2+ "*4 B"28+8B% 8*43,+2G ,+34G
1he followlng parL ls a sLudy of four porLs and one shlpplng company ln Lhe reglon dealL wlLh ln Lhls
case sLudy. keelung, kaohslung, Shanghal and Pong kong have been lnvesLlgaLed wlLh regards Lo
Lhelr sulLablllLy as LnC bunkerlng porLs. 1hls has been done by a revlew of Lhe buslness areas of Lhe
33

porLs, layouL of Lhe porLs, governance of Lhe porLs and Lhe porLs aLLlLudes Lowards LnC and
envlronmenLal pro[ecLs. lor each of Lhe porLs Lhe currenL slLuaLlon ls descrlbed followed by a
concepL for LnC bunkerlng ln Lhe porL. 1he shlpplng company has been lnLervlewed as an aLLempL Lo
capLure Lhe general oplnlon Lowards LnC of Lhe shlpplng lndusLry ln Lhe reglon.
lnformaLlon has been obLalned from lnLervlews and dlscusslons wlLh porL auLhorlLles ln keelung and
Pong kong as well as marlLlme lndusLry represenLaLlves ln kaohslung and Shanghal. MaLerlal found
on respecLlve porL's webpage has also been used.
1he persons LhaL have been lnLervlewed wlLh regards Lo each porL are sLaLed below:
keelung orL:
keelung Parbor 8ureau keelung Parbor 8ureau
MaskoL k.C Psu lu, Shlh-?l
ulrecLor of Shlpplng and navlgaLlon depL. Chlef of 1echnlcal SecLlon
kaohslung orL:
1ermlnal & LoglsLlcs 1eam 1ermlnal & LoglsLlcs 1eam
1ed Wu !usLln 1sal
1eam Manager ro[ecL 1eam
Pong kong orL:
Marlne uepL, CovernmenL of Pong kong LnvlronmenLal roLecLlon uepL. P. k.
Cheng, ?eung-mlng Cheung, 8llly kam-hlng
Chlef, MarlLlme ollcy LnvlronmenLal roLecLlon Cfflcer
Shanghal orL:
unv Shanghal unv Shanghal
!ames Wu Lrlk Penrlksen
ro[ecL Manager, unv SusLalnablllLy CenLer 8eglonal offshore manager
unv Shanghal lkA8 Shanghal
lrode 8ernLsen !ohn Chachamopolous
Pead of SecLlon for sLaLuLory & plplng ln SPAAC Ceneral Manager
uPl Shanghal uPl Shanghal
hu. uaohua Zhang M8A !erry ! Llu
Senlor Lnglneer AdmlnlsLraLlon Manager
?AnC MlnC LlnLS
?ang Mlng Llnes CperaLlon depL. ?M. Clobal lleeL ConLrol & Cargo
ManagemenL
capL. C.1 1un Alex Ll
!unlor vlce resldenL Senlor Manager
-SC:C- U%%$3*1 V"2#'32
keelung orL ls slLuaLed on 1alwan's norLh Llp and ls parLlally lnLegraLed ln Lhe clLy of keelung. Shlps
calllng aL keelung are malnly conLalner and general cargo shlps. 1able 10-4 shows some sLaLlsLlcs of
keelung porL.
34

1ab|e 10-4: kaohs|ung harbor bureau (www.k|hb.gov.tw, 2010)
?ear Shlp Arrlvals 1onnage handled 1Lu handled
2009 7,023 69,991,448 1,377,824.30

1he porL of keelung ls managed by a sLaLe owned company whlch owns all porL equlpmenL. Ma[or
declslons regardlng Lhe porL and lLs fuLure plans are Laken by governmenLal auLhorlLles ln 1alpel. 1he
developmenL of Lhe porL ls sLrucLured ln 3 year lnLervals and Lhe nexL revlslon of Lhe porL plan ls due
ln 2014. 1he keelung porL ls aL Lhe momenL noL pursulng any envlronmenLally LargeLed pro[ecLs, lL
follows lMC's guldellnes when lL comes Lo rules and regulaLlons. llgure 10-4 and llgure 10-3 show
keelung porL.

I|gure 10-4: : kee|ung port: (http:]]www.|aphwor|dports.org]ga||ery]|mg]kee|ung_ortC|ty-Aug07.[pg)
1here are a number of lmpllcaLlons llmlLlng Lhe posslblllLy of maklng keelung a LnC bunkerlng sLaLlon.
1hese are malnly publlc oplnlon, Lhe surroundlng envlronmenL and Lhe llLLle use of naLural gas ln Lhe
reglon. ubllc oplnlon ls consldered as a crlLlcal reason agalnsL LnC use ln Lhe keelung porL.
8esldenLlal areas are slLuaLed around Lhe porL and lf LnC sLorage faclllLles where Lo be bulld, Lhe
communlLles llvlng nexL Lo Lhe porL could be expecLed Lo proLesL. AnoLher lmporLanL lssue when lL
comes Lo keelung ls lLs exposure Lo Lyphoons and earLhquakes. keelung's poslLlon aL Lhe norLh LasL
slde of 1alwan makes lL especlally exposed Lo Lyphoons each fall.
lf problems concerned wlLh LnC bunkerlng ln keelung porL could be solved Lhe besL locaLlon for a
sLorage faclllLy would Pe lng lsland ln Lhe norLhwesL parL of Lhe porL. 1hls parL of Lhe porL ls slLuaLed
far away from resldenLlal areas ln Lhe clLy and here Lhere ls also some space avallable. 8unkerlng of
shlps would have Lo be performed from a barge whlch also ls Lhe way LhaL shlps are refueled ln
keelung Loday. llgure 10-3 shows a map over keelung orL wlLh Pe lng lsland marked wlLh a red
clrcle.
33

