UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION III

COURSE CODE: CEC211 YEAR II- SE MESTER 1THEORY/PRACTICAL

CEC 211
Civil Engineering Construction III

INDEX WEEK 1 1.0 VARIOUS PROCESSES AND SEQUENCE OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

1.1 1.2 Introduction Importance of engineering survey in route location of highway

WEEK 2

1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Engineering Survey Setting out cross section and profiles Right of way Bush clearing and felling of trees Spoil and hauling of materials

WEEK 3

1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 1.12

Processes for the blasting of rocks Setting out Setting out culvert and bridge Procedures for setting out target and curves procedure for carrying out earth works such as; cutting and filling sub grade

WEEK 4

SITE VISIT TO SEE THE PROCESSES OF BLASTING ROCKS

1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 Borrow Pits, Uses and control Relevance of side drains compaction Thickness requirement for sub base Relevance in site test for sub base Camber and super elevation

WEEK 5

WEEK 6

1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26

Soil stabilisation Stone base macadam Priming Sand curing Surface dressing and surface treatment Asphaltic concrete for high wheel road component of asphaltic concrete Marshall stability for asphaltic concrete Different between binder course and surface

WEEK 7

course

WEEK 8

1.27

Students activity

WEEK 9

1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31

Use of concrete in rigid pavement

Use of culverts Use of drifts Different between culvert and bridge

WEEK 10

2.0

VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Relevant equipment used in highway constructions

WEEK 11

2.2

Relevant equipment used in highway engineering

WEEK 12
engineering

2.3

Relevant equipment used in highway

WEEK 13

3.0

SAFETY DEVICES REQUIRED DURING HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Diversion in highway construction Safety provision often highway construction Foot bridge and pedestrians walkways Use of crash barriers in difficult terrain

WEEK 14

4.0

ROAD FURNITURE ON COMPLETION OF HIGHWAY

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Road sign Kilometre Post Traffic light Utility ducts

WEEK 15

4.5

Site visitation

WEEK 1 1.0 PROCESSES AND SEQUENCE OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

1.1 Introduction The location of a new major road can require consideration of many complex and interrelated factors, which normally utilize the skills of economists, geologists, planners and surveyors as well as those of road engineers regarding traffic volumes and desires, the planning intentions within the area to be transverse and preliminary estimates of the anticipated design of the proposed road. Whatever the locate being considered, location surveys provide fundamental information for the economic, environmental and social analyses which have major influences on the final location of the new road as well as its geometric and structural design.

1.2

Importance of engineering surveying in route location of highways Once the need for a new highway or for improvement of the existing facility is justified, the approach to selecting an appropriate route involves a variety of surveys and investigation. Engineering surveys are very important because if not carried out properly, the deficiencies in selected alignment, specification and design are likely to surface during execution and changes at that stage will involve delay, extra cost and contractual complications. Also engineering surveys has a strong favorable influence on the cost of the project as it enables a number of alternatives to be examined and thereby making it possible to select the most appropriate solution. This is only possible if exhaustive surveys are carried out. There are various types of surveys that are required for finalization of the alignment, but certain basic considerations have to be taken into account in respect of the project as a whole. These factors are:

1.

Straight route: the highways should be direct as possible between the cities to be linked as this will result in economy in construction, maintenance and operational cost.

2.

Good sight distance: the ability of the driver for safe driving over a particular stretch of road to a very large extent depends on the length of the road visible to him clear of objects while driving. The minimum distance should be such that from the instance of observing an obstacle to the instance of just eroding near it, the driver should be in a position to stop the vehicles without collision.

3.

Easy grades and curves. The gradient not sharper than the limiting values specified foe different types of terrain. Excess of either of both may result in economy of initial cost, but will involve extremely high operation costs, time costs and accident costs.

4.

Availability of road building materials: the availability of stones, gravels and sands brings down the cost of construction as well as maintenance.

5.

The location should have the least impact on the environment including fauna, flora and drainage system.

6.

Location should minimize the use of agricultural land, if a road exists, it may be advisable to make use of the land already available to the maximum extent.

7.

Location should be located as far as possible along the edges of the properties rather than through them.

8.

Locations should stay clear of obstruction such as cemeteries, places of worship, historical monuments e.t.c

9.

Villages and towns should be as far as possible be bypassed as alignment through them increase traffic hazards, congestion and pollution.

10.

Frequent crossing and re-crossing of the railway lines should be avoided. Intersection at grade with railway lines should also be avoided.

WEEK 2
1.3 Engineering surveys Before finalizing the alignment of a highway, engineering surveys must be carried out. The surveys are generally completed in four stages as follows: Desk study Reconnaissance survey Preliminary survey Final location survey Desk Study This is the first step carry out in engineering survey. This involves studying the topographic map of the area and the likely route of the road may be marked on it. This sheet gives the contours, drainage features, existing roads, other communication facilities, villages and towns. This now will serve as valuable data source. The following is a useful general check list of the types of information that might be gathered for the desk study:

Desk study I. General land survey (a) (b) (c) Location of the site on published maps and charts Dated air photographs Site boundaries outlines of structures and building lines

(d) (e) (f) 1.

Ground contours and natural drainage lines Position of survey stations and benchmarks For appropriate meteorological information.

Permitted use of restrictions: planning and statutory restrictions applying to a particular area e.g. mines area, scientific interest area.

2.

Grounds conditions (a) geological maps (b) flooding, erosion, landslide and subsidence history.

3.

Sources of material for constructions: (a) natural materials, tips and waste materials (c) imported materials.

4.

Drainage and sewage (a) name of sewage, land drainage and other authorities concerned.

5.

Waste supply: name of the authorities concerned and their bylaws. (b) Pressure characteristics of the main e.t.c. Reconnaissance survey After the desk study, a quick visit over the area is made to seek discrete evaluation and answers to queries of an environmental or hydro geological nature is made.

a.

Direct observation is made in order to fill in omissions in the information gathered during the desk study, so as to delimit corridor areas that are obviously unsuitable. The main objective of this survey is to examine the physical characteristics of the area for determining the most feasible route or routes for further detailed investigations. The data collected should be adequate to examine the feasibility of all different routes. Reconnaissance survey could be done in the following sequence

b. c.

Aerial reconnaissance where necessary and feasible. Ground reconnaissance: The aerial recess provides a birds eye view of the alignments under consideration along with the surrounding area. It will help to identify factors with may be helpful with rejection and of any of the alignments. another advantage of the aerial also

modification

photograph is that the

locals would not known anything about the proposed construction till the route

has been finally approved by the government and detailed survey for marking the alignment on the ground is started. Ground recess starts with field inspection by walking or riding along the probable routes located as a result of the map study. All information of value either in design, construction, maintenance or operation necessary for evaluating the merits and demerits of each probable route is collected. In this survey, generally, following instruments are used. a. b. c. d. e. Compass Abney level or altimeter Pedometer Aneroid Clinometers Chat tracer

In difficult terrain walkie talkie sets are useful. During this survey the following gives the points on which data should be collected. 1. Details of rotes i.e. topography of the area whether plain, rolling mountainous or steep. 2. 3. 4. 5. Length of the road along various alternatives. Geometric (gradient, curves, hair pin bands e.t.c) Bridging requirement (nos, length) Terrain and soil condition-geology of the area, nature of the soil, drainage conditions. 6. 7. 8. 9. Existing means of communication, mule, path, jeep, cart track e.t.c. Right of way available Characteristics of the area e.g. susceptibility to flooding. Climate conditions- temperature monthly maximum readings, rainfall-peak intensity, average annual and monthly distribution e.t.c. 10. Resource and facilities such as landing ground, foodstuffs, labor locally available and need for import, construction materials, and their availability of local contractors. 11. Value of land: agricultural land, irrigated land, built-up land, forest land e.t.c.

