STRENGTH AND PROPERTIES OF METALS Definitions Stress: - Stress is the force exerted on a body.

Strain: Strain is the effect of stress on a body. It results in deformation of the body. Deformation: Deformation means the change of shape or dimensions of a body without alteration of its mass. Elasticity:-It is the ability of a metal to recover its original configuration i.e. shape and dimensions, when the stress is removed. Elastic Deformation:- It is deformation of a body which occurs when a stress is applied and which disappears on removal of that stress. Plasticity: - It is the ease with which a metal may be bent or moulded into a given shape. Plasticity usually increases with rise in temperature but this is not a universal law. Plastic Deformation: It is that part of the deformation which remains after the stress has been removed. Mallea ility:- It is the property of a metal of becoming permanently flattened or stretched by hammering or rolling without crac ing or brea ing. D!ctility: It is the property of a metal which permits it to be drawn into wires. If a bar or wire is drawn out lengthwise the amount of extension or reduction in cross high sectional area measures its ductility. Stren"t#: - It is the ability of a metal to bear loads without strain or deformation. !he higher the load-bearing capacity, the stronger is the metal. Har$ness: - It is the property of a material to resist indentation, abrasion or wear by some other body. "ardness generally decreases with rise in temperature. !he degree of hardness is measured by certain destructive and non-destructive tests. Properties li e tensile strength, ductility and elasticity may in general also be predicted from hardness tests.

To!"#ness: - It is the ability of a material to bear variable load conditions without failure. # material could be strong but brittle while a material which is tough has strength and resilience. %ree&: - It is the property of a metal which permits small amounts of plastic deformation to occur over long periods of time at elevated temperatures. $reep occurs as a result of metal being stressed within the elastic limit for a particular temperature. Fati"!e: - It is the development and propagation of crac s in a metal as a result of a great number of repeated alternating stresses. 'rittle Fract!re: It is the fracture of a metal caused by lac of ductility in the crystal structure of the metal due to low temperatures. Hoo(e)s La* %or an elastic body, strain is proportional to stress. &hen a body changes its shape within its elastic limits, the ratio Stress'Strain is a constant () *oung+s modulus of elasticity, and the curve if plotted would be a straight line curve. Limit of Pro&ortionality: - It is the highest stress prior to which deformation increases proportionally to the load applied. +iel$ Point: - !he point at which a body ceases to be elastic and becomes permanently distorted or set is termed the *ield Point. !he load which is applied to cause this is called the -*ield Point .oad/. !he body is then said to have undergone plastic deformation or flow. ,ltimate Tensile Stren"t#: It is the highest stress preceeding fracture of a sample. Elon"ation: !he ratio of increase in length of a sample, produced by tensile stresses, to its original length is termed as elongation.

Hoo(e-s la* is only .ali$ for t#e &ortion of t#e c!r.e et*een t#e ori"in an$ t#e yiel$ &oint M - ,ltimate stren"t# L - +iel$ stren"t# - corres&on$s to yiel$ &oint/ ' - R!&t!re +-M -- Strain #ar$enin" re"ion M-' -- Nec(in" re"ion/ !he properties re0uired of good shipbuilding steel are1 !he carbon content should be between 2. 34 - 2.5 56. It should be easily welded and the chemical composition should suitable for flame cutting. It should be ductile. !he composition should be homogenous to prevent any flaws or wea nesses in the metal. !he yield point should be high or higher than the brea ing stress. It should be resistant to corrosion. It should be available at a reasonable cost.

