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Manual de Entrenamineto Tuberos - 1
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| ooo Concent Reducer [ACHE | Ab | S| + | e+] C5 Ecoane Radar [AN ANS A Re llustration #176C ~ Commonly Used Fitting and Valve Symbols, PIPING PRINTS Standard Piping Symbols | 345 Standard Piping Symbols ty Union Fang or Vahe Trpes anges | seemed | 296,008 | Weed | couse | Dae pa | sess | tin 45°C a® | 4%] 37 | e* | 2? | Soret #lelel lel oe Elbow Turned Down Gt | G+ | Ge | OX | Ge | CH @ | Stow Turned Up Gt | O+ | @ | Ok | Ge | OD & | sso come aol oat | gt | Al | | tora rads Eow filcle¢lcléle DH J eseng ebow ol |? |? 6 LG Sie ower Tunes Cow) | GR | GE |G | Ge | ee ide Ott (ured Us) el ele le | _£P | eto ra 2 stig HE [he = cf + ‘Mustration #1760 — Commonly Used Fitting and Valve Symbols 346| PIPING PRINTS Standard Piping Symbols Standard Piping Symbols Fring or Vane Types ranges | seroma | ard | Welt T soxwra | Onto Connecting Pipe Joint oth | +] > | ee Expansion Joint qe | 4 | ee ee | Steove Het | Ak | 3--© | 20 | 2 Onfoo Flange sik a4 Reducing Flange Sockat Weld Flange 4b 4D at —}- Wold Neo Farge pf > =i S ybe PIPING PRINTS Notes and Sper ations Any information that is not easily interpreted from a drawing or blueprint is usually noted for recognition. Piping notes can be classi- fied as either general or local General notes, when used, apply to the entire drawing and are normally placed close to the edge of the drawing or near the title block. Local or specific notes take priority over general notes and convey precise informa- tion about one part or area of the drawing. Items such as reducer sizes and valve types are locally noted or called out by size and, in the case of valves, given a number to rep- resent a specific type. Examples of a com- mon local note and callout are presented in illustration #177A and #177B. Specifications or Specs, as they are often referred to, are the written guide lines or project standards to which the job is to be constructed. 347 Pipe material specifications deal with the requirements for pipe, valves, fittings, flanges, and gaskets which are not normally found on the piping drawing. Specifications for a particular project are found in the proj- ect standards or project specification book. Most notes use abbreviations extensively to save time and space in preparing the draw- ing. Common abbreviations used on pipe drawing are listed in table #78. 6" x 4° (150 mm x 100 mm) ONE HED Nove: STEEL To pve ADAPTER COUPLING PROVIDE Js INSERT FOR PVC PIPE -€ == =. ‘On spool sheet drawings, designated callout numbers, ‘are often used for common items. Iustcation #177 - Typical Local Note and Callout Information Found on 81 348| PIPING PRINTS Piping Abbreviations PIPING DRAWING ABBREVIATIONS x ie CS Carbon Stee! Absolute Gaia Spene Ac Arto Gose cso Gar Soul Open Combustion Ai Sa Seer ‘Aca moran Gas Association SP Sette vai ae fratoment Ae isc Amencan Instituto of Stee! Construction OM ——Diametor ANSI ‘Amenan Nation! Stancag Intute BS Bummy Suppor AO ArtoOpen Swe Drawing x Plana APL American Petroleum insite € cast ASA Amenean Standard Associaton Ee Endtognd Swe Amencan Socety of Mechantal Engineers EC Elation astm Amencan Society of Yostng Matera Ela —_Eloowt us, merean Welding Gocety EL Elbow Ia Amertcan Waterworks Astociaton BAW EluccResstance Welding 28 Beveled Botn Ends & Fatronneit fe Boncicle Fas Falnicaton SF ——BinoFange Fad Facoand riled BLE Beveled eatge End fr) Faceiorace BLvO Beveled Flange race BOF BotomofFace of Flange FlarPace Sop Bottomet Pipe Ful Face (ol gasket) BSE Beveled Smal End fis Flange Bw Bute FOB FlatOnGotom For Flaten Top CE Cantrto Canter FS FarSae Gea Gane Feet Por inate Fea Svopon SG" Gatton FIs iting & Gham Fr Fats Wola ‘able #78A — Piping Drawing Abbreviations 349 PIPING PRINTS Piping Abbreviations PIPING DRAWING ABBREVIATIONS Sox TF bevel Transm Say Ganzea tease Gow Salon Ber Minute ghee tine ge Gad ie Wl Motedenum on Header sie OR Hono mS Maia tet ered Norm Hor Mote Tivead No Normaty ctosea tet Hamre NS Nomalv Opes "gh Pressure NPS Natal Pipe Sie vem Hote Namal Ppe Sze Hvac Heath, Venting and A Condtoning net Nalonal pe Fat ARS Noni Stem nse Dimer NBS Non Fle fe imeneleaton NS. Near Sie he Weta Me Iaton 00 Ouse Diametr Sr Insert Ska Sue Stew sna ore PS Monbipe Size eS, Kon Pipe Sire PRI Piping Instrumentation Diagram Sy ne rang Pee plana Eras Fo brosvre Gone tA Level aarm Pov Pressure onl Vahe to LEvetGontraer Fey planta tS teeieeee Pr Presets lndcator te Leta nate Poe Plaman One na te tSwnreseore PR Pressure Regulator tom pout Pav breatre suc Valve ta Lnghadus Pepe Support eed PS, Bland Bar Square inch PSv__ osha Ste vane, ‘Table #788 Piping Drawing Abbreviations 350| PIPING PRINTS Piping Abbreviations PIPING DRAWING ABBREVIATIONS fom Te ee nse one Fae once Tere Co es eee BS Rg 1 Reatee, ao ‘spatsien es | ee, ‘Steam Condensate TP ‘Typical ne cates occ SECT ‘Section ve, Vitrified Clay SS Seandess VERT Venical gus eee ous ces — mh aeons en saeate ye SA eaccsees ooo ee ea fee one pre eos cas ies TF Teaces fo eae Steam Trap XxH Double Extra Heavy ‘Table #786 - Piping Drawing Abbreviations: PIPING PRINTS Reading Scale Drawings Whenever possible, needed measurements from blueprints should be taken from the dimensions given on the blueprint. Because blueprints can shrink or expand for various reasons (reproduction or copying for exam- ple), scaling from a blueprint should only be done when there is no other way of deter- mining the dimensions needed. When it is necessary to use a scale rule to determine a dimension from a blue print, the proper scale or ratio of the rule must match the blueprint scale used. Reading Scale Drawings The scale used on a drawing is always given in the title block of the print. The principle of scale measurement used on most drawings is that a smaller unit dimen- sion represents a larger unit dimension. Common scales found in the piping field for imperial measurements are % in. = 1 ft. and ¥% in. = 1 ft. In the metric system 1 mm = 50 mm and 1 mm = 20 mm are most com- monly used. Table #79 gives the standard scales and ratios found on an architect's scale and which may be used on blueprints. Examples of both imperial and metric scale usage are shown in illustration #178. SCALE AND RATIO imperial | Wee 7 Uae eh = VF Tg0 ratio Tan = 2mm 72 vate Yo inch = 1Ft 138 imm = 3mm 13 fate aie Inch © 1 Et 168 rato liam = s0mm Vio fate a ncn © Vt 183 rato imm = 20mm 120 fate ch = TFL 132 rato tm = $0mm 130. fate ch = 1 136 fat imm = $omm 130 tate | aa inchs 1 16 rato Vm = s00mm 100 fate Tf fnch = 1 Ft 12 fate im = 200mm 1200 fat {mm = Soom 1500. tat nm = 1600 mm boo rato ‘Table #79 — Seale and Ratio 352 [ere PRINTS Reading Scale Measurement with 3" = 1" scale ‘each 318 inch represents 1 t. Measurement with 1 ‘matic 150 scale 180 Scale/Print Types ‘each mm 0 a represents 50 mm Mlustration #178 - Reading Scales Development of Pipe Drawings Pipe drawings and blueprints range from general information schematic and flow dia- grams to the detailed piping isometric and Spool sheets needed for fabrication of pipe sections. The development of piping draw- ings usually progress in the following sequence: 1. Schematic Diagram 2. Flow Diagram 3. Piping And Instrumentation Diagram (P&lD) 4, Piping Drawing 5. Isometric Drawings 6. Spool Drawings Note: Some of the drawings may be grouped together or left out depending on the project size and type of piping sys- tem. PIPING PRINTS Schematic Diagram ‘The schematic diagram or drawing is a the- oretical layout of the system and its opera- tion. It is only used in the initial planning stage as a basic guide for the development of the flow diagram. This diagram uses non scale single line flow paths with rectangles or circles representing general system oper- ations and process equipment. Flow Diagram The flow diagram is a more sophisticated schematic drawing showing typical equip- ment layout and the flow of fluids through the system. An example of a typical process flow diagram is represented in illustration #179. Schematic/Flow Diagram The diagram provides an overall perspec- tive of the entire system operation or a spec- ified plant process using basic symbols, flow arrows and single line process runs. Flow diagrams are not drawn to scale and may be presented as either an elevation or plan view drawing. Installations covering large areas are usually shown as plan view flow diagrams, where less complicated sys- tems are usually shown from an elevation view. 354 PIPING PRINTS: Flow Diagram RAW MATERIAL BL VESSEL RAW MATERIAL #2. VESSEL Pune #2 PuMe a ration #179 ~ Typical Process Flow Diagram Flow Diagram PREMEATER #10 REACTOR CATALYST STORAGE yr . To. STORAGE VESSEL PUNP #4 PIPING PRINTS Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams P&ID drawing is the term frequently given to the piping and instrumentation diagram or occasionally referred to as the process and instrumentation diagram. The drawing is essentially a detailed mechanical or