12. 13. 14.

Approximate cost of construction of various alternatives. Period required for construction. economic factors: a. b. c. Population served by the alignment. Marketing centers Agricultural and economic potential of the area.

Upon completion of the recce survey, sufficient information is then available which when taken in combination with the economic, environment, planning, social and traffic inputs enable the selection of one or more feasible routes. The results of this analysis are presented in a reconnaissance report. In its barest essentials, this report describes all relevant information collected and a plan on the scale of 1:50,000 showing alternative alignments studied with their general profile and rough cost estimate. Merits and demerits of different alternative is also discussed to help the selection of one or more alignments for detailed survey.

Preliminary survey The preliminary survey is a large scale study of one or more feasible routes within a corridor. The purpose of the preliminary survey is to eliminate all but the final alignment for the proposal and collecting all physical all physical information that may affect the location of the proposed road way. It results in a paper location that defines the line for the subsequent final location survey the base line transverse are established for the tentatively accepted route or routes recommended in the recess report. This transverse consists of series of straight lines and deflation angles that approximately follows the recommended lines. The base line transverse is stationed continuously from the beginning to the end of the survey. Every angle point should be reference to at least two points outside the area likely to be occupied by the road construction. To furnish data for a profile of the base line, levels are at least taken at all marked stations as well as important breaks in ground. The elevations at crossroads, stream and other critical points on the line are also determined.

10

Based on the survey data, a preliminary survey strip map of the proposed route is developed. The minimum information shown on this map includes all tangents and all natural and manmade surface and subsurface features that might affect the selection of the paper alignment e.g the location of all fences, properties and buildings The drawing will enable the centerline to be selected on paper in the office so that the it best fit the topography whilst meeting the intended traffic service requirement.

Preliminary survey

Final location survey The result of preliminary survey leads to the selection of the final alignment which is the position of the center of the highway on the ground. Final location survey involves fixing the final, permanent, center line of the road, while at the same time gathering the additional physical data need to complete the highway design, construction, specifications, estimated quantities and schedule for land acquisition purposes. The center line (including all curves) is translated on the ground continuous transit survey and pegging at the same time. The center line that is pegged during final location survey should closely follow the paper location on the preliminary survey map conforming as much as possible to important control point. Suitable

11

reference (at least two) should be marked permanently on the ground. The center line should be staked at 50m interval in plain terrain and 20m intervals in hilly terrain, bench marks should be left permanently at 250m intervals.

Final location survey 1.4 Setting out cross - section and profiles After the center line has been marked on the ground, cross section levels is then taken at right angles on both sides, on the center line locations previously leveled. The cross-sections are taken at 50m-100m interval as well as all sections where there is change in grade, topography. The section should cover the entire road land as well as anticipated lands temporary to be acquired for borrow pits. Profile elevations of each intersecting roads is also taken for appropriate distance on both sides of to establish its existing grade line and also to show the effect of any changes in the road line intersection. All ditches and streams within the area of construction should also be carefully located with respect to the pegged centerline, and their profile elevations taken upstream and downstream. Usually about 60m will be enough.

Profile Elevation

12

1.5

Right of way (R.O.W) Before the physical execution of any highway is taken up, it is necessary the concerned highway authority should have required legal right over the area which is to form the permanent road land as well as the strip of land which is to be temporarily acquired primarily for borrowing earth materials during construction. The term right of the way is used to indicate the area of land acquired along alignment by the highway authorities. The acquisition is done by either paying compensation for private property acquired or by arranging transfer of land in the case of the same belonging to other departments or industries of the garment. The final location of survey normally brings out full and detailed particulars of the area to be acquired.

1.6

Bush clearing and felling of trees The first sequence in road construction project is the clearing of the site which involves bush clearing, felling of trees and removal of stumps. The approach of clearing the site involves the use of earth moving machines like the bulldozer which is used to clear the site of trees and stumps by pushing the tree, while the rooter or ripper is used to fell down trees by driving its teeth into the ground to loosen and pull out roots of trees. The scraper also digs pull out stumps and picks its load by scraping the ground and then transport the material out of the site.

1.7

Spoil and hauling of materials

Whatever may be the type of pavement required for a highway, the preparation of the formation involves two primary operations namely embankment and excavation. Ideally the selection of optimum horizontal and vertical alignment should result in the volume of material excavated within the limit of the road scheme being equal to the amount of the full required in embankment, so that there is no need to waste good materials or import expensive materials elsewhere. In engineering practice it might not be always possible as some excavated

13

materials might be unsuitable for the use of embankment, therefore they have to be discharged or wasted. When this is done it is called spoil. Surplus earth is also thrown into the spoil bank. Hauling of materials: this entails bringing of excavated materials from borrow pits, or dumping of surplus earth into spoil banks from adjourning areas to the highway to or from the site. The product of the amount of excavation and the distance which it is moved is known as haul. It involves loading and unloading excavated materials.

ASSIGNMENT: Write briefly on the following instruments used during Reconnaissance survey (a) (b) (c ) (d) (e) Abney level Pedometer Pedometer Clinometers Chat tracer

14

WEEK THREE 1.8 Processes for the blasting of rocks Blasting is the process of breaking mass of rock into pieces using explosives. The purpose of blasting is to loosen the rock by not violently blowing up the whole mass causing the breakage of stone into smaller pieces of no use. After loosening the rock by explosives, this large-size stones are then crushed into smaller size stones are then crushed into the smaller sizes. The processes of blasting consist of the following operations: 1. 2. 3. 4. Drilling holes Filling/explosive Temping Firing

Holes are drilled by one of the following methods: a. b. Jumper Percussion

The normal explosive used is dynamite of about 40%-- 60% or galantine which is waterproof jellylike dynamite. Detonators are used for charging. Dynamite ordinarily is available in cartridges. Process of blasting with dynamite Holes about 60cm up to 2m in depth and 2.5cm diameter or 2m to 3.5m depth of 4cm or 3.5m to 5m depth 5cm to 6cm are drilled. The depth of the hole should be about the same as the length of the line of least resistance. The distance apart the holes should be from 1.5 to 2 times the depth. The charge should then be placed not nearer than 30cm to a crack or fissure square cut one end of the fuse is pushed into a detonator till it touches the white fulminate within it. A dynamite cartridge used for priming is then opened at one end and the detonator gently pushed into the dynamite leaving about one-third of the copper tube exposed outside the paper of cartridge is then closed up and securely bond with wire or twine to prevent dislocation of the detonator. The operation is then quickly retired to safe distance and detonator the dynamite. If it is desired to shatter the rock, close connection

15

between the dynamite and the rock is essential and the point of contact should be as much as possible. Other explosives that could be used are: a. b. c. gin powder or blasting powder gin cotton or blasting cotton cordite

Processes of blasting rocks

Blasting of rocks

1.9

Setting out Setting out is the field work required for marking out on the ground, the positions of some engineering work which is proposed to be carry out and position of which has been drawn upon the survey plan, which was previously prepared.