PI7 I89:: Pig iron is a raw material for cast iron and wrought iron. It is formed into rough bloc s or ingots after treating sponge iron, direct reduced iron or hot bri0uetted iron so that it loses its affinity for water and becomes more stable. $#S! I89:'S!;;.: $ast iron is produced by melting pig iron with layers of co e mixed with a little limestone. $ast iron is poured into moulds to cast it into shape. !he carbon content is around < - = 6. $ooling is carried out at different rates as per the grain of the metal re0uired. $ast steel is produced the same way. It has high strength and can withstand severe wear and tear but is brittle and liable to fracture under shoc . %or this, a heat treatment is re0uired after it is removed from the mould. It is used where intricate shapes are involved such as stern frames, pump casings, cylinder heads, windlass drums and gypsy, valve bodies etc. &89>7"! I89:'S!;;. %987I:7S: &rought iron is manufactured by melting pig iron with silica in a coal fired furnace. Steel forgings are manufactured from illed steel in the form of ingots. It is then drawn or beaten into shape while hot after which a heat treatment is given. !he final product is extremely ductile and free from brittleness. It is used for anchors, anchor cables, etc. S!;;. #s carbon is added to iron, it forms iron carbide or cementite (%e5$,. !his cementite lies side by side with iron molecules in laminations having a pearl-li e appearance and is nown as ?pearlite+. In mild steel which has a low carbon content (@2.5 6,, pearlite exists with free iron molecules but as the carbon content increases, the proportion of pearlite increases (as in medium carbon steels which have a carbon content of 2.5 - 2.4 6,. !he proportion of pearlite reaches -? bid high carbon steels and after that if more carbon is added (2.4 - 2.A 6,, pearlite being replaced by cementite. Bild steel is used as structural material (plates, beams, bars, billets, etc,, medium carbon steel is used in gearing and shafting while high carbon steel is used in metal chisels, nives, drills, files, saw blades, etc. Pearlite is used as insulation for fire resistant #- $lass divisions and for the refrigerated tan s of gas carriers.

78#D;S 9% S!;;.

#ll members of I#$S (!he International #ssociation of $lassification Societies, have agreed to standardise the regulations pertaining to the manufacture of steel for shipbuildng use. ;very finished item carries the society+s brand clearly mar ed on it. e.g. .loyds $lass Symbol. !he ring around the mar is painted in different colours to indicate the grade of steel. 7rade # ----- &hite 7rade C ----- 7reen 7rade $ ------ Clue 7rade ; ------ *ellow 7rades # and C are ordinary mild steel, 7rades $ and D are notch tough while 7rade ; is extra notch tough. 7rade ; is used in areas of maximum stress concentrations and bending %ig. 3.=: .loyds Symbol moments such as the bilge eel, sheer stra e and in the midships area of the hull of vessels greater than <22 metres. SP;$I#. S!;;.S !oday, high tensile steels ("!S, have been developed which have a greater tensile strength for e0uivalent thic ness. !his strength is retained even at low temperatures. "igh tensile steels are used in large tan ers and ore carriers. Permission has been granted by classification societies for a reduction in scantlings where high tensile steels are used. "igh tensile steels are denoted by #", C", for the various grades. # vessel should have a plan indicating the location of high tensile steel plates used, so that repairs and renewals can be correctly carried out. #lthough high tensile steels were acclaimed as a brea through resulting in reduced light ship displacement, the reduction in scantlings granted, has come under scrutiny in the wa e of several losses of bul carriers. $orrosion affects both ordinary steels as well as high tensile steels e0ually. #fter a period of time, the corrosion being e0ual, the reduction in thic ness for a high tensile steel plate as a 6 of original thic ness is greater, leaving the "!S plate wea er than an ordinary plate. $ryogenic or low temperature materials are used in li0uefied gas carriers and in vessels trading in extreme latitudes. Steel of grades D and % are acceptable for temperatures upto 2D $. &here lower temperatures are encountered, carbonmanganese steels having a manganese content of 2.A - 3 .E6 and small percentages of :ic el, $hromium, Bolybdenum, $opper and Fanadium are used upto temperatures of -44D $. %or lower temperatures, I .4 6 nic el steel i.e. steel 7rade D ---- 8ed

having a nic el content of 3 .46 is used for temperatures upto -E2D $ and G6 nic el steel i.e. steel having a nic el content of G6 is used for temperatures upto 3E4D $. !;S!I:7 9% S!;;. Steel used for shipbuilding has to undergo various tests to determine its strength. !he tests are destructive tests carried out on a sample of the metal which has been prepared in siHe and shape according to specifications. !he basic tests are:!;:SI.; !;S! IBP#$! !;S! $8;;P !;S! %#!I7>; !;S! C;:D !;S! "#8D:;SS !;S!