I|gure 10-S: : kee|ung port (http:]]www.k|hb.gov.tw]|mages]en]L000103_01.[pg)
-SC:C5 !?% <'2+ '( U"'?,83*1
kaohslung ls Lhe second largesL clLy ln 1alwan afLer 1alpel. lL ls locaLed ln Lhe souLhern parL of Lhe
lsland and Lhe porL ls Lhe largesL lnLernaLlonal porL ln 1alwan. WlLh a naLural sandbar servlng as wave
breaker and wlLh lL sLraLeglc geographlcal locaLlon on Lhe wesL coasL, Lhe porL of kaohslung ls parLly
proLecLed from Lyphoons (nordcaplLal, 2010). 1he porL whlch annually handles over 10 mllllon 1Lu's,
ls noL offlclally a parL of kaohslung ClLy. 1he porL ls lnsLead admlnlsLraLed by kaohslung orL
AuLhorlLy, whlch operaLes under dlrecLlon of Lhe MlnlsLry of 1ransporLaLlon ln 1alpel (kaohslung
Parbor 8ureau, 2010). 1he porL equlpmenL ln kaohslung ls parLly managed by Lhe kaohslung orL
AuLhorlLy and parLly by shlpplng companles havlng conLracLs for cerLaln Lermlnals. llgure 10-6 shows
keelung porL.
CurrenLly an expanslon pro[ecL LhaL alms Lo lncrease handllng capaclLy by abouL 2 mllllon 1Lu's by
2013 ls execuLed. 1wo new Lermlnals locaLed ouLslde of Lhe old one are golng Lo be bullL. 1he
Lermlnals can be seen ln Lhe upper lefL parL of llgure 10-7llgure 10-6.
36

I|gure 10-6: kaohs|ung port. kaohs|ung narbor 8ureau 2010 http:]]163.29.117.S]ch||d]|mg]b2.[pg
Slnce Lhe porL of kaohslung ls locaLed close Lo resldenLlal areas, lL may noL be approprlaLe Lo bulld a
bunkerlng sLaLlon for LnC ln Lhe porL as lL looks Loday. A posslble soluLlon ls Lo bulld an LnC
bunkerlng sLaLlon one of Lhe fuLure Lermlnals, whlch wlll be locaLed 2 - 3 kllomeLers from Lhe closesL
resldenLlal area. 8unkerlng operaLlon could Lhen be carrled ouL by barge. 1he closesL LnC lmporL
Lermlnal ls locaLed ln ?ongan, abouL 13 km norLh of kaohslung.
37

I|gure 10-7: ort of kaohs|ung w|th the p|anned term|na|s |n the upper |eft part of the p|cture. CC1C 2010.
http:]]www.cctcorp.com.tw]8us|ness08_2.htm
-SC:C: ;?"*1?"8 T'2+
Shanghal ls slLuaLed on Lhe Mlddle LasL cosL of Chlna. lLs porL ls spread ouL over elghL areas around
Lhe clLy. 1hese are Lhe upper, mlddle and lower Puangpu 8lver, 8aoshan, Luo[lng, Walgaoqlao,
Pangzhou 8ay, ?angshan and Chongmlng (ShanghalporL.gov.ch, 2010). ?angshan ls a deep waLer
conLalner Lermlnal LhaL ls slLuaLed on an lsland souLheasL of Lhe clLy (see red clrcle ln llgure 10-8). lL
ls connecLed Lo malnland vla a 32 km brldge. 1he ?angshan wharf aL Lhe deep waLer Lermlnal, whlch
ls belng expanded, ls almlng aL a capaclLy of 13 mllllon 1Lus annually before 2020, Lhe LoLal porL
capaclLy of ?angshan porL ls almlng aL a LhroughpuL raLe of 220 mllllon 1Lus annually
(yangshanLermlnal.com, 2010).
1he porL of Shanghal ls managed by Shanghal lnLernaLlonal porL whlch ls a company LhaL ls largely
owned by Lhe Shanghal munlclpal governmenL. ln 2007 Shanghal was Lhe largesL porL ln Lhe world
when lL comes Lo cargo LhroughouL and Lhe second ln world when counLlng conLalner LhroughouL.
(ShanghalporL.gov.ch, 2010) 1he porL serves a huge hlnLerland and Lhls ls Lhe reason for lLs large
capaclLy. A loL of Lhe LransporLaLlon of cargo from Shanghal's nelghborlng provlnces Lo Shanghal for
furLher LransporLaLlon ls done on Lhe ?angLze 8lver. 1hls ls normally done by small shlps whlch carry
a mlxLure of cargo. ln Lhe fuLure Lhls could be a shlpplng segmenL sulLable for LnC as fuel source. 1he
problem wlLh Lhese shlps Loday ls LhaL Lhey are normally a one shlp famlly buslness wlLh llLLle
resources Lo lnvesL ln new Lechnology.
38

I|gure 10-8: Shangha| port area.( Goog|emaps, 2010).
LnC Lermlnals exlsL Loday ln Lhe area of Shanghal, one Lermlnal ls slLuaLed ln connecLlon Lo Lhe
?angshan deep waLer Lermlnal. AnoLher one ls locaLed ln Zhe[lang whlch ls souLhwesL of Lhe clLy
cenLre of Shanghal. Zhe[lang and ?angshan are shown ln Lhe map ln llgure 10-8. A Lhlrd Lermlnal ls
currenLly belng bulld norLh of Lhe clLy cenLre ln 8udong. 1hls Lermlnal ls bulld by eLroChlna and ls
lnLended Lo lmporL LnC from CuaLar aL a raLe of 3.3 mllllon Lons per year (upsLeamsonllne.com,
2010). AparL from CaLar a loL of LnC ls lmporLed Lo Shanghal from AusLralla. LnC ls used ln Shanghal
malnly for power generaLlon of Lhe clLy buL also as fuel for cars and scooLers. llgure 10-9 shows Lhe
Zhe[lang Lermlnal.

I|gure 10-9: 2he[|ang LNG term|na|. (|ngon||ne.cn, 2010)
39

Shanghal has a blg focus on Lhe envlronmenL and a loL of pro[ecLs are belng execuLed Lo lmprove Lhe
envlronmenL and reduce polluLlon around Lhe clLy. 8efore Lhe World Lxpo 2010 Lhe clLy has for
example carrled ouL pro[ecLs relaLed Lo rapld LransporL sysLems Lo reduce emlsslons from Lrafflc,
clear waLer supply and exLended use of renewable energy (sepb.gov.cn, 2010).1he Chlnese
governmenL wanLs Shanghal Lo be percelved as a green clLy and Lhls ls someLhlng lL puLs a loL of
efforLs lnLo.
Shanghals green lnlLlaLlve along wlLh lLs already ln place LnC Lermlnals makes Lhe clLy a very
lnLeresLlng place for usage of LnC as fuel for shlpplng. AL ?angshan for example Lhe sLep from only
recelvlng LnC Lo redlsLrlbuLlng lL, ls noL very blg. 1he problem wlLh Lhe ?angshan LnC Lermlnal, as
well Lhe one ln Zhe[lang and ln 8udong, ls LhaL Lhey are poslLloned quleL far from Lhe Shanghal porL
areas. lor bunkerlng Lo be carrled ouL smooLhly Lhe LnC would need Lo be redlsLrlbuLed from Lhe
lmporL Lermlnals Lo bunkerlng sLaLlons closer Lo Lhe acLual porL areas. 1he ma[orlLy of Lhe porL areas
ln Shanghal are noL locaLed wlLhln close dlsLance Lo resldenLlal areas and dlsLrlbuLlng LnC Lo
bunkerlng sLaLlons close Lo Lhe porLs should Lherefore noL be a ma[or concern. llgure 10-10 shows a
conLalner Lermlnal ln Lhe Shanghal porL.