16

A road would require its center line to be marked on the ground with great accuracy, by pegs driven into the ground every 20m, each of these stations being marked with a peg, end the chain age is carried on continuously along the straight and round curves. Setting out is performed with the use of the theodolite and chain or steel tape and on the each chain length when a change in the direction of the straights the pegs and fixed and the each chain length. When a change in the direction of the straight occurs, a peg must be fixed to mark the intersection of the straight. At this point of intersection, a curve has been introduced to ease the running at the intersection angle. The operation of setting involves a party of level men starting from the beginning and proceeds to take levels of each chain point and the tangent points of the curves.

1.10

Setting out culvers and bridges This is done by marking and pegging out the area of the bridge or culvert will occupy at intervals. The cross-selection along the centre line of the proposed bridge at 3m interval for a distance of 15m beyond the highway line both upstream and downstream are taken. The x sectional area should be large enough to include all proposed construction such as abutments and other river training works. Profile of the stream bed is taken at 150m upstream and at downstream elevation is taking at every 7.5m intervals or at shorter distances. In the case of culvert, if batter pegs giving the position of the toe of the slope of the embankment have already been set out, the position in the centre of the stream are taken, pegs marking the line of the inside face walls at the end culverts are noted. These points are at the center of the invert of the culvert and the levels would be determined by running a line of level down the center of the stream and finding the rate of fall.

1.11

Procedures for setting out tangent and curves. Curves are normally provided to change the direction in gradient way when two straight alignments meet at an intersection in horizontal or vertical plane. The change in alignment is necessitated for the following reasons:-

17

a. b. c.

Topography of the country To provide access to a particular locality To avoid certain land or structure not acquirable such as religious and monumental places

d. e.

Preservation of existing amenities To break the monotony and mental strain on driver when a long stretch of

road is to be provided and also to stop the driver from speeding. There are two kinds of curves horizontal and vertical curves. The horizontal curves allow change in direction of the pavement or road. It is a curve in plan provided to the direction of the centerline of the pavement of the road. Vertical curve is provided when there is a change in grade i.e. where two contrary gradient meet, the alignment are connected by a curve to smoothen out the vertical profile. Curves and tangents are set by offset from standard chord. When the location of a road is made straights were set out end taped, this location is composed by a number of straight lines, like a transverse, intercepting each other in succession at points. It may then be required to put curves between each of the straights. This can be illustrated by the diagram below.

18

An arbitrary starting point is chosen and running chainage is counted along the center line of the road. Pegs are then put in at every 100m on a straight. Pegs on curves may be placed at various intervals depending on the length of the tape, but usually at 20m intervals. External angle (E) is then measured by a theodolite. Chainage at intersection (I) is also measured. Now the length of tangent BI=T has to be calculated from T=R tan 1/2E Chainage at B will be equal to chainage at I-T A peg is now placed on the straight at the point B by taping back from point J. the point C is also located along the straight in a similar way since BI=CI=T (T=tangent) Next is to calculate the total length of the curve L from L=RE Where angel E is a radians, remember E is the external angle. Hence the chainage of C taken round the curve from B will be chainage at B+ length of curve Next the angle subtended at the center of the curve by a chord length of 20m is calculated The angle is obtained from this expression. Sin1/2 =C/2R Thus =C/2R *2 And this gives the deflection angle. 1.12 Procedure for carrying out earthworks such as cutting and filling sub grade The execution of the new highway construction, involves earthwork. Earthwork mainly consist of the preparing the sub grade to bring it to a suitable grade and comber by compacting it adequately to withstand the subsequent loads, the sub grade may be either in excavation or embankment, depending on the topography and finalized alignment of the road. Excavation (cut) refers to excavation in cutting down to formation level for the new highway, this excavated materials then being carted to adjacent areas where the formation is to be above the natural ground level and where fill is required to form an embankment up to the necessary formation level. Embankment therefore is when the grade line of a highway is required to be raised above the existing ground level.

19

Procedure of fill for embankment The filling operation for embankment involves the use of stakes and string profile by fixing them at certain distances across the road stakes profile consist of the vertical bamboo poles fixed vertically at the two ends of the formation width of the road. The slope or the gradient having been established, the string is then tied to the bamboos and slope pegs. The height of the horizontal string shows the height of the embankment, while sloping string represent the side slopes. The earth is then filled between the strings and rolled by roller machine to minimize air void.

20

The sub grade is compacted in the layers of the lift of 150mm by rolling with a road roller or compacting machine weighing not less than 5400kg. Water should be applied at slightly above the O.M.C uniformly to the sub grade, a day prior to rolling in amount as directed. AASHO recommend minimum density requirement for embankment compaction as 95%. Granular soils should be compacted as 95100% modified. AASHO density. Fine grained soil possessing low degree of plasticity should be compacted to approximately 100% of standard AASHO at moisture content near laboratory optimum. DOT specified layer thickness and number of passes of compaction to be used with each type of material and equipment, 4to12 passes maximum thickness 300mm. Good compaction increases bearing capacity and slope stability, reduces settlements and undesirable volume changes Procedure for cutting (excavation) The method is the same as for embankment but the position level makes the operation to be the reverse of the embankment.

21

Depth of cutting=d. the side slopes having been decided upon say 1, . A very common slope used, but depending upon the nature of the material to be excavated. The surface along the section of the cutting is level. Stakes are fixed with the slope stakes and steps taken as for embankment.

22

WEEK FOUR
SITE VISIT TO SEE THE PROCESSES OF BLASTING ROCKS Students will be expected to write: 1. A comprehensive essay report, not less than 1000 words. 2. Draw diagram from their observations. 3. Submit report a week after site visitation

23

WEEK FIVE
1.13 Choice of borrow pits, uses and control Borrow pits: this is a pit formed on temporary roads, due to the excavation of the earth materials. Borrow is normally elevated than the natural soil (lateral hill). It is from this that materials that could be used for road construction are obtained. It could be within the construction or adjacent site. The choice of borrow pits depends on the quantities of volume of earthwork that could be obtained and utilized as road materials. This could be estimated by calculating roughly by using either l*b and height or if it is cone using it formula. Control could be done by visual inspection, to determine if it is coarse, grained or fine grained. Digging of trial pit and taking the samples to the laboratory for tests to determine whether the properties of the material meet the recommended standard.