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL !he physical properties of steel are to a large extent affected by the grainy structure of the metal. Properties such as ductility, malleability, hardness, and the ability to be welded, forged or machined can be imparted to the metal by a variety of processes which basically involve heat treatment. "eat treatment is defined as a process or a number of processes involving the heating and cooling of a metal or alloy in the solid state. #nnealing, normalising, hardening and tempering are some of the processes. !hey involve the following: I "eating I "olding for heat saturation and completion of structural changes I $ooling at the re0uisite rate !he rate of heating and cooling depends on the siHe and shape of the wor , the chemical composition of the metal and the property intended to be imparted to the metal.

Effect of Heat on t#e str!ct!re of steel &hen steel is heated it expands, as is normal. "owever if the heating is continued, it is found that, at two certain temperatures, the expansion gets arrested and instead of expanding, the steel actually starts contracting. !hese temperatures are nown as the ?critical points+ of the metal and are around E222 A22D $ and A<2D - G22D $ depending on the composition of steel. !he phenomenon continues for a short while till structural changes ta e place in the metal after which normal expansion resumes with rise in temperature. !his phenomenon also occurs during cooling but it is not so pronounced. !he expansion is due to the increased vibration of the molecules due to the supply of energy in the form of heat while the contraction is due to the realignment of molecules, dissolution of and reaction between the constituents of the steel. !he rate of cooling determines the characteristic grainy structure of the metal. !hese changes in volume are important factors in the heat treatment of steel. If the metal can be caught and its structure froHen while it is in the transition stage, special properties can be imparted to the metal. &hile heating, the wor piece must be allowed to soa in the heat and get saturated uniformly otherwise one part of the wor piece will be at a temperature different from the other. !his will cause internal stresses to be set up leading to warping, distortion and crac ing. Annealin" #nnealing is done to impart softness, elasticity and ductility to the metal and to relieve any internal stresses which may be present in the metal. !he metal is heated to about <2D - 52D $ above the critical point and after being held for a while at this temperature for the transformation to be complete, it is cooled slowly at a rate of around 42D $ per hour. !he cooling may be done in the furnace or in some medium e.g. a sand bath, which reduces the rate of cooling.

#nnealing can be of different types e.g. full annealing, process annealing, isothermal annealing, etc.

Normalisin" :ormalising is used to restore the original properties to a metal. It corrects the structure of overheated steel, relieves stresses and improves the machinability of carbon and low alloy steels by ma ing them less hard. :ormalising is also used to harden and strengthen steel that has softened. !he metal is heated to 522 - 422 $ above the critical temperature and allowed to cool in still air. Har$enin" Steel used in certain applications e.g. metal chisels, drill bits, etc. need to be hard and resistant to indentation. In order to harden it, it is heated to <22 - 52D $ above the critical point and then 0uenched. Juenching+ is the process of cooling the steel rapidly from the temperature to which it has been heated. !his is done by immersing it in a 0uenching bath. !hese baths may be air, water, various inds of

oil, brine, molten salts, etc. depending on the chemical composition, shape and siHe of the metal. &hile hardness is an attractive property, it is usually accompanied by brittleness. Tem&erin" !empering consists of heating the metal to about <42D $, retaining this temperature for a period depending upon the mass and degree of toughness re0uired and then 0uenching or cooling in air. !empering relieves stress and brittleness in hardened steel and ma es it ductile without loss of hardness i.e. it ma es the metal tough.