pro- cess flow diagram in schematic form, The P&ID drawing is not drawn to scale and equipment on the drawing is located as to allow major process flow runs from left to right on the drawing. The content of a typical P&ID generally includes: + Major equipment and needed valves * All process lines and pipe sizes for each pipe line * Line numbers or codes along with desig- nated flow direction * Instrumentation and control devices [ P&ID Diagram Illustration #180 shows one section of the previous flow diagram (raw material vessel) as it would be developed in a P&ID format. Instrumentation on P&ID Most instrumentation on piping and instru- mentation diagrams use standardized ISA (instrumentation Society of America) sym- bols and identification methods. Balloons or bubbles (circular shaped symbols) are gen- erally used in identifying instruments (see illustration #181) with the instrument func- tions specified by the use of abbreviations within the balloons. Generally, each instru- ment is first given a functional letter inden- tification followed by a loop indentification number. The first letter in the abbreviation typically identifies the measured or variable controlled by the instrument, see table #80 356 L PIPING PRINTS P&ID Drawing Piping and Instrumentation Diagram PJ 11 10 si10 Lon PL 21 10 $300 ) toh tot ® ~ @ @ Dt CY une ans ----- (2, wy RAW MATERIAL #1 VESSEL Iustration #180 ~ Typical PAID Diagram PIPING PRINTS. Instrumentation on P&ID O Localy or Feld Mounted instrument Board Mounted (Convo! Room) Instrument So © Mustration #181 Insttumentation Balloons In instrumentation function letter identifica- tion, most often the first letter will represent one of the following F - Flow, T - Temperature, L ~ Level, or P- Pressure. Table #80 shows succeeding let- ters used in the abbreviation identify the actual function performed by the instru- ment. P&lD Drawing INSTRUMENT FUNCTIONS Flow Fl = Flow Indicator FR = Flow Recorder FC = Flow Controller FT_= Flow Transmitter Level Ul = Levelindicator LR = Level Recorder = Level Controller Level Transmitter ‘Temperature Tl = Temperature indicator TR = Temperature Recorder TC = Temperature Controller TT _= Temperature Transmitter Pressure PL = Pressure indicator PR = Pressure Recorder PC = Pressure Controller PT__= Pressure Transmitter instrument Functions 357, 358 PIPING PRINTS. ping Drawini (Orthographic Projection) The piping drawing is the detailed outline to which the piping system is to be fabricated. The true shape and dimensions of equip- ment are represented on the piping draw- ings. Most piping drawings are developed using the orthographic projection method. Front View Iustration #182A ~ Actual View of Object Right Side Orthographic Projection True orthographic projection drawings con- sist of six distinct views: top, front, right side, left side, bottom, and back. However, most drawings find it necessary only to show the top, side and front views. This three view method of orthographic projection is shown in illustration #1828. Top Fight Front a Iystration #1828 ~ Orthographic Projection of Object PIPING PRINTS Piping Drawing (Orthographic Projec- tion) In pipe drawing, orthographic projections are referred to as plan, elevation, and sectional views. This type of projection drawing may be used for large and complicated piping systems, piping in buildings, and for some small spool piece drawings. A simple dou- ble line orthographic spool sheet drawing showing a plan and sectional view is shown in illustration #183. Dimensions, Elevation and Coordinates Most pipe orthographic drawings are drawn to some scale; with the exception being the spool sheet drawing, which as a rule, relies ‘on written dimensions. Vertical dimensions on large scale plant drawings are specified in elevation designations rather than using dimension lines. The elevation at grade is the normal starting point and typically given an arbitrary elevation of 100 ft. 00 in. (100 m 000 mm). | Orthographic/Dimensions _ | 359 Plan View a Section A= A lustration #189 ~ Double Line Orthographic Spool Drawing 360 PIPING PRINTS _ Dimensions, Elevation and Coordinates This dimensioning method provides for a Positive number for underground service elevation dimensions and an even number starting point. In plan view orthographic drawings, coordi- nates are often used to locate structural steel, vessels, tanks and major equipment Coordinates, as a rule, start from an estab- lished reference point at the South-West corner of the project. As the distance increases (going north and east from the ref- erence point), the coordinates get larger. In buildings and outlined structures, dimen- sions are usually given from the structure steel or columns. Dimensions & Coordinates Pictorial Piping Drawing Ilystration #184 - Oblique Piping Drawing PIPINGPRINTS | Pictorial Piping Drawing Piping drawings are often shown in a picto- rial type of representation for clarity and ease of interpretation, particularly on intricate drawings. The two most common types of piping pictorial drawings are the isometric and the oblique projections. The oblique drawing is the less common of the two drawings but may be used when an emphasized front view is desirable for clar- ity. Oblique drawings show the plan or front face of the piping drawing in its true form or plane. Allother parts and piping from this plane are then projected back from this view on an angle of 60 degrees or at 45 degrees on some drawings. Illustration #184 shows a parallel tank and piping layout using an oblique pro- jection Oblique/Isometric Isometric or Iso Drawings The most used pictorial drawing in the pip- ing industry is the isometric projection. The major advantage of an isometric drawing is that three sides of the object are displayed in one practical easy to read view. This ease of interpreting an isometric drawing as com- pared to an orthographic drawing is shown inillustration #185A and #185B. Some com- panies use isometric projection as their major piping working print, but because of the complexity involved in drawing overlap- ping multiple pipe runs, itis often only used for fabrications and detail piping work Isometric drawing construction uses three axis that are equally spaced at 120 degrees from each other. All horizontal lines are drawn at angles of 30 degrees, while all ver- tical lines remain vertical, see illustration #186. 361 362| PIPINGPRINTS | Oblique/isometric Isometric or Iso Drawings Top Side Front IMlustration #185A — Orthographic Piping Projection Iustration #186 ~ Isometric Lines and Axis, Mlustration #1858 — Isometric Drawing of the Same System PIPING PRINTS Isometric or Iso Drawings In piping systems, not all fines run at right angles to each other and when diagonal lines are needed on isometric drawings, they are shown by framing the diagonal line. The frame is represented by an isometric square or rectangle in the same plane as the offset, shown in illustration #187, Isometric Dimensions Dimensions on isometric drawings are normally indicated and should not be scaled from the drawing. When drawing isometric piping, the tendency is to give priority to indicating and positioning fit- tings and valves for clarity rather than scale. The dimensions given are center- to-center for most fittings and face-to-face for flanges and valves. Isometric Drawings Hash marks or parallel extension lines used inside dimension lines on flanges and valves indicate that the face-to-face dimension includes the gasket dimen- sion. Illustration #188 shows a typical iso- metric drawing and the basic information that may be found on it. 364| PIPING PRINTS Isometric Drawing Isometric or Iso Drawings Flat Horizontal Ortsot ‘ o wa, os %e, llustration #187 — Isometric Rectangle Example PIPING PRINTS | Isometric Dimensions 365 Isometric Dimensions Elevation Flow Flange WELDER FLIER CENS fm PN, Clean tens Cs CLEAR PLASTICLENS =P lMlustration #191 — Welding Lens Positions Welding Safety/Lenses/Flash Arc Flash Arc flash is the term used to describe eyes damaged by ultra-violet rays from welding The arc has burned the eyeballs and they are covered with small water blisters. This condition is described as having sand in the eyes. The result is that the eyelids flutter and tears are profuse. The following medical aids will help the per- son with an arc flash. A Doctor's prescrip- tion is strongly recommended. * 1% Pontocain drop (local anaesthetic) ‘* 2% Butyn drops (local anaesthetic) * 1% Holocaine (local anaesthetic) Do not use these medical aids for a pro- longed length of time (12 hours, maxi- mum). Note: Do not work with eyes frozen, and if the eyes are not noticeably better after 12 hours see a doctor. PIPE WELDING Vent ion Welders must be provided with good venti lation. Welding shops should have a mini- mum of four air changes per hour. Screens should be arranged so that they do not restrict ventilation. When welding on non-ferrous or galva- nized metals, extra ventilation will be required. Under some circumstances, it may be necessary