1.14

Relevance of side drains compaction Excess water which is precipitated as rain, hail, snow or sleet is the enemy of earthwork foundation, pavement and traffic. Consequently proper surface drainage design is an essential and integrals part of economic road design. Surface drainages deals with the disposal of water from the roadway. The water is normally disposed off from the road by cambering the road surface, sloping the shoulders and providing side drains. The basic functions of the side drains are to collect the water from the carriage way through the shoulders and the surrounding area. Te different types of side drain are trapezoidal and triangular in shape. Depending on the intensity of the rainfall, the x-section is trapezoidal and where the rainfall is less it is triangular in shape. Side drains are provided generally parallel to the highway; hence they are also called longitudinal drains. Side drains could be lined or unlined.

24

When the road is an embankment, It is common practice to allow the surface water to flow across the shoulders and down the slopes to the side drains, but due care has to be taken so that erosion of the side slopes does not take place. One of the methods of protecting the side slopes is to retain water at the outer edge of the shoulder in the longitudinal v-shaped drains and then disposed off at suitable points to the natural ground by means of paved drains.

25

1.15

Thickness required for sub base, their compaction and relevance in situ tests. Sub base: this is the layer laid directly after the formation (sub grade) and is normally laid when the bearing capacity of the sub grade is not likely to withstand the load. Sub base is a layer of selected materials which could be of type 1 which compose of crushed rocks or concretes or well burnt shale and mat contain up to 12.5% by mass of natural sand that passes 5mm B.S sieve on sub grades with CBR of 5-15% and >15% for pavement with low trafficked roads. In the case of heavily trafficked roads type 2 sub base materials which also include gravel and natural sand may be used instead of type 1, provided the plasticity index does not exceed and its CBR is 30% or more. Both types of sub base materials are often brought on site by trucks, spread by motor grade and compacted with vibrating rollers. Type 1 is assumed to be free draining and no moisture content is specified for its compaction, type 2 is compacted to 5% air voids at its optimum moisture content. The materials are compacted in 110mm and 150mm layer. The recommended layer compacted thickness for type 1 and 2 materials is 225mm; min=150mm.

26

Granular sub base compaction

The relevant in situ tests for compaction are by determining the moisture content of the soil and also the field density. These could be achieved by: for moisture content- needle penetration test. for the density- core cutter method and sand replacement method.

Needle penetration test This test is carried out by a proctor needle indicates depth of penetration with a least count of 12mm. A sample of wet soil is taken from the field and compacted in a standard compaction mould and its penetration is noted by forcing the needle. The penetration resistance is noted in the laboratory corresponding to various moisture content and the end of each compaction and calibrated curves is plotted for determination of OMC. The resistance measured by forcing the needle into compacted soil in the proctors mould at the rate of 12mm per second up to a minimum depth of 7.2cm. Once the resistance to the penetration is known, the moisture content of the soil is determined from the calibrated curve.

27

Other in situ tests for moisture content determination include; X Time domain reflectometry X Speedy moisture tester X Soil moisture capacitance probe TDR involves the determination of the propagation of the velocity of an electromagnetic pulse sent down a forklike probe installed in the soil. The velocity is determined by measuring the time taken for the pulse to travel down the probe and be reflected back from its end. By measuring the time taken by the pulse, the moisture content of the soil can be established around the probe. Trace

Probe

Time Domain Reflectometry Probe

28

Speedy moisture tester The standard method for checking density of soil at construction site (that is in site) as mentioned above are i. Core cutter method: this is used in soft cohesive soil. The cutter is of 10cm diameter and 11cm high steel dolly. The volume of the cutter is calculated from internal diameter and its actual weight without dolly is measured. The cutter is pressed into the soil and the dolly is placed above the cutter and is gently rammed. Further ramming is stopped when the top of the dolly is flushed with the surface. The cutter is then removed from the ground. Both the cutter and soil and then weighed. Knowing the weight and the diameter of the cutter, the bulk density of the soil can then be obtained.

Handle

Mild steel base Dolly Cutter

130mm
100mm

dia.

Core Cutter for Clay Soil 29

ii.

Sand replacement method The apparatus used in this method is a cylinder or a graduated glass jar filled with sand passing between 300cm and 600cm. A small hole about 10cm diameter and 150mm deep is dug and the mass of the excavated materials is carefully determined. Sand from the cylinder is then poured into holes and the weight of the sand required to fill the hole is determined, knowing the weight of sand in the container before and after the test, the weight of the sand in the hole is this determined. The bulk density of the sand being known, volume of the sand used in filling the hole; hence volume of the hole is measured or determined.

1.17

Camber and super elevation Camber is defined as the slope of line joining the crown and the edge of the road surface. It is also referred to as cross fall or cross slope or transverse slope. Usually camber is constructed in the road by raising the centre of the carriage way wit respect to the edges forming highest points at the center. It is mainly provided for drainage and quick disposal of rain water from the road surface. It is either elliptical or parabolic. Camber therefore, prevent the entry of water or moisture

30

into the sub grade and thus the stability of the road base and weary cover is increased. The removal of water from road surface makes it non slippery and safe for driving of vehicles on high speed. The rate of camber depends upon the amount of rainfall and the type of pavement surface. The smoother the surface of the pavement, the flatter should be camber. The too steep camber causes the following undesirable effect: ii. Uncomfortable sides thrust and drag on the steering of he automobile, and excessive trust of the wheel along the pavement edges causing unequal wears of tyres. iii. During overtaking operation excessive camber causes discomfort to the occupants. Te recommended camber values for different types of road surfaces are as follows: a. b. c. high type bituminous surfacing or cement concrete=1 in 60 to 1 in 50 bituminous surfacing 1 in 50 to 1 in 40 water bound macadam, gravel 1 in 40 to 1 in 33 or earth 1 in 33 to 1 in 25 in the field, cambering may be checked with the help of template or camber board. Types of Cambers

31

Super elevation This is the inner tilt given to the cross section of a road on a horizontal curve. It reduces the effect of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle on the curve. On curves there is a tendency for the vehicle to fall away from the outer portion of the curve due to the existence of the centrifugal force, to overcome this effect of curvature an inner tilt is provided, by raising the outer edge in respect to the inner edge it is expressed as the rate between the difference of height of the outer edge and the inner edge of the carriage and the width of the carriage. Example if a carriage is 15m wide and the level of the outer edge is 0.5m above that of the inner edge, that means a super elevation of 1 in 30. The following are advantages of providing super elevation: i. ii. iii. iv. Higher speed without danger of over tarring. Increased volume of traffic. Maintenance is reduced; otherwise there will be wearing on the outside wheels. The water can drain off easily; therefore, there is no necessity of proving gutter on the outer edge of the road.