I|gure 10-10: Shangha| port (|ehe.com.cn)
Chlna and Shanghal ls conLrolled Lo a large exLenL from Lhe governmenL ln 8el[lng. lor LnC Lo be
used as a fuel source for shlpplng Lhe governmenL would mosL llkely have Lo be lnvolved. Slnce
Shanghal ls already belng promoLed as a green clLy and slnce LnC already ls used ln Lhe area, lL ls noL
unllkely LhaL we wlll see LnC as a shlp fuel ln Lhe fuLure. An lmporLanL facLor LhaL needs Lo be kepL ln
mlnd when lL comes Lo Chlna ls LhaL when someLhlng ls declded ln Chlna, lL ls lmplemenLed fasL. lf
Lhe Chlnese governmenL decldes Lo lmplemenL an LnC as shlp fuel" sLraLegy, Lhe Llme before lL
happens wlll mosL llkely be shorL.
-SC:C= V'*1 U'*1 T'2+
LocaLed ln Lhe souLhern parL of Malnland Chlna, Pong kong ls one of Lhe Lwo speclal admlnlsLraLlve
reglons of Lhe eople's 8epubllc of Chlna. AfLer Lhe flrsL oplum war (1839 - 1842), Pong kong became
40

a colony of Lhe 8rlLlsh Lmplre, buL was reLurned Lo Malnland Chlna on Lhe flrsL of !uly 1997. 1he
pollLlcal and economlcal sysLems are dlfferenL from Lhose ln Chlna and ln Lhe 8aslc Law of Pong kong,
whlch regulaLes Lhe relaLlon beLween Pong kong and Lhe malnland, lL ls wrlLLen LhaL Pong kong shall
have a "hlgh degree of auLonomy" ln all pollLlcal areas excepL for mlllLary defense and forelgn
relaLlons. (www.gov.hk, 2010)
1he porL of Pong kong ls an lmporLanL parL on Lhe Pong kong economy and lL ls one of Lhe ma[or
porLs of Lhe world ln Lhe Lhree caLegorles cargo handled, shlpplng movemenL and passengers carrled.
ConLalner shlpplng forms Lhe largesL parL of Lhe Lhree caLegorles and wlLh over 21 mllllon 1Lus
handled ln 2009, lL ls Lhe world's Lhlrd largesL conLalner porL. WlLh lLs nlne dlfferenL conLalner
Lermlnals locaLed aL 1slng ?l (Clng ?l) lsland, Lhe porL serves abouL 400 servlces a week Lo over 300
desLlnaLlons. 1he porL also provldes supporLlng faclllLles such as shlp repalr yards and Lyphoon
shelLers. (www.pdc.gov.hk, 2010)
Long Lerm sLraLeglc plannlng for porL lnfrasLrucLure and oLher necessary faclllLles are governed by Lhe
governmenL ln Pong kong, buL all Lhe faclllLles of Lhe porL are flnanced, owned and operaLed by Lhe
prlvaLe secLor. As Pong kong ls a small place and lLs nelghbor ls Chlna, lf Lhe governmenL ln 8el[lng
lmplemenLs guldellnes regardlng emlsslons along Lhe whole Chlnese coasL, Lhey would mosL llkely
also affecL Lhe regulaLlons ln Pong kong. (MulLl-laLeral ollcy ulvlslon, 2010)
1he LnvlronmenLal proLecLlon deparLmenL (Lu) ls a governmenLal deparLmenL LhaL deals wlLh
envlronmenLal lssues ln Pong kong. ln !uly 2009 lL suggesLed 19 measures LhaL alm Lo lmprove Lhe alr
quallLy ln Pong kong. 1he emlsslon capplng and conLrol measures malnly regulaLe emlsslons from
power producLlon, vehlcle- and seaborne Lrafflc. Measures LhaL dlrecLly concern Lhe emlsslons from
marlLlme Lrafflc are ulLra low sulfur dlesel for local vessels" and selecLlve caLalyLlc reducLlon for
local vessels". Lu also suggesLs LhaL 30 of Lhe elecLrlclLy producLlon ln Pong kong shall be
generaLed aL an LnC planL. (LnvlronmenLal roLecLlon ueparLmenL, 2010)
Accordlng Lo Advlsory Councll on Lhe LnvlronmenL (ACL), whlch ls a commlLLee under L, Pong kong
follows MA8CL Annex vl and Lhe emlsslon requlremenLs. An example LhaL lndlcaLes LhaL Lhe
governmenL ls almlng Lowards even lower emlsslons Lhan Annex vl, ls LhaL all of Lhe governmenL
vessels ln Pong kong have been uslng ulLra Low Sulfur ulesel (uLSu), whlch conLalns 30 ppm sulfur,
slnce 2001. 1he usage of uLSu and Lhe suggesLed envlronmenLal enhanclng measures could favor a
fuLure usage of LnC as marlLlme fuel ln Pong kong.