!"; (>S; 9% #.>BI:I>B I: SIIIPC>I.DI:7, #DF#:!#7;S I. !he greatest advantage of aluminium as a shipbuilding metal is its light weight. #luminium has a density of <.A< tonnes'm5 which is almost one-third that of steel (A.K= tonnes'm5,. %rom the ship owners+ point of view, aluminium would therefore be preferable over steel as, for a same siHe of vessel1 the deadweight cargo carrying capacity would increase because of a lower light ship weight. # number of vessels have been fitted with superstructures of aluminium alloys. Cesides reducing the light displacement, this also has the added advantage of improving stability by lowering the centre of gravity. Due to this improved stability, many passenger vessels have been able to have their accommodation extended thereby increasing earning capacities. In cargo vessels this has given the advantage of carrying extra cargo for a given draft. !his is particularly useful in rivers and other ports with draft restrictions. <. !he lower hull weight re0uires less power resulting in saving of energy and smaller space and weight of machinery. #lternatively it gives extra speed and many fast ferries, hovercrafts and catamarans have their entire hull built of aluminium alloy (e.g. %ran Shipping+s catamaran ?Damania- I+,.

5. Strenghwise aluminium is comparable to steel ?and its durability at low temperatures is a factor in its favour. &hile steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, forming crac s which rapidly propagate, ma ing the use of ordinary steel dangerous in cold climates, aluminium does not have this disadvantage. !his ma es it useful as a tan material on .P7 and .:7 carriers. =. #luminium also has high corrosion resistant properties. It has a high affinity for oxygen and in the marine atmosphere, a layer of oxide gradually builds up over the surface. !his layer is thin and continuous thereby preventing further corrosion and protecting the metal from deterioration. #luminium has however to be insulated from steel to prevent a galvanic cell being set up and bimetallic corrosion ta ing place. If not, it will act as an anode and get wasted away in the galvanic reaction, protecting the steel. 4. #luminium is also non-magnetic and the non-existence of induced magnetism benefits the ship+s compass, direction finder and other such e0uipment. !his 0uality is particularly useful in warships ma ing them immune to magnetic mines. DIS#DF#:!#7;S I. #luminium has a low melting point, E4GD $, as compared to steel which has a melting point of 3422D $. #lthough this temperature is sufficiently high in normal conditions, should there be a fire, the aluminium structure could melt and collapse. "ence fire protection regulations are more stringent in these vessels. #luminium bul heads on passenger vessels are to be insulated to a fire resistant standard e0uivalent to steel bul heads, machinery casings must be made of steel and lifeboat davits should not be made of aluminium alloy components. <. Difficulty in welding aluminium is another factor against its use in shipbuilding. Damaged steel plating cannot be easily welded. !he metal+s affinity for oxygen causes aluminium alloys in the molten state to readily absorb oxygen causing excessive corrosion, thereby wea ening the metal. $orrosive nitrides also

form on the surface when conventional methods of welding are used. ;ven the normal oxide film ma es welding difficult. &elding has to be done in a gas shield and only the metal inert gas (BI7, and tungsten inert gas (!I7, welding processes are suitable. 9n board welding thus becomes a costly affair. 5. !he most important factor against the use of -aluminium is its high cost. #luminium at approximately L3<42'- a tone is almost ten times the price of steel. #luminium is obtained from an ore called bauxite which while being abundant in India is found in only a few other parts of t3e world. !he process of extracting aluminium is also costly while demand from other industries such as power transmission, construction and pac aging is high. !hus the use of aluminium involves a high financial commitment for the ship owner. $onsidering the pros and cons for aluminium it can be concluded that while aluminium may be feasible for hatches superstructures, gas tan s and even for the entire hulls of hovercrafts and ferries, until the cost is brought down, steel will continue to dominate as a shipbuilding metal.