Class Activity; Why does compaction of stone base normally begin at the edges and not at the center

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WEEK SIX
1.18 Soil stabilization Soil stabilization is the process of treating natural soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter or improve the performance of the soil as construction material. It could be done in site or after the soil has been removed and placed in the pavement or embankment. The changes in the soil properties are brought about either by incorporation of additives or by mechanical blending of different soil types. The availability of good cheap supplies of aggregates is limited and as such greater attention is been paid to the materials such as stabilized soils to meet road construction needs. Purposes of stabilization i. To improve the strength of sub bases, bases and in the case of low cost roads, surface course. ii. iii. To bring about economy in the cost of a road. To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are otherwise inferior. iv. To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such as excessive swelling or shrinkage, high plasticity, difficulty in compaction e. t.c v. vi. vii. viii. ix. To control dust. To reduce frost susceptibility. To increase the load bearing capacity. To reduce compressibility and thereby settlement. To improve permeability characteristics. In practice the main method by which soils are stabilized for road purposes are: By mechanical stabilization By chemical stabilization Mechanical stabilization is the process whereby the stability of the soil is increased by blending the available soil with imported soil or aggregate so as to obtain a desired particle size distribution and by compacting the mixture to a desired density. Compacting a soil at appropriate moisture content is itself a form

33

of mechanical stabilization. Mechanical stabilization is achieved by intelligently blending locally occurring materials so as to obtain a desired grading. It is that a dense, well-graded mass offers high resistance to lateral displacement under a load. If the well-graded material is compacted, densification of the mass takes place. The mechanical strength of the mass is due to the internal friction and the cohesion. Internal friction is supplied by the coarser particles whereas cohesion is due to the clay fractions. The application of the principle of the mechanical stabilization is evident in the following specifications: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Soil-aggregate mixtures Sand-clay mixtures Sand-gravel mixtures Stabilization of soil with soft aggregates.

Chemical stabilization is a general term implying the use of chemicals such as lime, cement, sodium silicate, calcium chloride, bituminous materials and resinous materials for bringing about stabilization. It is normally achieved by mixing the chemicals to the soil.

1.19

Stone base (macadam) as alternative base material. The term macadam designate a road base in which clean broken or crushed stone uses mechanically locked by rolling and bonded by stone screenings which are worked into the voids and set with water. Road bases in major roads are now normally bound with bitumen or cement. In lightly trafficked rural roads, however, it is common unbound macadam road bases to be used in pavements. Aggregates used in these macadam road bases are most usually non-flakey crushing rock or gravel or crushed slag. All primarily rely for their strength and resistance to deformation upon the interlocking of individual crushed particles and upon the friction between the rough surfaces in contact. The combination of tightly keyed coarse aggregate bond with stone chips and dust creates a base course equally as good as other untreated bases. Compaction is normally begin at

34

the edges are carried out parallel to the centerline so as to lock the outer stones, and then extend progressively towards the centre. The materials are normally spread evenly at the site, and either smooth wheeled or rubber tyred rollers are used for compaction. The compacted layers should not be move than 150mm deep. If vibratory rollers are use, then single layers of up to 255mm compacted thickness can be satisfactorily laid. Macadam could be water bond type, crusher run or dry bound.

1.20

Priming Priming is the first single coat or primary coat of the liquid bitumen of low viscosity given upon the untreated surface of the gravel or water bound macadam bases as a requirement before the placing of a bituminous pavement or treatment to the surface of the road. The purposes of the priming is to plug capillary voids in order to halt the upward movement of water and to coat and bind dust and loose mineral particles, thus hardening and toughening the surface. Adhesion between the base and the surface cause is also improved. The lighter medium curing cut back bitumen (MCO, MCL) are generally used for priming or as prime coats. They are fluid enough to penetrate into the base. Tack coat: this is the process of applying a single initial coat of bituminous materials surfaces previously treated before giving a new bituminous wearing surface. It is normally provided on a primed granular base cause; therefore this shows that priming is a requirement for tack coat. The binder used for tack coats should penetrate and soften the surface of an old bituminous mix, so that it binds the old and the new layer tightly together. It should be cohesive. Mcl or RC cut back in lightly grades emulsions are commonly used for as tack coats.

1.21

Sand curing After the layer of bituminous material has been laid to complete the finished surface of the road, traffic is normally detoured until surface is no longer sticky and will not be picked up by the traffic, but if this cannot be done, a blotter course

35

of sand is normally applied to the finished surface to cure it and normally it is allowed to set for 24hrs, then the road is then thrown open to traffic

WEEK SEVEN
1.22 Materials used for surface dressing and surface treatment Surface treatment is a variety of procedure intended to dustproof or upgrade untreated surface or to rejuvenate or improve existing pavements. The treatment given to this effect is called surface dressing. Surface dressing is the process of spaying a thin layer of binder on to existing surfaces, followed by spreading a layer of chippings which is then rolled. Rolling helps to initiate and enhance the bond between the binders and the stone chippings and achieve their embedment in the underlying existing road surface. Surface dressing are used successfully on all types of roads, from very lightly traveled lanes to motor ways carrying many thousands of vehicle per day. Surface dressing is mainly used as a maintenance tool as the thin film in no way reinforces the structure of the road. Function of surface dressing 1. To provide a dust free pavement surface over the base course.

36

2. 3. 4. 5.

To improve the non-skid properties of a surfacing. To arrest are suppress the disintegration of road surface. To provide a clear demarcation between the carriage way and the shoulders. To seal the entire road surface against the entrance of water or air. Materials

1.

The binders must easily available for surface dressing work is cut back bitumen, bitumen emulsions and tar bitumen blend.

2.

Stone clippings which could be crushed gravels, fine minerals aggregate such as stone dust. The grade of the cutback bitumen or bitumen emulsion used for surface dressing ranges from SC, MC, RC for cutback and R.S (rapid setting), M.S to S.S for emulsion, penetration ranges from 80 100 Surface dressing could be single coat bituminous or two coat bituminous, single coat surface dressing consists of application of binder followed by a single application of chippings. The 2 coats or double surface dressing is similar to the single system, but uses two applications of binder and chippings. The first application contains smaller ones. The type and grade of bitumen material depends to a large extent upon the atmospheric conditions of the locality.

37

For new roads it is always better to have more than one coursed, this reduces the deterioration of the road and makes the road stable. This is normally accomplished by priming followed by a tack coat and then sealing coat which on application of a thin film of binder to a road surface in order to close the voids in the surface with the object of rending it water proof. Emulsion is particularly useful as sealing materials. Surface dressing with emulsion may be carried out when the surface is moist or when no heating device is available to heat the binder. The emulsion is taken directly from sealed drums and uniformly spread on the road surface after the base is prepared. The surface is then gritted with stone chippings of about 6mm in size before the emulsion breaks. That is when the color changes from brown to black and rolling is completed. Cut back is also applied in the same manner for emulsion, but is used when the road is reasonably dry.

1.23

The need for asphaltic concrete for high wheel road

38

The term asphalt concrete denotes a dense-graded road surface made of hot mineral aggregate mixed with hot asphalt (plant mixed). The need for strong road base materials that would not crack gave rise to asphaltic concrete being used in road base layers. Asphaltic concrete are mechanically laid bituminous materials that rely mainly for their stability on aggregate to aggregate contact, they have relatively low air void contact after compaction and gain much durability and some strength from their mortars, this thus makes it the highest type of densegrade bituminous pavement, and therefore makes it suitable for heavily traveled road. Asphaltic concrete provides adequate deformation resistance, skid resistance durability for a wide range of traffic and climatic condition.

1.24 1.

Components of asphaltic concrete Refinery bitumen is most commonly used in asphaltic concrete. The grade of the binder selected for use of mainly decided by traffic and weather. Grades such as 30 40 or 50 70 or 40 50 penetrations usually specified.