for the operator to use a respirator or mask. Exposure to zinc fumes from galvanized steel may result in metal fume fever, com- monly called “zinc chills”. “Zinc chills” are self eliminating, and at the time of writing are without any known com- plications or after effects. Cadmium and lead fumes are definitely dangerous. The welder must be provided with an air line respirator approved for use with these fumes. Safety/Ventilation/Fire Special precautions must be taken when welding with either tungsten or consum- able electrodes using an argon shield. Argon is heavier than air and will sink to the bottom of confined areas and has the net result of actually drowning the welder in the argon atmosphere. Welding Fire Prevention Due to the high temperature involved in welding, and inevitable production of hot metal accompanied by sparks, it is most essential that fire prevention precautions be rigorously observed wherever these opera- tions are performed. Obviously, such pre- cautions are particularly necessary when the work is carried out in combustible surround- ings. Keep fire extinguishers at hand and ready for immediate use. When work has to be done in the vicinity of combustible mate- rials, someone should stay in attendance for at least a half hour after the work is finished to insure that no fires break out 376 PIPE WELDING Oxygen Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas at ordinary temperatures; it is slightly heavier than air, and while not flammable, it must be considered a potential danger since it combines readily, and in some cases very violently, with many other materials. Oxygen (O,) is the element in air that sup- ports life and combustion. In general, mate- rials that burn in air, burn much more violently in O, and some materials, not con- sidered combustible in air, will burn readily inO,. At normal temperatures, oil and grease is not considered highly flammable, but if either one is brought in contact with pure 0; under high pressure or friction, an explosion may occur. Note: Keep oxy-acetylene equipment away from oil or grease. Never oil regula- tors or torch parts. Oxy-Acetylene Safety Never Use Oxygen: * To operate pneumatic tools. * Inthe presence of oil or grease. * Asa compressed air substitute. * Inoil pre-heating burners. * To start or run internal combustion engines, * To blow out pipe or tubing lines. * Tocreate pressure. * For ventilation purposes. To dust off clothing or work areas. Oxygen Cylinders ‘An oxygen cylinder is a pressure vessel and must be treated as such. The top is hemi- spherical and the valve hole is reinforced. Do not attempt any repairs to an oxygen cylinder and if a cylinder leaks, remove it from any building and place it in the open. Tag it indicating the type of fault and notify the supplier. PIPE WELDING Oxygen Cylinders The oxygen cylinder is protected from extreme pressure caused by heat with the use of a fusible metal rupture disc. This allows the slow controlled escape of gas. * Alloxygen Vercca connections have right hand threads. * Oxygen cylinder (ieeSne valves should be opened fully while in use. * Oxygen cylinders have no fixed draw off limit. Iustration #1928 - Oxygen Cylinder Oxy-acetylene Safety Acetylene Acetylene gas is colorless, but fortunately has a strong pungent odor. As little as 1% in air is quite noticeable to the average per- son's sense of smell. It is advisable to treat mixtures of air or oxygen and acetylene as explosive. If you can smell acetylene take no chances. Extinguish all open flames and ventilate the room. Acetylene is an Unstable Compound. Acetylene is not safely compressed beyond 15 psi (103.4 kPa) pressure, espe- cially in large volumes, such as cylinders, pipelines and generators. PIPE WELDING Acetylene Cylinders Codes call for a minimum of one fusible plug on each end of the cylinder. The purpose of the plug, which has a melting point of about 212°F (100°C), is to melt out in case of fire, thus allowing a slow controlled escape of gas, rather than a violent explosion. * Acetylene cylinders must be used in the vertical position to prevent acetone from being drawn off. * Store cylinders in a coo! place. * Never attempt to transfer acetylene from ‘one cylinder to another. * Never attempt to interchange equipment from one gas type to another. * Key type acetylene valves should be ‘opened only one and one half turns. Hand wheel type should be opened fully. Oxy-acetylene Safety * All acetylene connections have left hand threads. * Use soapy water to test for leaks. ReMOWAsLE METAL asestos_- ctor LONG Fone nebest0s monuTiae satery Fuse Iustration #1928 ~ Acetylene Cylinder PIPE WELDING Setting Up An Oxy-acetylene Outfit In this set-up, the equipment is being treated as though it were completely dismantled. All these steps are not necessary if only one part is being changed. 1. Stand the cylinders vertically and securely so that they will not be knocked over. 2. Uncap the cylinders. 3. Crack the cylinder valves to remove dust or dirt from the valves. 4. Attach the pressure regulators to the cyl- inder valves. Flat faced fittings of the type found on some acetylene regulator stems must have a fibre washer between the stem and the cylinder valve. 5, Attach the hoses to the regulators and tighten the connections. Oxy-acetylene Set-up 6. Release the regulator adjusting screws by turning anti-clockwise until they turn freely. 7. Open cylinder valves slowly, allowing a slow build up of pressure within the gauges. 8. Open the regulators one at a time to purge the hoses and remove dust, dirt, and talcum powder. 9. Attach torch, mixer, tip, and tighten firmly. 10. Adjust the working pressure for both oxygen and acetylene. 11. Check connection for leaks, use soapy water around the connections and look for bubbles. 380 PIPE WELDING Lighting A Cutting Torch . If the torch is of the combination type, open the torch handle oxygen needle valve fully. Delete this step if tis a heavy duty cutting torch. 2. Open the acetylene needle valve about one half turn and light. Increase acety- lene flow to desired proportions but do not attempt to take away all the smoke, or preheat will be excessive. 3. Add oxygen to preheat flames by slowly ‘opening preheat oxygen needle valve and adjust preheat flames to neutral. 4. Depress the cutting oxygen lever or trig- ger, and if the preheat flames feather, readjust to neutral with the trigger still depressed. 5. Before beginning the cut, ensure that the cutting jet is perfectly straight. Clean the tip with the correct sized tip cleaner. Oxy-acetylene Proper Torch Use Shutting Down Oxy-acetylene Equipment Close the acetylene torch valve, then the oxygen valve when cutting or welding is stopped. When welding or cutting is to be stopped for a considerable length of time, the following steps must be completed: 1. Close the oxygen and acetylene cylinder valves, Open the torch oxygen valve to release all pressure from the hose and regulator. Turn out the pressure adjusting screws of the oxygen regulator. Close the torch oxygen valve. Open the torch acetylene valve to release all pressure from the hose and regulator. ‘Turn out the pressure adjusting screw of the acetylene regulator. Close the torch acetylene valve. No oP wD PIPE WELDING Balancing a Torch (Welding or Brazing) The purpose of balancing a welding torch 1s to establish the maximum gas flow settings used for a particular welding tip. This com- pensates for normal regulator inaccuracies by setting the regulators under actual work- ing pressures. A welding torch should be balanced every time a tip is selected and the regulator pressure must be adjusted accordingly. This balancing process is used for both oxy-acetylene welding and brazing Balancing Steps 1. Slowly open the oxygen cylinder valve until fully open. 2. Slowly open the acetylene cylinder valve until fully open (key type valves are only opened one and one half turns). 3. Turn the acetylene regulator adjusting screw clockwise until fuel starts to flow. 4. Open the torch acetylene valve one half turn. Ignite the gas, then fully open the valve 5. Open the acetylene regulator valve until the flame just leaves the tip end icetylene Torch Balancin: 6. Adjust the gas flow with the acetylene torch valve until the flame is back to the tip and it docs not smoke. 7. Fully open the torch oxygen valve. 8. Slowly open the oxygen regulator valve until a neutral flame is obtained. See illustration #194. 9. Open the acetylene torch valve slightly and open the oxygen regulator valve to again obtain a neutral flame. 