I|gure 10-11: 1he port of nong kong, conta|ner term|na| at 1s|ng | (|ng |) |s|and,
http:]]photography.nat|ona|geograph|c.com]photography]en|arge]hong
1he closesL LnC lmporL Lermlnal Lo Pong kong ls Loday loca
provlnce ln souLh Chlna. ln Aprll 2010 Lhe consLrucLlon of Zhuhal LnC lmporL Lermlnal ln Zhuhal clLy
(also ln Cuangdong provlnce) was approved. 1he Lwo Lermlnals are boLh locaLed wlLhln 100 km from
Pong kong and are boLh posslble suppllers of LnC Lo Lhe Pong kong porL.
kong and Lhe Lwo LnC lmporL Lermlnals.
1oday bunkerlng of conLalner vessels ls carrled ouL by ba
Lhe conLalner Lermlnal ls slLuaLed. 1he lsland ls probably Lhe mosL approprlaLe place Lo bunker LnC ln
Lhe fuLure, even Lhough a loL of work has Lo be done before lL ls posslble.
Cne of Lhe ma[or obsLacles wlLh
hlghly populaLed areas. llgure 10
resldenLlal areas and offlce bulldlng ln Lhe background. Pong kong has a very hlgh populaLlon denslLy
and lL would be a dlfflculL Lo sLore LnC Lanks ln Lhe cenLral parL of Lhe porL. A posslble locaLlon for
LnC Lanks could be on Lhe souLh wesL parL of Lhe 1
1o make lL posslble Lo bunker LnC ln Pong kong, emlsslon Laxes or regulaLlons would mosL llkely be
needed. 1hls would force Lhe shlpplng companles and Lhe gas suppllers Lo lnvesL ln new Lechnology. lL
ls here lmporLanL Lo noLlce LhaL such a Lax or regulaLlons LhreaLens Lo move Lhe marlLlme Lrafflc from
Pong kong Lo oLher porLs ln Lhe area wlLh less sLrlngenL regulaLlons. 1hls would noL solve Lhe
problem wlLh polluLlon, only move Lhe emlsslons.
41
: 1he port of nong kong, conta|ner term|na| at 1s|ng | (|ng |) |s|and,
http:]]photography.nat|ona|geograph|c.com]photography]en|arge]hong-kong-port_pod_|mage.htm|
1he closesL LnC lmporL Lermlnal Lo Pong kong ls Loday locaLed ln Shenzhen ln Lhe Cuangdong
sslble suppllers of LnC Lo Lhe Pong kong porL. llgure
kong and Lhe Lwo LnC lmporL Lermlnals.
1oday bunkerlng of conLalner vessels ls carrled ouL by barges from Lhe 1slng ?l (Clng ?l) lsland where
Lhe fuLure, even Lhough a loL of work has Lo be done before lL ls posslble.
bunkerlng LnC ln Pong kong ls LhaL Lhe porL ls locaLed very close Lo
10-11 shows Lhe conLalner porL aL 1slng ?l (Clng ?l) lsland wlLh
LnC Lanks could be on Lhe souLh wesL parL of Lhe 1slng ?l (Clng ?l) lsland.
LhaL such a Lax or regulaLlons LhreaLens Lo move Lhe marlLlme Lrafflc from
problem wlLh polluLlon, only move Lhe emlsslons.

: 1he port of nong kong, conta|ner term|na| at 1s|ng | (|ng |) |s|and,
port_pod_|mage.htm|
Led ln Shenzhen ln Lhe Cuangdong
llgure 10-12 shows Pong
rges from Lhe 1slng ?l (Clng ?l) lsland where
bunkerlng LnC ln Pong kong ls LhaL Lhe porL ls locaLed very close Lo
shows Lhe conLalner porL aL 1slng ?l (Clng ?l) lsland wlLh
LhaL such a Lax or regulaLlons LhreaLens Lo move Lhe marlLlme Lrafflc from

I|gure 10-12: Shows nong kong and, the 1s|ng | (|ng |) |s|and, Shenzhen and 2huha|. www.ma ps.goog|e.com
-SC:C@ W"*1 >8*1 D8*%,
?ang Mlng Llnes ls a 1alwan based shlpplng company and Lhe governmenL ls one of lLs ma[or owners.
1he company has ownershlp of around 90 vessels. A ma[orlLy of Lhe shlps are conLalners shlps and a
LoLal of 317 000 1Lu are LransporLed each year by Lhe company's vessels. (yml.com.Lw)
?ang Mlng Llnes fleeL has an average age of 7 years and Lhe oldesL shlp ls 18 years old
Loday on convenLlonal bunker fuel (PlC 6300) wlLh a sulfur conLenL of 3.3. 1he bunkerlng Lakes
place all over Lhe world buL Lhe company has preferred porLs whlch are used as ofLen as posslble.
1hese porLs comprlse Slngapore, Pong kong, u
Lhe shlps are fueled from a barge ln porL. ln some porLs ?ang Mlng Llnes owns lL own porL equlpmenL
and ln some porLs Lhey have servlce conLracLs wlLh Lhe operaLors. ln for example
Angeles, 1akoma and 8oLLerdam Lhe company owns Lhe porL equlpmenL whlch lL uses.
ln kaohslung ?ang Mlng Llnes ls currenLly plannlng Lo bulld a new conLalner Lermlnal. ln Lhe new
Lermlnal ?ang Mlng Llnes are plannlng Lo uLlllze shore power for Lhe shlps ln porL. AnoL
Lhe company has made for cleaner alr ln Lhe porL ls Lo lnvesLlgaLe wheLher LnC could be used for
porL vehlcles ln Lhe kaohslung porL. roblems wlLh regulaLlons and sLandards needs Lo be Laken care
of before Lhls can become reallLy.
As a shlpplng company ?ang Mlng Llnes clalms LhaL for Lhe company Lo swlLch fuel from PlC Lo LnC
Lwo posslble scenarlos exlsL. 1he flrsL scenarlo ls LhaL a change of fuel Lo LnC resulLs ln lower
42
: Shows nong kong and, the 1s|ng | (|ng |) |s|and, Shenzhen and 2huha|. www.ma ps.goog|e.com
ownershlp of around 90 vessels. A ma[orlLy of Lhe shlps are conLalners shlps and a
000 1Lu are LransporLed each year by Lhe company's vessels. (yml.com.Lw)
?ang Mlng Llnes fleeL has an average age of 7 years and Lhe oldesL shlp ls 18 years old
1hese porLs comprlse Slngapore, Pong kong, usan, kaohslung, new ?ork and 8oLLerdam. normally
and ln some porLs Lhey have servlce conLracLs wlLh Lhe operaLors. ln for example
koma and 8oLLerdam Lhe company owns Lhe porL equlpmenL whlch lL uses.
?ang Mlng Llnes ls currenLly plannlng Lo bulld a new conLalner Lermlnal. ln Lhe new
Lermlnal ?ang Mlng Llnes are plannlng Lo uLlllze shore power for Lhe shlps ln porL. AnoL
porL. roblems wlLh regulaLlons and sLandards needs Lo be Laken care
of before Lhls can become reallLy.
ng company ?ang Mlng Llnes clalms LhaL for Lhe company Lo swlLch fuel from PlC Lo LnC