2.

Coarse aggregate are usually crushed rock, gravel, broken stone or slag are generally used.

3. 4.

Fine aggregate such as natural sand, crushed rock fines and crushed slag fines. Filler: they are in the form of added limestone dust, hydrated lime or Portland cement. The filler stiffens the bitumen so that the fine aggregate particles are coated with it the fine aggregate voids are filled with it filler bitumen mixture is stronger and less susceptible to temperature variations then the bitumen alone.

1.25

Use of Marshall Stability for asphaltic concrete To aid in ensuring that bitumen has the desired quality for asphaltic concrete, tests to measure the properties for that purpose are carried out. For asphaltic concrete a design mix is usually done in order to determine the optimum quantities of materials to be used. Optimum bitumen content has therefore become a very important study for determining the stability and resistance of plastic flow of the

39

bitumen to use. The determination of stability and flow value is done by carrying out the flow Marshall Test. The Marshall method uses cylindrical test specimens that are 64mm high by 102mm. These are prepared using a specific procedure for heating, mixing and compacting the bitumen aggregate mixture. The stability of test specimen is the maximum load resistance in Newton the standard test specimen will develop at 60 degree c when tested. The flow value is the total movement or displacement in unit of 0.25mm, occurring in the specimen between no load and the point of maximum load during the stability test. Marshall Stability in actual sense measures the frictional and cohesive resistance in combination.

Marshall Stability Apparatus 1.26 Different between binder course and surface course Binder course: this is a thin application of emulsified (low grade bitumen) asphalt usually with no aggregate of base course together. This is normally given upon untreated compacted surface of gravel or water bound macadam bases.

Surface course: this is the uppermost layer of road pavement and is constructed immediately above the primed base course. It is normally a mixture of mineral aggregate and high quality asphaltic materials. This course form the uniform carriage way upon which vehicle run, and ideally should offer good skid resistance, withstand high tire pressure, prevent penetration of surface water into underlying layers and also withstand traffic turning and braking forces. 40

WEEK EIGHT 1.27 Students activity Practical to be carried out in the laboratory on Marshall Stability test by the students. Report to be submitted after a week to include the following: a. b. c. d. Theory Method or Procedure Result Conclusion and observations

41

WEEK NINE 1.28 The use of concrete in rigid pavements The cross-section of a rigid roadway compress a pavement superimposed upon the sub grade, and most usually this pavement is composed of cement concrete slab on top of sub grade, this slab is composed of pavement quality concrete with considerable rigidity and high modulus of elasticity which enables it to act as a beam and bridge over any localized or minor irregularities in the surface of the layers beneath cement concrete pavement is ideal as traffic surface with relatively small thickness, it distributes wheel load upon sub grade. It provides a good riding surface. Maintenance costs are comparatively low and it is easy to clean and it is dust free. The vehicle operation cost on cement concrete road is minimum and wear and tear and mechanically breakdown of vehicle is comparatively less. it has a high salvage value as a base for a new wearing course.

The need for suitable joints in concrete pavements Pavements are exposed to severe temperature and moisture conditions as well as wheel load influence which produce severe stresses on cement concrete pavement. Among these are bending or deflection under wheel loads, warping of the slab due to a difference on the top and bottom of pavement, this will lead to the slab being raised off the sub grade, which the self weight of the slab might not be able to take. Warping of the slab due to the difference in moisture content at the top and bottom of the slab and direct tension produced as contraction during falling of temperature or while drying out is restricted by sliding friction between the slab and sub grade, compression failures and buckling or blow up also occur because of expansion of slab. To prevent progressive cracking up of the pavement and control the expansion and contraction of the slab, longitudinal and transverse joints are provided. These joints are: 1. 2. 3. expansion joints contraction joints Construction joints.

42

Expansion joints: these are usually placed transversely at regular intervals to provide adequate space for slab to expend due to temperature changes. The approximate width for this type of joints is provided from 2 to 2.5cm. These joints are placed across the full width of the slab and are 19mm to 25mm wide. The joint space is filled with a compressible filler material that permits the slab to expand. Filler materials can be cork, rubber or bitumen materials. A means of transferring the load across the joint space is provided as there are no aggregate that will develop as interlocking mechanism. This means it is usually dowel bars which are embedded and kept fixed in concrete at one end and the other is kept free to expand. At the free end a metal cap is provided to offer a space of about 2.5cmfor movement during expansion, so that when a slab contracts, the free end of the dowel leaves a gap into which it can return when the slab expands to its original length.

Expansion Joint

Contraction joints: these are the most commonly used transverse joint in jointed concrete pavement. They are placed transversely at regular intervals (but spaced closer than the expansion depending on the type aggregate use end type of sub grade) across the width of the pavement to release some of the tensile stresses that are induced due to contraction of the slab when its temperature falls. The load transfer is affected through the physical interlocking of the aggregate projecting 43

out the joints. It may be necessary to install a load transfer mechanism, where there is doubt about the ability of the interlocking gains to transfer the load. When a load transfer mechanism is used, receiving cap is provided; each bar is covered with a plastic sheath for two-third of its length.

Contraction Joint

Construction joints: these are those other than expansion and contraction joints that are formed when construction work is unexpectedly interrupted e.g. by mechanical breakdown or bad weather, at points where joints are not normally required by the design. When the full length of a pavement is not laid in one concreting operation, a formal constitutional construction joints has to be established between the two abutting slabs. These slabs are tied with tie bars in order to develop proper bond between the new and old concrete.

44

Cross Drainage Cross drainage is almost always required on a road. This is because it is necessary to lead water from higher ground on one side of the road to the lower ground on the other side. Cross drainage is also required where the road goes down hill from both directions to a low point. At this point, water collect and cross drainage is needed to lead the water through to the other side of the road. Various structures allow cross drainage to take place. The type used depends on how much water is expected to flow through the structure during a bad flood. How much water is expected depends on; 1. 2. 3. The area of land or catchment From the amount of rainfall into the area The shape of the catchment. The most common types of cross drainage are; 1. 2. 3. Drifts Culverts Bridges

1.29

Use of culvert When a new road is being designed, It is usually found that its lines crosses many small natural watercourses. Culverts are therefore needed to safely convey the stream water under the pavement. A culvert is simply an enclosed channel that is open at both ends and is used to convey water through an embankment. Pipes and arch culvert are formed from both rigid and flexible materials, whereas boy culvert (these have rectangular cross sections) is always made rigid. Flexible types culverts are either thin walled steel pipes or galvanized corrugated metal pipes, which are designed to deflect under load. Rigid culverts are composed of reinforced concrete, cast iron or vitrified clay and their load carrying ability is primarily a function of the stiffness of the culvert walls.

45

precast box culvert

Box and pipe culverts 1.30 Use of drift Drifts are used where water is to cross the road and on the surface. i.e. they allow water to cross the road on the surface. Drift are cheap and easy to construct and are well suited to a roads with relatively little traffic.