10. Repeat step #9 until the torch acetylene valve is fully open and there is a bright neutral flame. Note: When the oxygen and acetylene torch valves are fully open and a neutral flame is obtained, the torch is balanced for the selected tip. 11. Slowly turn down both torch valves until the flame suitable for the job is obtained The torch can be turned off by shutting off the torch acetylene first, then the torch oxygen. Note: The ideal tip flow is ata medium rate. 381 382| PIPE WELDING Types of Oxy-acetylene Flames * Carbonizing Flames - A flame thatis rich in acetylene, see illustration #193. * Neutral Flame - A flame that has no excess of acetylene or oxygen, see illus- tration #194. * Oxidizing Flame - A tlame that is rich in oxygen, see illustration #195. DOTTED UNE INDICATES WHERE END Mone 0, ABBE cone IMustration #194 — Neutral Flame Oxy-acetylene Flame Types [ff lustalion #185 ~ Oridzing Fame Cutting Torch Tip Hole Alignment The correct preheat hole alignment for cut- ting is indicated in illustration #196. (CORRECT FOR SQUARE EDGE 99 CUTTING ox ey (CORRECT FOR BEVEL CUTTING llustration #196 ~ Torch Preheat Hole Alignment PIPE WELDING Welding Symbols Welding symbols provide a method of con- veying complete welding information from the designer to the welder. Welding Symbols 383 Basic Symbols Arc and gas welding symbols are indicated in illustration #197A. Supplementary Symbols ‘Supplementary symbols used in connection racer | "ore | Seno | sean with basic weld symbols are indicated in stor | section illustration #1978. Kjelolse — bing FIELO "On ett eck | oun FLANGE aroun | WELD | eacking | THROUGH on ING Jexckina | FAC! EDGE | CORNER P } a a ev fel] JY It frasesr roove ‘conToUR sours] v [aval uv |» [AST RAE] [ rusn | comex | concwe i A a ae -—-{1a YU Ilustration #1974 — Basie Weld Symbols llustration #1978 ~ Supplementary Weld Symbols 384 PIPE WELDING Welding Symbol Construction Basic Rules When drawing the fillet, J, and bevel groove weld symbols, the perpendicu- Jar leg must always be on the left side, as in illustration #198A. ys OT Iustration #198A Perpendicular Weld Symbol @ Arrow Side - When the weld is to be made on the arrow side of the joint, the symbol is located on the bottom of the reference line, regardless of whether the arrow points up or down, as in illus- tration #198B. Welding Symbols Iustration #1968 ~ Arrow Side © Other Side - When reference is made to the other side of the joint, the weld symbol is located on the top of the ref- erence line, as in illustration #198C. Mustration #198C ~ Other Side Note: If the reference line is perpendicu- lar, turn the welding symbol 1/4 turn clockwise to determine arrow side and other side. PIPE WELDING 385 Welding Symbol Construction © Both Sides - When reference is made to both sides of the joint, the weld sym- bol is placed on the top and bottom of the reference as in illustration #198D. tration #1980 — Both Sides * Broken Arrow ~ When using a bevel or J-groove weld symbol, the arrow line must have a definite break toward the member of the joint which is to be pre- pared, as inillustration #198E. >, Ye tion #198E — Broken Arrow Welding Symbols WELDING PROCESS DESIGNATION LETTERS Welding Process Designation ‘razog Torch Braang 8 Gas veing _Onyacotyione Weidng __—_OAW esitance Resistance Spor Welding new ‘Weldng | Weng Sud Wetang sw Pasma-re Welding aww Submerged Ae Woting saw Gas Tungsten-are. Welding m6) craw Gas Meta-Ac Weling(M8G) GMAW Flux Coed Ac Welding Foaw Shelded Metal-are Welding {Stee Fectodo) maw Cutting Process we Gung ne fa Carbone Cting aac Piasma-Ave Cut Pac onygen Cun oc eta Pour Carton re ‘Table #82 ~ Welding Process Designation Letters 386| PIPE WELDING Welding Symbols Elements of a Welding Symbol FINISH Sv4tB0L — GROOVE ANGLE: INCLUDED CONTOUR SYMBOL soir or counts fo0r OPEN oermoF Fuume_\ fonpive weiss Fonnivean sor wcos EFFECTIVE THROAT — F tenor oF weto DEPTH OF Preparation size on bic (CewteR-TocENTER STRENGTH FOR CenTAn melo A | seacina) oF wevos SPECIFICATION. PROCESS, | FIELD WELD SYMBOL, (OR OTHER REFERENCE \ fl ARROW CONNECTING REF. ERENCE LINE TO ARROW SIDE MEMBER OF JOINT aL. car owrreo WHEN REFERENCE T 'SNOT USED) (N) . NUMBER OF Spot on REFERENCE Line PROJECTION weLOS WELO-ALLAROUND SYMBOL BASIC WELO SYMBOL ELEMENTS IN THIS (OF DETAIL REFERENCE AREA REMAIN AS. SHOWN WHEN TA, |ANO ARROW ARE, REVERSED llustration #199 ~ Elements of a Weld Symbol PIPE WELDING Position of Groove Welds warosmON ‘60 POSITION weio 2EPOSTION 'SGPOSITION HORIZONTAL FIXED PE Ig NoT JUnweD OF ROLLED Tice RELONG puares verricas [ovares veericat | PLATES HORIZONTAL WELDHOMBONTAL | welo VERTICAL | WELD OVERHEAD. 76 PoSiTION letares HORIZONTAL 26 POSITION weo | wel oe HORIZON YA Mlustration #200 — Groove Weld Positions Groove & Fillet Weld Positions 387 Position of Fillet Welds The F in the numbering system stands for fillet weld. seven Nisa Seams __ 4 PosmiON xs drei ‘xis oF weLd Mustration #201 Fillet Weld Positions PIPE WELDING Preparation of Pipe Test Coupons Most pipe test coupons should be tacked in the horizontal position. Bend a piece of wire into a vee-shape having a diameter equal to the width of the required root opening. Place this gap rod between the two coupons to act as a spacer. Align the coupons on the inside. With the pipe coupons properly aligned, one tack is made in the root of the joint, as in illustration #202A. The gap rod is then moved so that only the end is between the coupons. When the gap is correct, make the second tack 180° from the first tack, see illustration #2028. Remove the gap rod and adjust the gap until the openings are equalized. The third and fourth tacks are made 90° from the first two tacks, see illustration #202C. Pipe Test Coupon Preparation ‘ane TACK Iustration #2028 — First Tack. Mlustration #2028 ~ Second Tack IMustration #2020 — ‘Thied and Fourth Tacks 389 PIPE WELDING |__ Pipe Coupon Root Pass Variables RECOMMENDED ROOT PASS VARIABLES Pipe & Tube Wall Root Face ‘Longin of Number of Shisiding Gas weld type Biameter® thickness “Cand” G2 Space Potanty *Tgy °C “aces Pressure ‘SMAW. Ya (3.2 mm) all tea wr E6010, E7010 diameters —ALL_—«=««(@2 mm) (2532 Mm) reverse [13254mm) smaw SSF 25 em) a we wee we E5010. E7010 diameters ALL (25mm) (25mm) reverse (13254 mm) sMAW Yer (25 mm) a ae ae ws Eyois E8018 samoters «ALL «= «(25mm)— (Emm) reverse (1925Amm) 4 Maw Yaz" (28 mm) al ve! wee weer Slanoss Slee! diameters, «= ALLS (254m) (SM) toverse (19254 mm) GTAW tioger fest process, 25s thonated tungsten (25mm fier a 10 ae! wet wwe dameters ALL land (40mm) straight (13254 mm) isu tt GTAW gas cup ‘est process, 2a thonated tungsten "a (32 evn filer al 0 we ve we ameters ALL land (2.5mm) straight (19-254 mm) jseu ‘Table #83 - Recommended Root Pass Varlables 390 PIPE WELDING Polarity Check Use an E-6010 electrode in the normal heat range to determine the polarity of a welding machine if the terminals are not marked. If the arc blows wildly, the electrode is fas- tened to the negative pole and the polarity would be straight. If the arc reacts normally, the electrode is fastened to the positive pole and the polarity would be reverse. Note: Use only E-6010 or E-7010 for this test. Welding Electrodes A consumable electrode is a filler metal for welding. The American Welding Society (A.W.S.) has developed specifications for these filler metals. For the common E-60 and E-70 series of electrodes, the core wire is generally from the same wire stock Polarity Check/Welding Electrodes Itis S.A.E. 1010 carbon steel, having a car- bon range of 0.05% to 0.15%. Identification of Electrodes For identification, each class of electrode is designated by the letter E, followed by a four or five (five digit metric) digit number. The first two or three digits represent the first factor (minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld metal) expressed in thousands of pounds per square inch. For ‘example E60xx indicates 60,000 psi min- imum tensile strength (metric - three dig- its representing megapascals). The second last digit refers to the welding position in which the electrode can be used: E-xx1x - All positions E-xx2x — Flat and horizontal positions E-xx3x — Flat position only E-xx4x — Vertical down only | PIPE WELDING ___| Welding Electrodes _ 391 Identification of Electrodes E-xx15 - DC reverse polarity only The final digit indicates the type of elec- (lime sodium) trode coating, but may also be used to E-0x16 - DC reverse polarity or AC identify the type of current used, as well (lime potassium) — as the type of electrode coating. For full E-xx18 — DC reverse polarity or AC identification, however, the last two dig- (lime iron powder, its (sometimes called the usability identi- low hydrogen) fication) must be read together. E-xx20- DC en polarity or AC E-xx10 - DC reverse polarity only (mineral) E-xx24— DC either polarity or AC (rutile iron powder) E-xx27 - DC either polarity or AC (mineral iron powder) E-xx28 - DC reverse polarity or AC (lime iron powder, (cellulose sodium) E-xx11 ~ AC or DC reverse polarity (cellulose potassium) E-xx12 - DC straight polarity or AC (rutile sodium) E-xx13- AC or DC either polarity (rule potassium) 4x30 - Be ether polarity or AC E-xx14 ~ DC either polarity or AC (mineral) Y (rutile iron powder) E-xx28 - AC or DC reverse polarity (iron powder, low hydrogen) 392| PIPE WELDING Mild Steel Electrodes WELDING ELECTRODE SELECTION (ILD STEEL) Electrode Classification E6010 E601 E602 ESI ETE E7018 E7028 60a? Groove ut welds fat (>in) os 3 