: Shows nong kong and, the 1s|ng | (|ng |) |s|and, Shenzhen and 2huha|. www.ma ps.goog|e.com
ownershlp of around 90 vessels. A ma[orlLy of Lhe shlps are conLalners shlps and a
000 1Lu are LransporLed each year by Lhe company's vessels. (yml.com.Lw)
?ang Mlng Llnes fleeL has an average age of 7 years and Lhe oldesL shlp ls 18 years old. 1he shlps sall
, new ?ork and 8oLLerdam. normally
and ln some porLs Lhey have servlce conLracLs wlLh Lhe operaLors. ln for example kaohslung, Los
koma and 8oLLerdam Lhe company owns Lhe porL equlpmenL whlch lL uses.
?ang Mlng Llnes ls currenLly plannlng Lo bulld a new conLalner Lermlnal. ln Lhe new
Lermlnal ?ang Mlng Llnes are plannlng Lo uLlllze shore power for Lhe shlps ln porL. AnoLher aLLempL
porL. roblems wlLh regulaLlons and sLandards needs Lo be Laken care
ng company ?ang Mlng Llnes clalms LhaL for Lhe company Lo swlLch fuel from PlC Lo LnC
43

bunkerlng cosLs Lhan Lhe alLernaLlve fuels. 1he oLher scenarlo ls LhaL use of convenLlonal fuel wlll
resulL ln for example Lax expenses and LhaL a use of LnC wlll noL. 1o summarlze, for ?ang Mlng Llnes
as a shlpplng company Lo change fuel source, lL need Lo see a flnanclal galn from lL.

44

-- A8,/3,,8'*
1he followlng chapLer alms Lo brlng LogeLher Lhe resulLs of Lhe prevlous flve chapLers, Lechnology,
seaborne Lrade, shlp emlsslon & leglslaLlon, lnfrasLrucLure and Lhe case sLudy. 1he resulLs are belng
sLrucLured so LhaL concluslons can be drawn ln Lhe concluslon chapLer. 1hls dlscusslon chapLer also
lncludes a parL where Lhe meLhodology of Lhls Lhesls and Lhls pro[ecL ln general are belng dlscussed.
1hls parL ends wlLh an ouLlook and suggesLlons for furLher work.
1he world of shlpplng ls faclng sLrlcLer emlsslon regulaLlons ln Lhe comlng fuLure. 1he revlsed
MA8CL Annex vl sLlpulaLes a sulfur cap worldwlde from 2012 of 3.3. lor Lmlsslon ConLrol Areas
Lhe sulfur cap wlll from 2010 be 1 and from 2013 0,1 . ConvenLlonal shlp bunker such as heavy
fuel oll polluLes a loL. Marln ulesel Cll ls somewhaL beLLer buL wlll sLlll noL be posslble Lo use ln LCA:s
wlLhouL exhausL gas LreaLmenL when Lhe revlsed MA8CL Annex vl comes lnLo force. LnC ls
compared Lo PlC and MuC a very clean fuel. lL complles wlLh Lhe MA8CL regulaLlons and wlll be
posslble Lo use ln LCAs wlLhouL any exhausL gas LreaLmenL.
ln norway where LnC ls already used as shlp fuel for some shlps a nC
x
Lax ls belng charged by Lhe
governmenL. 1hls ls one of Lhe reasons why LnC has become a used fuel source ln Lhe counLry. lor
Chlna Lo lmplemenL such a Lax or Lo lmplemenL LCAs along lLs coasL ls noL very llkely ln Lhe near
fuLure. lmposlng Laxes on shlpplng could shlfL buslness away from Chlna and hence lnhlblL Lhelr
economlc growLh Chlna ls developlng and LhaL Lhey have economlc growLh as flrsL prlorlLy and
because of Lhls lL ls noL llkely LhaL Lhey wlll lmpose any envlronmenLal Lax. Lven lf Chlna doesn'L
lmplemenL LCA:s Lomorrow Lhey probably wlll evenLually, when oLher counLrles do. SomeLhlng LhaL
ls lmporLanL Lo remember ls LhaL when Chlna decldes Lo do someLhlng lL more or less happens
overnlghL.
Asla ls Lhe world's largesL seaborne Lrade area. ln LasL Asla conLalner feeder Lrafflc ls Lhe mosL
sulLable shlp class of slgnlflcanL slze for use of LnC as fuel source Loday. ln Asla dlfferenL feeder zones
exlsL around shlpplng hubs wlLh Lhe ma[or ones belng Lhe areas around Slngapore, Pong kong -
Shanghal-1alwan and korea- !apan. CreaL poLenLlal ls also seen ln rlver Lrafflc ln Chlna buL as Lhese
shlps are normally one-shlp famlly buslnesses and Lhey lack Lhe flnanclal sLrengLh Lo be forerunners
when lL comes Lo a change of englne Lechnology. lf or raLher when Lechnology and lnfrasLrucLure
makes ls feaslble Lo sall longer dlsLances on LnC also oLher shlp classes Lhan conLalner feeder shlps
wlll be poLenLlal LnC powered shlps.
1oday shlps are already salllng around ln norway fueled by LnC and more shlps are belng ordered. ln
Lhe fuLure, as more LnC fueled shlps are belng bullL and lnfrasLrucLure ls belng developed, Lhe prlce
of LnC Lechnology and bunker ls llkely Lo decrease. LnC ls bunkered Loday ln norway from Lruck and
flxed fllllng llnes. As soon as problems regardlng regulaLlons for barge fllllng are belng Laken care of
even more shlps wlll be poLenLlal shlps powered by LnC. 1oday lssues regardlng Lhe range exlsL for
shlps fueled by LnC. Awkward Lank shapes reduce cargo capaclLy whlch makes long voyages
expenslve for shlp owners. Already Lank manufacLurers are developlng new Lanks LhaL requlre less
space and soon we are llkely Lo see even more shlps as poLenLlal users of LnC as fuel source. When lL
comes Lo regulaLlons and safeLy sLandards Lhese already exlsL wlLh Lhe classlflcaLlon socleLles and
should pose any LhreaL Lo an expanslon of LnC use as shlp fuel.
A loL of naLural gas exlsLs ln Lhe world and LransporLlng lL ln llquefled form ls common. 1he maln
suppllers of LnC Lo LasL Asla are Lhe Mlddle LasL and AusLralla. lnfrasLrucLure for recelvlng LnC ln
43