46

The drifts are made by welding meshed of bars together in a square grid. The bars are 0.6cm in diameter and spaced 20cm apart

Simple Drifts

1.31

Difference between culvert and bridge A culvert is a structure used to cross the passage of running water such as canal, river or stream. It encompasses practically all closed conduit used for highway drainage. It is normally constructed and installed below the embankment of a carriage. The clear span of culvert is usually less than 8metres.While a bridge is also a structure which provides continuous passage over an obstacle such as waterways, deep valleys and other transportation routes without closing the passage or way underneath. Bridge could span from 6 to 100metres.

47

WEEK 10 2.0 VARIOUS CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTIONS

Relevant equipment used in highway constructions In highway construction machinery is useful where a large quantity of work is to be done in a concentrated area in limited time, this means that with the help of machines many complicated and gigantic work can be done economically in shorter duration. Therefore the knowledge of machinery usually required for the road construction is essential. In road construction project different machinery is required for different type of jobs. The sequence of job operations can be as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Clearing the site Formation of sub grade- embankment or cutting Spreading of materials Rolling or compaction Surfacing Machinery used for clearing the site. For site clearance generally the following machinery can be used: (a) (b) (c) (d) Dozer Rooter or ripper Tractor Scraper Formation of sub grade, for this purpose earth digging machine is also used as dragline. For preparing the sub grade generally the following machinery is used: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Tractor Grader Shovel Rollers Dozer

2.1

48

(f) (g)

Dragline Trucks Manufacturing and spreading of Materials. Generally the following equipment is required:

(a) (b) (c)

Crushers Trucks Aggregate distribution Surfacing: For bituminous surfacing the following equipment is required:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

Bitumen boiler Bitumen sprayer Aggregate spreader Bitumen mix spreading machine Rollers Concrete surfacing needs equipment as follows:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv ) (v) i

Central batching and mixing plant Concrete pavers Concrete vibrators Concrete mixers Concrete sprayer Ripper- this is a machine mounted on wheels and towed by tractor. It has one or two teeth which are driven into the ground to loosen the soil and pull out roots. It is used to fell down the trees and rip materials usually rocks that has been blasted or drilled.

49

Ripper

ii

Power saws these are used in tree cutting and falling

. iii Bulldozer is a machine used for earthmoving work. They are mounted on tractor. The equipment is very versatile. It can perform the following operation: a. b. c. d. e. Clearing and grubbing of vegetation and tree stumps Removing top soil from borrow Areas. Moving earth for short distance Helping trucks out of the pit and towing damaged vehicles Backfilling of trenches and spreading of materials

50

Bulldozer

iv

Scraper:- It is a digging and carrying device which picks up its load by scraping the ground and transporting it to site. After discharging it spread same over the desired area. It consists essentially of a large scoop with cutting edge. Thus, this machine is the most economical and useful machine for earthwork operation. Scrapers could be motorized or towed type. Towed type are used for short haul of 150 500m, motorized scrapers are used, max speed of 30km/h

Scraper

51

Tractors A tractor is a multipurpose self propeller machine. its size and weight varies according to the purpose it is to be used for. Their primary purpose is to push or pull loads. v. Grader Is a machine primarily used for leveling or finishing earthwork. Graders are used for a number of purposes which include: spreading heaped earth into layers shaping a sub grade (cross section), for mixing gravel and slop trimming. Graders are either towed or motorized (self propelled).

Grader

vi.

Excavators These are machines that are used for excavating work. There are many machines which are available for excavating work under different trade names such as power shovel, dragline, waling dragline, clamshell. Basically, all these machines belong to power shovel family. Their basic structure is more or less the same, but only front attachment is changed to convert one type of machine to another type. Shovel is used primarily to excavate and load into hauling units such as trucks or tractor pulled wagons.

52

Excavators

vii.

Shovel can be used to excavate all types of soils except hardrocks without prior loosening. Dragline excavate material by dragging the bucket against the material to be dug instead of digging. It has a longer boom then shovel. The bucket which is the main digging tool is loosely attached to the boom through cables.

viii.

Pay loaders They are used in digging, scooping, lifting, carrying and dumping earth materials into trucks. Trucks: Generally 5 to 10m3 tipper is ideal for transporting materials which involves loading and unloading. The trucks are loaded by shovel and discharge by operating a mechanism that triggers the dumping of material by tilting the loading compartment.

ix.

53

x.

Water tankers 4000 5000 liters capacity are widely used for watering earthwork and in WBM work. A sprinkler attachment with a bar provides for uniform distribution at any desired spread.

Water Tanker

xi.

Rollers These are machines used for compacting various layers of the embankment and pavement. The different types and their uses are:

Smooth wheel rollers these types of rollers are specially used for compaction of cohesive. It consists of three wheels and causes compaction by static compression due to its weight. Weight varies from 5.5 to 24 tons. The soil is compacted in layers

54

at optimum moisture content 8 10 passes of rollers are sufficient.

55

WEEK ELEVEN 2.2 Relevant equipment used in highway engineering Sheep foot roller this roller consist of a cylindrical hollow drum; on the surface of the drum, projections of the shape of sheeps foot are attached. These temping feet on the drums are staggered into rows. To obtain the desired weight of the roller, hollow of the drum is filled with wet sand or stone. It is useful for compacting silty clay, sandy clay, generally cohesive soils 8 16 passes of rollers are sufficient.

SHEEPFOOT Pneumatic tyred rollers a box attached to two axles. The rear axle has one wheel more than the front axle i.e. 4 heels in front and 5 at rear. The wheels on the axles are so fixed that when the roller moves on the soil or when the roller is in operation, surface area of the soil is between the outer edges of the wheel mounted in rear axle is under wheel. The roller is suitable for compacting non plastic and silty soils. They are also used for intermediate rolling of dense asphaltic concrete. They are either self propelled or towed by a tractor. 8 10 passes of the roller on the soil are sufficient. 56

PNEUMATIC Other types of rollers used in highway engineering application are: vibratory rollers, combination rollers, hard operated vibratory roller, etc.

VIBRATORY

Crushing plant This is where the production of aggregate is accomplished. This involves collection of large-sized stones and crushing them to smaller sizes. This is done by rock crushers who break large stones into smaller pieces. This is then accomplished in stages.

57

CRUSHING PLANT

Bitumen sprayer Consist of a tank mounted on a lorry, having oil fire burners and a pump. A spray bar unit with nozzles is fitted at the rear tak just above the road surface. Bitumen can be applied at a pressure onto the road surface. The quantity of bitumen can be accurately controlled by a metering device. The speed, at which the vehicle operates, controls the rate of spread. Bitumen can also be spread on the surface by laborers with the help of pouring pots.

BITUMEN SPRAYER

Asphalt mixing plant This is where aggregates are blended, heated and dried and then mixed thoroughly with bitumen. It could either be by Batch mixing plant or Drum mixing plant.

58

In Batch mixing plant, various sizes of hot aggregates in storage bins are withdraw in pre-determined quantities to make one batch before mixing with predetermined quantity of bitumen. Drum mixing plant this is without hot aggregate bins and the plug mixer. It only consists of a cold aggregate feed system; a rotating drum mixer which dries the aggregate as well as blend the aggregate and bitumen into the designed mix. The heating unit or flame being at the upper end of the drum with cold aggregate entering the drum at the flame end. A bitumen supply system, a dust collector system and a surge silo are necessity to the operation of drum mixing plant.