8 9 9 9 © Groove but welds atpostonsi>uin) @ 9 5 8 6 6 wm @ Fle welds, lor honor 2 3 8 7 98 98 @ 9 Fillet welds, all positions: @ 9 6 7 7 @ (b) tb) Curent) ocR acs ACR oR ACC Tria mateal (vein) s 7 8 9 8 2 7 & Heary pate o igh restiained joint 6 8 6 68 2 7 ° tighsuipnur or ofanalysi ste! ® © 5s 3 3 er) Deposition rate 4 4 5 5 6 6 @© & Depth of penetraton @ * 6 5s 6 7 4 8 sapesrance, undercuting 6 6 8 $ 9 © © Soundness 6 6 3 5 7 8 8 Dvetity 6 7 « § 6 5 Low spate oss 1 2 6 7 8 8 ©@ Poor tun 6 7 @ 8 3 «4 3 Weider appeal 7 6 8§ gs @© © © @ Slag amore 9 6 6 es «8 7 32 3 {a} Ratings ona comparative basis of same size lectodes wih 10 asthe highest valve, Raings may change wih size (0) Not recommended (©) OCA rect curent reverse, electode postive: OCS— orectcurent straight electrode negative: AC— Ateatingcurtent: BC — deck carer. ether poly ‘Table #84 Mild Stool Welding Electrode Selection PIPE WELDING Stainless Steel Electrodes Metallurgists have classified the more com- mon type of stainless steel in use today as martensitic, ferritic or austenitic. The mar- tensitic type is hard and brittle, the ferritic type by contrast is soft and ductile, while austenitic is strong, resistant to impact and ductile. It is evident that a different welding method is required for each. Chromium is the major alloy in stainless steel, although austenitic steel has both chromium and nickel. However, carbon is found in varying degrees, ranging from less than 0.35% in the E.L.C. (extra low carbon) grade to approximately 1.0% in some of the martensitic-type stainless steels. Enhanced mechanical and corrosion-resist- ant properties are obtained in some types of stainless steels by the addition of colum- bium, molybdenum, titanium, etc. Stainless Steel Electrodes The martensitic hardenable stainless steels generally have chromium contents between 11% and 13%. Some typical examples of these kinds are the designation of E-403, E-405, E-410, E-420 and E-440. When using martensitic stainless steel elec- trodes, preheating and postheating are required so that the weld metal will not be weaker than the base metal. The ferritic nonhardenable stainless steels have chromium contents greater than 13%. The higher chromium content makes those steels nonhardenable. Some typical exam- ples of these stainless electrodes are E-430, E-436, E-442 and E-446. These stainless steels require preheating and postheating. The austenitic nonhardenable stainless steels have at least 11% or 12% chromium and range up to about 26% chromium with additions of nickel from 3.5% to 22%. 394 PIPE WELDING Stainless Steel Electrodes The austenitic stainless steels are desig- nated as the 200 and 300 series. In the 200 series of steels, manganese is used to replace some of the nickel. Some common examples of these stainless electrodes are: E-302, £-304, E-308, E-310, E-316, E-321, E-347, E-201 and E-202. Preheating and postheating are usually not required, but preheating may be used to remove the chil. All stainless steel electrodes are furnished with an extruded type coating. These elec- trodes are available with a lime type coating for use with DC reverse polarity or with a tita- nium type coating for use with either AC or DC reverse polarity. The straight chromium electrodes are obtainable only with a lime type coating for DC reverse polarity. The lime coating is referred to as Type 15, as in 308-15, Stainless Steel Electrodes/GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) Gas tungsten arc welding is often referred to as “Tig” or “Heliarc” welding. Itis a pro- cess where a joining of metals is produced by heating with an arc between a non-con- sumable tungsten electrode and the work The electrode, arc, weld puddle, and adja- cent heated area of the work piece is pro- tected from the atmosphere by a gaseous shield, as indicated in illustration #203. _weronc. ‘Tore teat Iustration #203 - Gas Tungsten Are Welding 2 rte 900 PIPE WELDING Gas Tungsten Arc Welding There are specific advantages compared to. other welding processes, such as: the elim- ination of flux, less distortion, welds thin material in all positions, and creates very lit tle smoke and sparks. “Tig” welding equipment can be connected to almost any type of welding machine. The selection of power supply and equipment depends upon the material to be welded. The typical components required for gas tung- sten arc welding are shown in illustration #204. Welding Machines for “‘Tig’’ Welding A specially designed welding machine can be used for “Tig” welding. These types of machines usually contain a high-frequency generator which is used to aid arc starting when welding with alternating current. Alter- nating current is used for welding aluminum and magnesium. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 395, Other machines used for “Tig” welding are the AC, DC or rectified constant current welding machines as used for shielded metal arc welding oe lia lustration #204 ~ Equipment for “Tig” Welding “Tig’’ Torches “Tig” torches direct the shielding gas and hold the tungsten electrode. They are sized by current capacities. Some torches are water cooled. 396 PIPE WELDING Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Tungsten Electrodes Tungsten electrodes come in a variety of sizes and lengths. They may be either pure tungsten or tungsten alloys, either thorium or zirconium oxide. They are manufactured to AWS standards. Tungsten electrodes have a color identification band on the end, as indicated in Table #85. When preparing an electrode for use with direct current, the end of the tungsten is ground toa sharp point, as indicated in illus- tration #2054, TUNGSTEN IDENTIFICATION Type Color | Pure Tungsten green band ] Thoriated 1% | yellow band Thoriated 2% | red band Thoriated striped | blue band Zirconium brown band ‘Table #85 — Tungsten Color Identification Gas Tungsten Arc Welding When preparing an electrode for use with alternating current, use a hemispherical balled end. As a result of the heat and the AC current, the ball will remain at 1¥% times the electrode diameter. CC B Iustration #205A,8 — Tungsten Preparation GTAW Shielding Gas Shielding gas excludes the atmosphere from the welding area. The most commonly used shielding gases are argon and helium. GTAW Filler Metals The selection of a filler metal primarily depends on the type of base metal being joined. The filler wire is multi-dioxidized and is not subject to corrosion resulting from carbide precipitation. PIPE WELDING Gas Tungsten Arc Welding GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCEDURES Type of Metal Special Procedures | Current | Shielding Gas__| Type of Tungsten Carbon steel Argon or argon & | Thoriated pointed ie & pipe _| includes stainless__| DCSP_| helium end ickel, monel Argon or argon & | Thoriated pointed inconel ocsP _| helium end Titanium ocsP | Argon Thoriated pointed end Aluminum sheets, plates, Helium or argon & | Zirconium balled castings ACHF | helium | end Copper & ‘Argon or argon & | Thoriated pointed | copper alloys | sheets & pipe DcsP | helium end very thin material | ACHF — | Argon | Zirconium balled end DCsP ACHE _ direct current straight polarity alternating current with a high frequency ‘Table #86 — Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Procedures 397 PIPE WELDING Pipe or Tube Purging Mild steel pipe can be welded by the GTAW process without the use of purging, asa suf- ficient quantity of inert gas reaches the bot- tom of the joint to provide protection from the oxygen. Steel alloys containing chrome in per- centages higher than 2/% or nickel and nickel alloys must have extra protection at the bottom of the joint. This is done by filling the inside of the pipes in the region of the joint with an inert gas. Several methods can be used to contain the inert gas in the pipe; rubber pistons, plastic balloons, water soluble paper or bread. The purge gas can be supplied either through the purge dams or through the joint, see illustration #206. The purge tube can be a copper tube or a hose with a football needle fitted to the end. As argon is heavier than air, a vent must be provided to allow the air to escape. The pipe joint is taped shut and this tape is removed in sections just ahead of the weld Pipe or Tube Purging/Preheat + suPpuy HOSE THROUGH HE OPEN ENO OF THE PPE. OR + COpPER TUBE THROUGH Ilustration #206 - Pipe or Tube Purging Preheat For Welding Preheating before welding is a well-recog- nized preventive measure against cracking. Itwas used for many years before scientific, reasons were advanced to explain its func- tion in preventing cracks. The importance of preheating is shown by the fact that recom- mendations for preheating are written into modern welding specifications whenever there is the slightest risk of weld defect being present Note: Use caution, as preheat can not be used with some metals due to the intended use. PREHEAT FOR WELDING Metal Group Metal Designation Recommended Preheat PLAIN cAREON | PLAIN CARBON STEEL uP TO 200 F STEELS ‘CARBON MOLY CARBON MOLY STEEL 400 F600 F STEELS SILICON STAUCTURAL STEEL 300 F500 F MEDIUM MANGANESE STEEL 4300 F500 F MANGANESE | SAE 1330 STEEL 4300 F600 F STEELS | SAE T 1940 STEEL 500 F800 F ‘SAE 7 1350 STEEL 600°F-900 F 12% MANGANESE STEEL sual NT REQUIRED MANGANESE MOLY STEEL {300 F500 JALTEN STEEL 400 F-600 F MANTEN STEEL 400 F-600 F ARMCO HiGH TENSILE STEEL UP To 200F DOUBLE STAENGTH #1 STEEL 300 F600 F DOUBLE STRENGTH #1A STEEL 400 F700 F HGH OTISCOLOY STEEL 200 F400 F TENSILE | Nax HIGH TENSILE STEEL UP TO 300 STEELS | CROMANSIL STEEL 300 F400 F AW DYN-EL STEEL UP TO 300 F ‘CORTEN STEEL 200 F400 F CHROMECOPPERNICKELSTEEL | 200 F-400F CHROME MANGANESE STEEL 4400 F600 F YOUOY STEEL 200-600 F HESTEEL 200 F500 F ‘SAE 2075 STEEL ‘uP T0300 F SAE 2115 STEEL 200'F-300'F nicer | 22% NICKEL STEEL 200 F-400°F MOKEL | SAE 2015 STEEL. 