LasL Asla already exlsL and more Lermlnals are proposed or under consLrucLlon. 1he naLural gas ls
Loday used ln LasL Asla for power generaLlon and Lo some exLenL for lndusLrlal purposes. no LnC
bunkerlng sLaLlons for shlps fueled by LnC exlsL Loday buL wherever recelvlng Lermlnals exlsL Lhe sLep
Lo bulld a bunkerlng sLaLlon ls noL far. ln area C, whlch ls looked aL a blL more closely ln Lhls pro[ecL, a
number of LnC recelvlng Lermlnals exlsL. 1hey are locaLed ln connecLlon Lo Lhe ma[or clLles ln Lhe
reglon buL are normally noL lnslde Lhe porLs. lor LnC Lo be fueled smooLhly bunkerlng sLaLlons would
need Lo be seL up closer Lo Lhe porLs ln Lhese clLles. 1he LnC Lhen has Lo be dlsLrlbuLed from Lhe
recelvlng Lermlnals Lo Lhe bunkerlng sLaLlons elLher vla plpellne or by a small carrler.
Looklng speclflcally aL area C and lLs conLalner feeder Lrafflc, subsLanLlal emlsslon reducLlons ls
posslble. lf a change Lo LnC as fuel source ls made Lo Lhe fleeL lnvesLlgaLed ln Lhls pro[ecL abouL
18 000 Lons of SC
x
, 23 000 Lons of nC
x
, 2 300 Lons of M and 290 000 Lons of CC
2
less could be
emlLLed. lf local Chlnese rlver vessels and oLher shlpplng segmenLs Lhan conLalner feeder Lrafflc was
Laken lnLo Lhe calculaLlon Lhe numbers would be much hlgher.
ln 1alwan keelung and kaohslung were lnvesLlgaLed wlLh regards Lo Lhelr sulLablllLy as bunkerlng
porLs for LnC. keelung ls a falrly small porL and Lhe clLy does noL use LnC ln any large scale. 8ecause
of Lhls keelung wlll probably noL be Lhe flrsL porL Lo esLabllsh a bunkerlng sLaLlon for LnC. kaohslung
on Lhe oLher hand boLh have a LnC Lermlnal close Lo Lhe porL and have plans Lo expand. 1hls and Lhe
facL LhaL LnC has been proposed as fuel for porL vehlcles makes kaohslung a poLenLlal LnC bunkerlng
sLaLlon. lor boLh clLles/porLs lnvesLlgaLed ln 1alwan a gas fear" could be noLed. eople are very
relucLanL Lo llve close Lo LnC sLorage faclllLles. Shlps are normally refueled ln porL whlle
loadlng/unloadlng. 1o Lake a deLour Lo fuel ls cosLly and hence Lhe gas fear" of Lhe 1alwanese
people ls someLhlng LhaL could pose a LhreaL Lo Lhe use LnC as fuel source for shlps ln Lhe area.
ln Pong kong and Shanghal LnC ls lmporLed for power generaLlon. 8oLh clLles are envlronmenLally
aware and are currenLly underLaklng varlous pro[ecLs wlLh envlronmenLal goals. Pong kong has
proposed a change of fuel for Lhe clLy owned vessels Lo lmprove Lhe alr quallLy ln Lhe clLy. 1he
MarlLlme ueparLmenL of Pong kong are lnLeresLed ln LnC as fuel source buL recognlzes problems
LhaL has Lo be solved before lL can become reallLy. Shanghal ls Chlnas green clLy and Lhe shlpplng
meLropolls of mlddle Chlna. lL has poLenLlal as a LnC bunkerlng porL due Lo lLs LnC supply, lLs vasL
conLalner Lermlnal and Lhe porLs deLachmenL from Lhe clLy cenLre. Chlna's declslveness when lL
comes Lo lmplemenLlng changes also makes Lhe counLry's blggesL porL lnLeresLlng ln a world where
more focus ls puL Lowards Lhe envlronmenL.
--C- O%($%/+8'* "*4 (32+?%2 X'20
1hls has been a very lnLeresLlng Lhesls Lo wrlLe. ln many ways lL has been rewardlng and even Lhough
lL was noL enLlrely clear ln Lhe beglnnlng how everyLhlng would play ouL, Lhe Lhesls came LogeLher ln
Lhe end.
WrlLlng Lhls masLer Lhesls has glven us a broad knowledge of many dlfferenL areas. We have now an
lnslghL ln how Lhe conLalner shlpplng dynamlcs work ln LasL Asla. We have also learned and have a
falr ldea of Lhe LnC as shlp fuel quesLlon, how far Lhe Lechnology has come Loday and whaL lssues
LhaL are connecLed Lo powerlng shlps wlLh LnC. AnoLher Lhlng Lhls Lhesls has LaughL us ls abouL Lhe
culLure of LasL Asla and abouL some of Lhe ma[or clLles and porLs Lhere.
46

1hls masLer Lhesls work has Lo a large exLenL been done on our own Lerms. lL had Lo be Lhls way slnce
we have been worklng ouL of 1alwan and our supervlsors have been slLLlng ln Scandlnavla. We have
had conLrol over whaL we were golng Lo do and how we were golng Lo do lL. We have had conLacL
wlLh Lhe unlverslLy and Lhe consLlLuenL unv when problems have emerged and Lo make sure LhaL we
have noL been Loo far of Lrack buL aparL from LhaL we have made all declslons ourselves. 1hls has
been rewardlng ln Lhe sense LhaL we really had Lo make sure we were producLlve and LhaL we were
able Lo presenL someLhlng lnLeresLlng ln Lhe end. 1he downslde of Lhls work seLup ls LhaL we
someLlmes have been sLuck on a problem wlLhouL Lhe posslblllLy Lo ask someone.
When Lhls pro[ecL sLarLed we had an amblLlous plan. ln reLrospecL we reallze LhaL our plan lndeed
was very amblLlous and LhaL lL was noL posslble Lo go lnLo deLall ln all Lhe parLs of Lhe pro[ecL. lnsLead
of focuslng on one parL we chose Lo keep our plan buL noL Lo go as deep lnLo each parL as our orlglnal
ldea was. 1he only parL we had planned buL dld noL flnlsh was an economlc sLudy from a shlp
owner's perspecLlve. 1he reason for noL lncorporaLlng Lhls lnLo our sLudy was lack of relevanL lnpuL
for Lhe Lask and essenLlally also lack of Llme. Pavlng flnlshed Lhls lnvesLlgaLlon lL feels llke each
chapLer of Lhls Lhesls could have been made a masLer Lhesls by lLself.
1o propose furLher work based on Lhe resulL of Lhls Lhesls ls qulLe sLralghL forward glven above
dlscusslon. Lach parL of Lhls pro[ecL could be lnvesLlgaLed more Lhoroughly. A seaborne Lrade analysls
of LasL Asla could be made LhaL lncorporaLe more shlp Lypes and wlLh more research focused on
local shlps. An envlronmenLal sLudy could be execuLed ln more deLall and wlLh more shlps lncluded.
AnoLher lnLeresLlng aspecL Lo look furLher aL ls Lhe porLs. A porL could be chosen and LhereafLer a
compleLe proposal made for an LnC bunkerlng sLaLlon. Also an lnvesLlgaLlon of how Lo consLrucL an
economlc lncenLlve for Lhe shlpplng lndusLry Lo change fuel Lo LnC ls of greaL lnLeresL.