MIXING PLANT

Asphalt paver It is a machine for laying hot mix hot-laid bituminous specifications. The equipment is self propelled and is capable of laying the bitumi8nous material to any desired thickness and partially compact it by means of a vibrating screed. The paver has a hopper into which the rear dump trucks can discharge the mix. The paver may be crawler mounted (tracked) or equipped with rubber tyres which permit a greater degree of freedom for movement. The

59

bituminous mix discharged from a tipper lorry into the receiving hopper in the front portion of the paver is carried along the conveyor through the flow gates to the augers which distribute the material in front of the screed, to the full width of the screed. A strike off beam, which also temps the mat, controls the layer thickness.

Asphalt Paver

WEEK TWELVE 2.3 Relevant equipment used in highway engineering

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Construction Site with reinforced concrete practice For the construction of cement concrete roads, the following machinery is needed: 1. 2. 3. Batching and mixing plants Spreading machines compacting and finishing machines

Batching and mixing plants: Materials such as coarse and fine aggregate and cement are always proportioned by weight in weighing batching equipment. For proper mixing of the different constitutents of cement concrete, mixers which are available in a variety of sizes are used. Mixing is continued for a period of not less than 1mins after all the materials are introduced. Tilting drum type mixers are available in small sizes, whereas non tilting drum type are available in large sizes.

Transporting, placing and compaction of concrete

61

Trucks are ideal for transporting concrete to the site. The delivery of concrete on job site could be in dump truck. The concrete can be discharged directly into the spreading or pacing machine or dumped on the prepared sub grade or sub base ahead of the sprader or paver.

Placing reinforcing steel Reinforcing steel are placed at stipulated height I the paving slab. This is normally placed by first spreading the concrete to slightly full depth and slightly under full width; then the preassembled mats of steel are placed on the surface of the fresh concrete and pushed down to correct position by a mesh depressing device that travels ahead of the slip form paver.

After this a slip form paver machine is then used in spreading the concrete and compacting through the vibrators that are normally incorporated in the paver. Following the vibrators are oscillating screeds which move at right angles to the direction of travel. This strike off the surface of the concrete to its final elevation.

62

Finally a transverse floats smoothes the surface to remove marks left by the strike off mechanism. After the paver has passed, any remaining surface undulations are removed with a diagonal float or tube finisher. Water is supplied to provide a very fine mist is case the surface has become too dry to finish. A surface texture of coarse sand paper which is the most satisfactory for cement concrete pavement is given by giving it a broom finish. This is done y brushing the surface transversely with heavy stiff broom.

WEEK 13 3.0 SAFETY DEVICES REQUIRED DURING HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

The use of diversions in highway construction works Diversions are used as regulatory means whenever construction work is going on ahead to communicate of the approaching hazards to drivers in order to warn or alert the driver to detour or drive through such project with reduction in speed. This is usually done by placing a diversion sign board where there is a required response to warn of existing or potential hazard condition. The purpose is to protect the public from likely accident that might happen without the warning, thereby guarantee safety as construction work progresses.

3.1

The mandatory requirements for provision of diversion signs is that at all times during the construction, these signs must be erect and left in position as long as traffic is utilizing any temporary running surface and should be placed for enough in advance of the hazard point to alert the drivers or public to take appropriate action at prevailing speed under the prevailing condition. Black or Red or Orange or White background and red letters indicators such as WORK AHEAD, TURN LEFT with arrow indicating the detour.

63

Apart from diversion signs, beacons and flashlights are also used especially in the night to call or alert the public to dangerous or hazardous places or at dangerous locations. They are only to supplement the regulatory signs.

3.2

Need for safety provision after the highway construction After highway construction, provisions are made for safety of the vehicles and its occupants and other road users. They are made possible by construction of traffic barriers, which are used to protect vehicle sand their occupants from impact with natural or manmade features located at the side of the roadway. They are provide in such a way, that the damaged caused by hitting the barrier generally should be less severe than if the vehicle hit the feature located behind the barrier, thus, they represent a compromise between these two concerns. In addition to protecting vehicles, traffic barriers are also provided to shield pedestrians,

maintenance/construction crews, or cyclists from errant traffic.

Barriers are available in a large variety of sizes and shapes. Choice of type to use depends on a variety of factors, including the environment in which the highway is located and the speed and volume of traffic. Traffic barriers may be classified as bridge railways, kerbs. Kerbs are provided longitudinally on either sides of the carriageway. Kerbs normally encourage the vehicle to remain present on the pavement.

Bridge railings are installed on a highway bridge to prevent vehicular or pedestrian traffic from falling off the structure. Traffic separators or median are provided to separate traffic traveling in opposite direction and also to avoid headon collision between vehicles moving in opposite direction. Also it helps to channelize traffic into streams at intersection and also protect pedestrians.

64

3.3

The needs for footbridges and pedestrians walkways Footbridges are provided predominately in urban environments where vehicular and pedestrian traffic is very high. They are used to make passage easy and safe vehicles, thereby reducing the chances of accidents.

i.

Pedestrian walkways Are also used predominantly in urban environments, but they are also used in rural areas that are adjacent to schools or other regions, such as shopping centres, where pedestrian traffic is high. Walkways help to minimize pedestrians related accidents, also provide free flow of vehicular movement. A shoulder can sometimes fulfill the role of a walkway if it is constructed and maintained in a way that encourage pedestrian use. Walkways when installed should however always be separated from a shoulder preferably by a kerb. Typical width of walkway is 1.05m to 2.10m. They are normally provided on both sides of pavement as separate lane intended for the exclusive use of pedestrians.

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4.0
4.1

WEEK 14 ROAD FURNITURE ON COMPLETION OF HIGHWAY

Road signs: These are usually provided to inform, warn or regulate the traffic. They are essential whenever special regulations apply or where direction or notice of approaching hazard must be communicated to the public. Road signs are provided for the following purposes:

4.2

To achieve the orderly movement of traffic To regulate the traffic behaviours such as parking, overtaking, etc. To direct the traffic on differentiate route To warn the road users of hazardous condition To intercept the heavy traffic in order to allow other vehicles and pedestrians To reduce the chances of accidents

Kilometer posts Kilometer posts are provided to indicate distance along the road. It provides the distance from one point to another.

4.3

Traffic signs These are used to control and direct the movement to vehicles more especially on the intersections, Automatic traffic signals are installed

Advantages of Traffic Light i. Provide an orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of most of intersections at grade.

66

ii. iii.

They reduce the frequency of traffic accidents They provide interruptions to heavy traffic in order to allow traffic to cross the road.

iv.

They provide a chance to crossing traffic to cross the road of continuous traffic flow at reasonable time interval

v.

Traffic quality is improved.

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WEEK 15
4.5 Site visitation VISIT TO A ROAD CONSTRUCTION COMPANY SITE WITHIN THE VICINITY OF THE STATE. a. b. Students should write about what they will learn and their observations. Submit report with sketches and diagrams a week after the visit

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