20°F 500°F ‘SAE 220 STEEL 200°F-500 F ‘SAE 2390 STEEL 300°F-600F SAE 2040 STEEL [400-700 Buipjam 40) wayaid Table #87A — Preheat for Welding SNIGTAM Adid 66E PREHEAT FOR WELDING Hei Group Hein Designation | Recormended Rea THEDLM CHROME] i Gover No STEEL soo F200 F WOW steets | BuGetieMo STEEL 600 F200 F PLAN GH | Tatas Go TRE a0 S00FSOOF Gymowom — | tera G TPE 20 oor st0F Srens | dagen er Mee ss oo eo F 19 arens TYPE Soa) WBuauty DONT tow cHoMe | ae fyne toa neue SNES | SSa0 NPE se preven Sur TAIMESS | (Sato Type S47 Way ee ine no Tee ere DESIRABLE TO | iB Mo. HE 807 RewovE Gut sae ais STEEL 200-00 F See tas STEEL £20 00 F ae 100 STEEL £00 700 F She anao Steet 500 00 F Sie san Feet 620 200 F MEDIUM NOKEL | See 3215 STEEL 500 500 F cROMiM” | She sea STEEL 800 Teo F 1S ‘SAE 3240 STEEL 700-1000 F See azso Sree $0 100 F See furs Steet Soo a0 SaE does STEEL 00 a0 F Sat 3105 STEEL $00 110 F SAE aso STEEL 900 1100 F Sac ava0 Ses 00-800 F wow aeanne | Se <3 STEEL rao 00 F CHoumunran | She seis STEEL ‘00 a0 F Grmownunn | Sae se STEEL £00 a0 F wiceec steeis | SAE dew sreet 600 000 F Ste deze Steet SF Bonin wo STEEL 700600 F tow enmowe | 3 Giro STEEL $00 800 F | wowSrents | Stele sreet 900-700 F Blech Steet 600 000 ‘Table #878 — Preheat for Welding ONIGTAM Adid [00 BuIplam 10) yeaysig | PIPE WELDING Pipe and Fitting Alignment Before butt welded fittings, valves, or pipe can be tacked and welded together, proper fit-up or alignment must be achieved. If alignment is done incorrectly, welding is more difficult with a greater possibility of weld failure and system malfunction. Proper pipe and fitting alignment should include: Pipe end preparation Joint assembling and gapping. Tacking the joint. Alignment of pipe and fittings to other Parts of the piping spool Preparation for butt welding pressure pipe or matching fitting ends consist of V-bevel- ing the ends to an angle of 37 degrees. For wall thickness greater than 7/8 in. (22.2 mm), a compound or double angle bevel is used. See illustration #207A and #207B. The land or root face is approxi- mately 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch (1.6 to 3.2 mm). Pipe Preparation & Alignment This land helps to prevent the sharp edges of the bevel from burning off in the welding process. Welded pipe fittings and pipe lengths are supplied with standard beveled ends and only require cleaning. if the pipe has been cut or is not beveled, the bevel is usually placed on the pipe by the use of a pipe cut- ting and beveling machine or hand cut with an oxyacetylene torch. Hand cut pipe bevels usually require smoothing with a grinder or file. The land or root face of the joint is also made with a grinder or file. When it is necessary to butt weld pipe of unequal wall thicknesses, the pipe ends should be evenly tapered. The length of taper between the ends should be four times the offset thickness. The two recommended methods of joint preparation for unequal wall thicknesses are displayed in illustration #208. For valves and fittings with larger wall thickness than the pipe, the joint should be Prepared as shown in illustration #209. 1uror dep 01 ou yo 957 - oLze# uonensem seoeds aun ‘dig ssouyoids tenboun 10 sodey — g'yagz/ uoneasmn — uoneredeid jonog ~ a'yl0z# uoHtensri, (wwe) zens ww 91) ov i sone coon pet 1 “oat Gt i > a (wwig'o) .2er + (wut) we F (wut 61) omg i ou a eee eee eae we “ cy ‘y@nog Jo eysodw0 eas quawubliy 9 uonesedalg adig ONIGTAM adid | Z0r PIPE WELDING Joint Assembly Methods The pipe and/or fitting(s) to be welded together must be accurately assembled and gapped before tacking can take place. Gap or the root opening between the two ends must be evenly spaced with a distance of approximately 1/16 to 1/8 of an inch (1.6 to 3.2 mm). This space can be fixed by placing apiece of bent wire (V or U shaped) the same diameter as the gap needed between the ends to be joined. See illustration #210. Note: Joint preparation should include cleaning joint ends of any substance such as oil, grease, rust, paint, or scale that may interfere with the welding process. Not only must the gap between the beveled ends be maintained, but both the inside and outside surfaces of the joint must match evenly without high or low spots (referred to as hi-low). To maintain proper joint gap and hi-low alignment, clamps are often used. Two types of pipe and fitting clamps are shown in illustration #211A and #211B. Joint Assembly Methods Proper hi-low and alignment on smaller pipe and fitting sizes can be maintained simply by the use of a piece of angle iron, see illus- tration #212A. On arger pipe and fittings, pipe with thin wall or pipe slightly out of round, dogs can be made up to help in the alignment of hi-low. Using dogs to align pipe ends is displayed inillustration #2128. Backing Rings Backing rings are sometimes used to help maintain gap and alignment. These rings are placed inside the pipe and have nodules in the joint to maintain the gap, see illustration #213. The backing rings help prevent root pass burn through in light wall pipe, and pre- vent slag or spatter from entering the pipe. This ring becomes part of the piping system and may cause flow restriction. Some back- ing rings are described as consumable an¢ are designed to melt under welding heat. This type of ring is typically used with the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process ‘sBurt Supjoea s1gewinsuog - eiz¥ uopensn ‘sdweio juawubny Burd pue odid — a'viLz# YonEAMIE (Bana Bupeee e@eUNELOD eg psu uei9 edly pue ebuey eooung edi soa poveouqes uy uswWUBIIY edid ~ aziz UoReNENI Pig wowutay {voH oiBuy unum woUUBTY Odd — ¥zIZA# YOREDISMI spouren Aiquiassy quior ONIGTAM 3did [vor PIPE WELDING Tacking the Joint After the pipe and/or fitting(s) are aligned and properly gapped, four tack welds should be evenly spaced around the joint. The tacks maintain the spacing and alignment during the welding of the joint. The length of the tack weld should be approximately three times the pipe wall thickness. When using a spacer wire, the wire should be removed after the first tack is welded. The second tack weld is made on the opposite side from the first, 180 degrees opposite. The third tack ismade 90 degrees from either the first or second tack. Adjust the gap until the openings are equalized, or if one side of the root opening is slightly wider, then the third tack weld should be placed there. Any shrinkage in the third tack weld will even out the root opening space. The fourth tack weld is placed 180 degrees from the third. Com- mon tack welding locations for pipe and fit- tings are outlined in illustration #214A, B,C. Joint Assembly Tacking Note: After tacking, the alignment and gap spacing should be re-checked for accuracy. Allowances for shrinkage must be considered before making the 2nd and 3rd tack. There are many methods of aligning pipe and fittings to other spool parts or to blueprint specifications. The following information and illustrations #215 — #221 are not intended to be taken as the only methods of alignment, but are given as alternates to the many methods that may be used. | Tack Most Common Tack Method Iustration #2148 ~ Four Weld Tacks 406| PIPEWELDING _ | Joint Assembly Tacking/Fit-Up Tack #1 ‘Small Diameter Pipe Tee To Pipe Fit-Up N20" 3 Point Tacking . Align pipe and tee Por gap and hi-low. Tack on top. Again align, then open up bottom slightly to allow for shrinkage. Tack on bottom. Check gap on each side, tack widest side first, then opposite side. Two methods of checking the alignment are shown in illustration #215A and #215B, one 1 with two squares and the other by a square Mlustration #2148 ~ Three Weld Tacks and tape measure. IMustration #214C — Multiple Weld Tacks tara Pk 2 ge eps Tacks at « t0 6° (100 "mm to 150 mm) intervals —~ Large iametor Pipo| MubeTockng ald Ilustration #215A,8 ~ Fitting Pipe to Tees PIPE WELDING Two Square Method of Pipe Alignment 1. Butt joint together with proper gap. 2. Align for straightness and hi-low at the _ joint. 