47

48

-5 )'*/$3,8'*,
1he ob[ecLlve for Lhls Lhesls was Lo flnd ouL wbot ls tbe poteotlol fot lNC foeleJ sbott seo sblpploq lo
ost Aslo as well as Lo flnd ouL wbot ote tbe oecessoty cooJltloos fot o soccessfol lmplemeototloo
of lNC os foel sootce fot sbott seo sblpploq lo ost Aslo.
1here ls poLenLlal for LnC fueled shorL sea shlpplng ln LasL Asla for a number of reasons. llrsL of all
Lhe Lechnology already exlsLs, shlps are Loday salllng ln norway on LnC excluslvely. lurLher Lhe
seaborne Lrade ln Asla ln Lhe world's largesL. ln LasL Asla Lhere ls a loL of conLalner Lrafflc and around
Lhe blg shlpplng porLs a loL of feeder servlces are presenL. ConLalner feeder shlps are sulLable early
adopLers of LnC as fuel source due Lo Lhelr salllng paLLerns.
AnoLher Lhlng LhaL adds Lo LasL Asla's poLenLlal for LnC fueled shorL sea shlpplng ls LhaL LnC
lnfrasLrucLure already ls presenL ln Lhe area and LhaL more Lermlnals are proposed or under
consLrucLlon. Some of Lhe large shlpplng hubs, for example Shanghal, Pong kong and kaohslung have
recelvlng Lermlnals for LnC close by. uslng some of Lhls LnC Lo fuel shlps should be no problem.
8efore Lhe shlps salllng ln LasL Asla wlll sLarL uslng LnC as fuel source cerLaln condlLlons wlll need Lo
be fulfllled. ConLalner feeder shlps normally run on LlghL schedules and Lo be able Lo do Lhls
bunkerlng of Lhe shlps normally Lakes place whlle loadlng and dlscharglng. lor LnC Lo become a
fuLure fuel source for conLalner feeder shlps Lhere has Lo be procedures developed for LnC Lo be
bunkered whlle cargo ls belng loaded and dlscharged. A soluLlon LhaL lncorporaLes barge bunkerlng
seems promlslng and work ls currenLly belng done Lo make Lhls posslble. AnoLher condlLlon LhaL
would help LnC become a used fuel ln LasL Asla ls for Lhe people Lo develop a gas accepLance".
1oday some parLs of LasL Asla are very relucLanL Lo have gas sLorage close Lo resldenLlal areas. Many
porLs are slLuaLed close Lo resldenLlal areas and wlLh Lhe currenL aLLlLude wlLh Lhe people a change of
fuel source could be dlfflculL.
1he mosL lmporLanL condlLlon LhaL needs Lo be fulfllled before LnC wlll be a fuel source used by LasL
Aslan shlps ls an economlc one. 1here needs Lo be some klnd of lncenLlve Lo change from
convenLlonal fuel Lo LnC. ln norway a nC
x
Lax exlsL whlch makes lL proflLable for some shlp owners
Lo power Lhelr shlps wlLh LnC. When more and more shlps are runnlng on LnC and when Lhe LnC
markeL ls more developed, Lhe LnC englne Lechnology and perhaps also Lhe LnC ls llkely Lo become
cheaper. 8efore Lhen some lncenLlve needs Lo presenL Lo make LnC a feaslble cholce for Lhe shlp
owners. 1hls lncenLlve could be a Lax or some envlronmenLal requlremenL llke Lhe LCA LhaL has been
lmplemenLed ln norLhern Lurope and norLhern Amerlca. lor Chlna for example Lo do Lhls ln Lhe near
fuLure ls noL very llkely glven Lhe counLry's focus on economlc growLh.
1o summarlze, Lhere ls greaL poLenLlal for LnC as fuel source for shorL sea shlpplng ln LasL Asla.
1here are some problems LhaL need Lo be overcome before a fuel change can become reallLy. lf
Lurope sLarLs uslng LnC as fuel source for shlps, Lhen Lhe chances LhaL LasL Asla wlll follow are qulLe
blg. Pavlng sald Lhls lL ls lmporLanL Lo remember LhaL when someLhlng ls declded upon ln for
example Chlna, lL ls lmplemenLed very fasL.

49

30

-: O%(%2%*/%,
Arablabuslness.com, (2007). Ootot ot top of tbe lNC toble. !ason !. nash, Cxford 8uslness Croup on
1uesday, 26 !une 2007. [Cnllne] Avallable aL: hLLp://www.arablanbuslness.com/493237-qaLar-aL-Lop-
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lo tbe 8oltlc ooJ Nottb 5eos.
8loomberg.com, (2009). Cotqoo to Cet Offlclol Co-AbeoJ ltom cbevtoo Next week, l1 5oys. (10
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ue Meyera, . Maesa, l. volckaerL, A. (2007) Lmlsslons from lnLernaLlonal shlpplng ln Lhe 8elglan
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31

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ftom 5blps, 197J, os moJlfleJ by tbe ltotocol of 1978 telotloq tbeteto (MAklOl). [Cnllne] Avallable
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32

lnLernaLlonal MarlLlme CrganlzaLlon, (2007). Nottb 5eo 5cA lo effect ftom 22 Novembet 2007.
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39