3. Tack on one side. 4. Onthe side opposite the tack, again align pipe for straightness, then open the joint slightly to allow for shrinkage, then tack 5. Roll pipe one quarter turn, check for straightness, open one side slightly and tack. 6. Tack opposite side. 7. Tacks should not be over % (19 mm) of an inch long. A lMustration #216 — Fitting Pipe Sections Joint Assembly Fit-Up Note: Two squares can be used to check pipe for alignment, see illustration 216. Pipe to 90° Elbow The proper fit up of a small diameter elbow is not as critical as two pipe sections which must be straight, due to the small size and ease of allowance for the pipe which must butt onto the other end of the elbow. The problem arises in the larger sizes. The difficulty in fitting up the pipe on the other end of the elbow seems to increase propor- tionately with the increase in diameter. If possible, check each pipe for a square cut end and also each fitting for squareness. For example, a 24 inch (600 mm) pipe cut 3/16 inches (5 mm) off square is indicated in illustration #217. 408 PIPE WELDING Pipe to 90° Elbow During fit up, the long or high side was tacked with a gap alittle too wide, and the short side was tacked a little too tight. When the fitter starts to fit pipe #2, he finds that a square joint will mean one spot butted tight together and opposite it a gap at least ¥ inch (6.5 mm) wide. This will mean time consuming work to grind down either the pipe or the elbow. Mustration #217 ~ Misaligned Elbow Joint Assembly Fit-Up 90° Elbow Fit-Up . Align pipe and elbow for gap and hi-low. Tack on top. ‘Again align, then open up bottom slightly to allow for shrinkage. Tack bottom. Check gap on each side, tack widest side first, then opposite side. Note: Two squares or a level can be used to check squareness, see illustration #218. oe ers lustration #218 - Fitting Pipe to Elbow PIPE WELDING 45° Elbow Fit-Up The fit-up procedure for a 45° elbow is simi- lar to that of a 90° elbow. Shown in illustra- tion #219A and #219B are two methods of checking the alignment, one ™ squares and the other by spirit level. maze ty iy & cS i 2 NOS ilustration #219A,8 - Fitting Pipe to 45 Degree Etbow Joint Assembly Fit-Up Pipe To Flange Fit: -Up . Butt up flange to pipe. Three things have to be watched at the same time, that is gap, hi-low and level of holes (two-holing the flange), see illustration #220. Tack on top. Align bottom, gap, then open slightly to allow for shrinkage. A square and tape measure or a vertical spirit level can be used to check squareness, see illustra- tion #221. 4. Tack bottom. 5. Using a square on the sides, check gap and squareness, then tack both sides. ep 410| PIPE WELDING Joint Assembly Fit-Up Pipe To Flange Fit-Up Small diameter Pipe Jig A jig made of channel is helpful in aligning small diameter pipe and elbows. Layout a 90° notch on both sides of a channel and cut out to forma “V". Heat, bend toa 90° angle, and weld. See illustration #222. lMlustration #220 Two Holing Flange tlustration #222 - Jig for Aligning Elbows IMustration #221 - Check Alignment of Pipe to Flange SECTION TEN QUESTIONS PIPE WELDING 1. Several welding hazards are mentioned at the beginning of this section. How many of these hazards are the responsibility of the welder to protect himself from? a. —_allofthem b. none of them c. 3 of them d. 2 of them 2. Apopular type of clothing for welders that sheds sparks well and is fairly inexpensive protective clothing to wear is: Answer: 3. Welders pants should not have . shirt pockets should have anda is worn to protect the head and hair. 4. List 3 hazards that a welder protects himself from by wearing a proper welding helmet. 1. 2. 3. Which of these shades of welding filter lenses would give the most protection? #4 #6 #8 #10 To protect the filter lens properly, a clear glass lens is placed in front and behind it true false po Bega The condition described as having sand in the eyes is called: nswer: Metal fume fever or zinc chills are caused from welding on: mild steel stainless steel galvanized stee! tusty steel B9oPm SN oD 9. Argon gasis lighter than air, therefore it does not cause any respiratory problems in confined spaces. a true b. false 10. State why oxy-acetylene regulators must never come in contact with oil or grease: Answer: 11. To ensure that oxy-acetylene equipment cannot be interchanged, all oxygen fittings have a hand thread and all acetylene fittings have a hand thread plus a cut into them. 12. The oxygen cylinder valve should be open when in use. 13. Acetylene is an unstable compound and should not be compressed beyond when in the free state. 14. Acetylene cylinders may be used in any position. a. true b. false 15. When an oxy-acetylene flame has no excess acetylene or oxygen, it is called: a. oxidizing b. neutral c. —_carbonizing 16. When the pre-heat holes are in line with the cut, the tip is correct for: a. square edge 90 degree cutting b. _ bevel cutting 17. _ When using a bevel or J-groove weld symbol, the plate to be prepared is indicated by a arrow. 18. Aweld test required the test plates to be in a horizontal position and the weld to be done flat; this is referred to as the: a. 3G position b. 1F position ©. 2G position d. 1G position 19. When preparing a test coupon for welding, the wire used to maintain the proper weld gap should be as thick as the ‘opening required. 20. Determine which of these electrodes can be used in all welding positions. a E6024 b. E6010 c E7027 d. E7028 21. The welding process that uses a non-consumable electrode and a shielding gas is referred to as: a MIG. b. GT.AW. c GMAW. d. S.M.A.W. 22. When using the GTAW, or Tig welding process with AC current, the tungsten end will be: a. pointed b. balled c. could be either 23. The usual pipe end bevel for fit up is: Answer: 24. To butt weld two pipes of unequal thickness, the thicker pipe must be tapered to match the thinner pipe. The length of taper to offset thickness ratio is: a 2tot b 3to1 c 4tot dno specific ratio required 25. When fitting two pipes, or a pipe to a fitting, what are two important considerations? Answer: 26. What fitting aid can be used on large diameter or out of round pipe to make the fitting easier and more accurate? Answer: 27. Explain why using a backing ring may not be advantageous. Answer: 28. — What two things must be considered when tacking two pipe sections together? Answer: 29. What three things must be considered when tacking a flange to a fitting or a pipe? Answer: SECTION ELEVEN RIGGING 412 RIGGING Fibre Rope The most common type of natural fibre rope used in the construction industry is Number ‘One Grade Manila. The other types of natu- ral fibre rope are not strong enough or dete- riorate too quickly. Manila Rope Number One Natural Manila is strong and durable. It is recognized by its light yellow color. As the grade and strength decreases, the color darkens. A low grade Manila is dark brown. The minimum breaking strength of a one inch diameter Manila rope is 9,000 pounds ( 4 082 kg). Nylon Rope Nylon is the strongest rope available. It will absorb greater shock load than any other and outlast all natural fibre ropes by a wide mar- gin. Nylon is flexible, has high abrasion resistance, can be stored wet, resists most alkalis and organic solvents. It will not rot. Fibre Rope Types/Safety Factors Rope Safety Factors For most uses, the safety factor of all rig- ging equipment, including fibre rope, is 5:1. When rigging equipment (including fibre rope) is used to hoist personnel or haz- ardous loads, the safety factor must be increased to 10 : 1. Safety factors are applied to compensate for the reduced capacity of rope for such rea- sons as: normal wear, exposure to sun and moisture; extra load imposed by jerky lifting and stopping; excessive sling angle; unknown load weight. Manila rope will fail with a static load as the rope fibres do not run the full length of the rope. They are intertwined and will pull apart under the load. If loaded within 50% of its breaking strength, the rope will fail in sev- eral hours, but if loaded within 75% of breaking strength, it will fail within minutes. This is due to creepage of the fibres. RIGGING Rope Safe Working Load/Knots 413 Knots and Hitches * The knot or hitch when tied holds without Most rigging applications involve the tying slippage. of knots and hitches ina method to ensure: * ‘The knot or hitch is suitable and retains ° Th ied and acceptable degree of rope strength. e knot or hitch can be tied and untied —, THEY not or hitch ensures the safety of quickly and efficiently. y y. people and equipment. "APPRONMATE SAFE WORKING LOADS OF NEW FIBRE ROPE (@ STRAND ROPES) SAFETY FACTOR OF § Nerina Rone Manta yon Polypropylene | Polyester Polyethylene inches (wm) | bs. [ko | os. | eo | be | tg | te | mo | be | 10 ve asa T 100 453] 200 | 807 | 150 | eo | 20 | 507] 150 | 080 we (ess; | tao | sea | Soo | wae] aso | woe] a0 | sso | 250 | rise Yo (en | 20 | G07 | B00 | zee) ato | tera | S00 | zee) 350 | ise os | 20 | ses | Joo | airs) soo | za | Teo | airs | S00 | 268 % azn | sao | p08 | 1250 | Seo | 800 ) aves | 1200 | sea] eo | S620 % fisen | 80 | S202 | 2000 | sore | 300 | seor | a0 | sore | soso | 763 Sos | 1080 | aae9 | 2000 | 1270 | 1700 | Sri | 2400 | v0e88 | 1500 | egos i Gees | seo | ses | seo | 17236 | 2200 | seo | asco | isez2| 2100 | S525 1” Gea | ta00 | tes | seo |errr2 | 2000 | 13:54 | 4200 | 19059 | 2500 | 113988 im 287 | 2400 | 0056 | 6300 | 2asre | 470 | 17010 | Som | 25001 | S300 | 14969 1a Grz | 2700 | tzee7 | a0 | S2ese | azo | roost | cao | 20576 | 3700 | 6783 Table #88 ~ Satety Factor of Fibre Rope (5 :1 SF) RIGGING Bowline The bowline is one of the most popular knots. Itnever jams or slips under load andis easily untied. It has a 50% efficiency, see illustra- tion #223. i. : lustration #223 ~ Bowline Bowline/Bowline on the Bight Bowline on the Bight The bowline on the bight is used to form a non slipping eye in the middle of a rope, see illustration #224, llustration #224 — Bowline on the Bight RIGGING Self Centering Bowline 415 Self Centering Bowline The self centering bowline is used when a __It compliments a barrel or scaffold hitch, as knot must be tied in the center of aload and _inillustration #225. an equal leg stress is required. 