I<<%*48Y . Z D8,+ '( <'2+,

L8CLn1 Cl 8Cu1LS nuM8L8 Cl C81 nAML Cl C81 C81 CALL l8LC L8CLn1 Cl l8LCuLnC? 1C1AL L8CLn1ACL
1,0 1 SlnCAC8L 68 8,2 8,2
1,9 2 kACCPunC 62 7,3 13,7
2,9 3 PCnC kCnC 43 3,2 20,9
3,8 4 kLLLunC 37 4,3 23,4
4,8 3 1AlCPunC 33 4,2 29,6
3,7 6 SPAnCPAl 32 3,9 33,3
6,7 7 1An!unC LLLAS 29 3,3 37,0
7,6 8 uALlAn 23 3,0 40,0
8,6 9 PC CPl MlnP 22 2,7 42,6
9,3 10 C81 kLAnC 20 2,4 43,0
10,3 11 CSAkA 20 2,4 47,3
11,4 12 LALM CPA8AnC 19 2,3 49,8
12,4 13 !AkA81A 19 2,3 32,1
13,3 14 kC8L 17 2,1 34,1
14,3 13 xlnCAnC 17 2,1 36,2
13,2 16 ClnCuAC 16 1,9 38,1
16,2 17 MAnlLA 13 1,8 39,9
17,1 18 1Ck?C 14 1,7 61,6
18,1 19 8uSAn 13 1,6 63,2
19,0 20 xlAMLn 13 1,6 64,7
20,0 21 nlnC8C 13 1,6 66,3
21,0 22 ?CkCPAMA 12 1,4 67,8
21,9 23 8AnCkCk 11 1,3 69,1
22,9 24 SPLkCu 11 1,3 70,4
23,8 23 CuAnZPCu 11 1,3 71,7
24,8 26 nACC?A 10 1,2 72,9
23,7 27 Su8A 8A?A 10 1,2 74,2
26,7 28 PAlPCnC 10 1,2 73,4
27,6 29 ?lnCkCu 10 1,2 76,6
28,6 30 nAnSPA 9 1,1 77,7
29,3 31 LlAn?unCAnC 9 1,1 78,7
30,3 32 PAkA1A 8 1,0 79,7
31,4 33 PuAnCu 8 1,0 80,7
32,4 34 MC!l 7 0,8 81,3
33,3 33 ?An1lAn 7 0,8 82,4
34,3 36 SLMA8AnC 7 0,8 83,2
33,2 37 luZPCu 7 0,8 84,1
36,2 38 8LLAWAn 6 0,7 84,8
37,1 39 LnAnC 3 0,6 83,4
38,1 40 CL8u 3 0,6 86,0
39,0 41 SlPAnCukvlLLL 3 0,6 86,6
40,0 42 ASl8 CuuAnC 4 0,3 87,1
41,0 43 AlCPl 4 0,3 87,6
41,9 44 Pl8CSPlMA 4 0,3 88,0
42,9 43 SCnCkPLA 4 0,3 88,3
43,8 46 1lAn!ln 4 0,3 89,0
44,8 47 ?An1Al 4 0,3 89,3
43,7 48 kWAnC?AnC 3 0,4 89,9
46,7 49 kuAn1An 3 0,4 90,2
47,6 30 SPAn1Cu 3 0,4 90,6
48,6 31 ZPAn!lAnC 3 0,4 90,9
49,3 32 PAlkCu 3 0,4 91,3
30,3 33 !lnZPCu 3 0,4 91,7
31,4 34 An!AnC 3 0,4 92,0
32,4 33 ClnCPuAnCuAC 3 0,4 92,4
33,3 36 Su8lC 8A? 3 0,4 92,8
v
60

34,3 37 SPlMlZu 2 0,2 93,0
33,2 38 ku1A klnA8ALu 2 0,2 93,2
36,2 39 MAlLlAC 2 0,2 93,3
37,1 60 CA1 LAl 2 0,2 93,7
38,1 61 !lAnC?ln 2 0,2 94,0
39,0 62 kuCPlnC 2 0,2 94,2
60,0 63 MuA8A 2 0,2 94,4
61,0 64 nAn!lnC 2 0,2 94,7
61,9 63 nllCA1A 2 0,2 94,9
62,9 66 1CMAkCMAl 2 0,2 93,2
63,8 67 ZPAnCZPCu 2 0,2 93,4
64,8 68 lnCPLCn 1 0,1 93,3
63,7 69 uAvAC 1 0,1 93,7
66,7 70 uA nAnC 1 0,1 93,8
67,6 71 ?CkkAlCPl 1 0,1 93,9
68,6 72 CACA?An uL C8C 1 0,1 96,0
69,3 73 CPlWAn 1 0,1 96,1
70,3 74 CLnL8AL SAn1CS 1 0,1 96,3
71,4 73 PCSCSPlMA 1 0,1 96,4
72,4 76 nAPA 1 0,1 96,3
73,3 77 SPl8uSPl 1 0,1 96,6
74,3 78 8ACCLCu 1 0,1 96,7
73,2 79 lukCPCkA 1 0,1 96,9
76,2 80 luClnC 1 0,1 97,0
77,1 81 PACPlnCPL 1 0,1 97,1
78,1 82 lWAkunl 1 0,1 97,2
79,0 83 !lu!lAn 1 0,1 97,3
80,0 84 kAMCnC SACM 1 0,1 97,3
81,0 83 LA8uAn 1 0,1 97,6
81,9 86 LCnCkCu 1 0,1 97,7
82,9 87 ML8Ak 1 0,1 97,8
83,8 88 Ml8l 1 0,1 97,9
84,8 89 Ml?ACl 1 0,1 98,1
83,7 90 nAn1CnC 1 0,1 98,2
86,7 91 Cl1A 1 0,1 98,3
87,6 92 ALLM8AnC 1 0,1 98,4
88,6 93 Cn1lAnAk 1 0,1 98,6
89,3 94 8lZPAC 1 0,1 98,7
90,3 93 SAnuAkAn 1 0,1 98,8
91,4 96 SLnuAl 1 0,1 98,9
92,4 97 Sl8u 1 0,1 99,0
93,3 98 1AWAu 1 0,1 99,2
94,3 99 1C?AMA 1 0,1 99,3
93,2 100 WLlPAl 1 0,1 99,4
96,2 101 WLS1C81 1 0,1 99,3
97,1 102 WuPAn 1 0,1 99,6
98,1 103 ?LCSu 1 0,1 99,8
99,0 104 ?WAkunl 1 0,1 99,9
100,0 103 ZPAnC!lACAnC 1 0,1 100,0
828
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61

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B - Potential and Conditions For LNG Fuelled Short Sea Shipping in East Asia (LNG As Bunker)

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B - Potential and Conditions For LNG Fuelled Short Sea Shipping in East Asia (LNG As Bunker)

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oLenLlal and condlLlons for LnC fueled shorL sea shlpplng

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