416| RIGGING Barrel Hitch/Reef Knot Barrel Hitch Abarrel hitch is used to support a barrel ver- tically. A self centering bowline is used to complete the knot, as in illustration #226. Reef Knot The reef knot has a reputation as a “killer knot”, as it can slip when not tied properly. Use only to secure the two ends of a rope. See illustration #227. { IMustration #227 - Reet Knot RIGGING Running Bowline/Clove Hitch a7 Catspaw Clove Hitch Acatspawis usedto attach aropetoahook. The clove hitch is used to tie a rope toa pipe Especially useful if the center of the rope is or post. It can be tied in position or slipped used. See illustration #228. over the end, as in illustration #229, Iustration #228 Catspaw 418| RIGGING Becket, Timber & Stop Hitch Becket Hitch Timber Hitch Abecket hitch is used to secure the endofa —_A timber hitch is used for moving planks, line or rope to the becket on a set of rope _ pipes, etc. The load must have a steady pull, falls, as in illustration #230. as any slack will release the hitch. It should be used with several half hitches. See illus- tration #231. Stop Hitch Astop hitch is used to maintain the pull ona line (wire or fibre), when the end of the line must be loosened and repositioned, as in illustration #232. Mlustration #230 ~ Becket Hitch LOAD LINE 4 sass if 1 fare THESE aNBHace Te % Mustration #271 — Timber Hitch lMlustration #232 - Stop Hitch RIGGING Double Half/Pipe Hitch 419 Double Half Hitch e Hitch This hitch is used to secure or tie off theend This is used for lifting a pipe vertically or of a rope to such objects as a pipe, post or _pulling horizontally. The rope is wrapped ring. See illustration #233. tightly around the pipe 4 - 5 times and fin- ished off with a double half hitch. See illus- tration #234. Hy we S Honzontal Hat Hach 1g Ww 5 2 zs SSSSSOy Invstration #928 - Onuble Halt Hitch Iustration #204 - Pipe Hitch 420| RIGGING Fibre Rope Strength Rope Strength With Knots, Bends When a hitch is tied in a rope it loses 25% of and Hitches its original strength. Straight lengths of rope without knots or splices represent 100% of its strength. When a knotis tied in a rope it loses approx- imately 50% of its original strength. Iustration #237 — Rope Strength Reduction with a Hitch When an eye splice or a short splice is tied ina rope it loses 20% of its original strength SSD soe Iystration #238 - Rope Strength Reduction witha Splice Ilustration #235 ~ Rope Strength Reduction with a Knot When a bendis tied in a rope it loses 50% of its original strength. ie llustration #236 ~ Rope Strength Reduction with a Bend When two ropes are bent in a U around each other, the strength is reduced by 50%. RIGGING Wire Rope Parts Mlustration #2398 — Wire Rope Components Wire rope is made of wires laid together to form a strand (illustration #239A). These strands are formed together into a rope, usually around a central core made of either fibre or wire, as indicated in illustration #239B,C. | Wire Rope Parts/Lays e Rope Lays The lay refers to the direction of winding of the wires in the strands, and to the type of strands in the rope. The term is usually applied to the two basic lays, which are Reg- ular Lay and Lang Lay. Regular Lay The wires in the strands are laid in one direc- tion, while the strands in the rope are laid in the opposite direction. The strand wires can withstand considerable crushing and distor- tion due to their short exposed length, see illustration #240 and #241 Lang Lay The wire rope strands and the wires in the strands are laid in the same direction. Lang Lay rope is not recommended for use on sin- gle part hoisting due to its tendency to Untwist. Its biggest advantage is its resist- ance to abrasion, see illustration #242 and (#243. Note: The term lay length means the lat- eral distance of one strand as it makes a comolete revolution. 421 422| RIGGING s SX Iustration #242 Right Lang Lay Iustration #243 Left Lang Lay Wire Rope Lays/Strands Strand Classification Strands are grouped according to the num- ber of wires per strand. The number of wires and the pattern defines the rope’s charac- teristics. The wires in the strands can all be the same size or a mixture of sizes. The four common arrangements are indicated in table #89. No. of | Wires Per Classification | ciends Strand @x7 6 3014 6x19 6 16 t0 26 6x37 6 27 10.49 8x19 a 15 to 26 ‘Table #89 ~ Wire Rope Strand Classification Note: The more wires ina strand, the more flexible the wire rope. The most common classification in the construction industry is6 x 19. RIGGING Safe Working Load (SWL) ‘The Safe Working Load application for most rigging jobs is based ona: 1 ratio. For wire rope this will be based on the wire rope breaking strength. More critical lifts, or any hazard to personnel requires a 10 : 1 safety factor. If using a breaking strength chart, calculate the (SWL) as follows: Breaking Strength Sate Working Load = nan Safety Factor ‘SWL Example 1: 1 inch (25.4 mm) LW.R.C. = Strength of 44.9 tons (40.7 tonnes). 44.9 tons (40.7 tonnes) ~ 5 (SF) = 8.9 tons (8.1 tonnes) SWL. Breaking Rule of Thumb (SWL) As it is difficult to remember the breaking strength of different sizes of wire rope when using the formula, a rule of thumb formula can also be used as a guide: | Rule of Thumb/SWL/Breaking Strength _|423 Diameter squared x 8 = (SWL) in tons. (This is based on a safety factor of 5) SWL Example 2: Find SWL of 3/4” wire rope 3/4 x 3/4 = 9/16 x 8 = 16 = 76 = 16 = 4.5 tons SWL Breaking Strength Rule of Thumb Formula An easy method of finding the approximate breaking strength of any size wire rope is by using the formula: Diameter squared x 45 tons (based on Improved Plow, wire core rope) Breaking Strength Example 1: Breaking Strength of 3/4” wire rope 3i4 x 314 x 45 = 9/16 x 45 = 25.3 Tons Breaking Strength. Note: Rule of thumb formulas are based ‘on an “‘inch-ton” ratio (ie: D? in inches x 45 tons, to give the BS of wire rope). Because of this ratio, these formulas can- not be applied to the Metric system. (S.W.L) | Wire Rope Safe Working Loads | ve 48 52 54 58 | Me 76 82 82 88 | we 20.60 22.14 22.60 24.28 | av 36.60 41.48 42.00 45.14 Table #90 — Wire Rope Safe Working Loads (S : 1 $F) ONIDDIY vey Bide PeOT BupOM oFeg odoy aM | NOMINAL STRENGTHS OF WIRE ROPE 6x 19 Classification, IWRC Nominal [Approximate [Diameter | Mass Nominal Strength* Improved Extra Imp. |__ Plow Stee!" Pow Stee'"* ‘metric metric Incnes_mm | ib kgm tons tonnes _tons_tonnes va 64] o12 o1| 298 267 340 308 | se 8 | 018 027) 458 416 5.27 478 % 95] 026 039) 656 595 755 685 [ve 115] 035 052] 889 807 102 9.25 = 13 | 046 o68| 115 104 133 121 sis 145/059 088) 145 132 168 182 se 16 | 072 107) 177 162 206 187 Lx ia | 10a 15s] 256 232 294 26.7 % 22 [142 211| 346 314 398 361 [1° 26 | 185 275) 449 407517 46.9 29 | 234 343] $65 513 650 59.0 32_| 299 450] 694 630 799 725 as [ 35 521] 635 757 960 871 38 | 416 619] 989 897 114 103 42 | 498 7.26] 115 104 132 120 45 | 567 44] 193 121 153 139 43 | 65 967] 152 198 174 158 62 | 739 110 | 172 156 198 180 54 | 835 124 | 192 174 at 200 s7_| 936 139 | 215 195 247d eo [104 155 | 239 2177s 2D e4 [116 173 | 262 238 302,274 67 |128 190 | 28 261 331 300 7o_|140 208 | 314 285361 327 “To convert to Kilonewtons (kN), multiply tons (sominal strength) by 8.898; tip ~ 4.448 newtons (N) Available with galvanized wires at strengths 10% lower than listed. ‘Table #91 - Wire Rope Bre ing Strength ONIDDIN 21qe1 ybuasys Buljeaig edoy a1 sey 426| RIGGING Winding Wire Rope on a Drum If the rope is Right Lay, imagine the right When installing a rope on a drum or winch, __fist as the drum, and the index finger as stand behind the drum and face it. The right the rope. The wire rope will attach to the hand represents Right Lay Rope andthe left drum on the thumb side. The hand is palm hand represents Left Lay Rope. Make a fist. 40wn for an overwound drum and palm and extend the index finger. up for an underwound type. This method is indicated in illustration #244, Winding Wire Rope on a Drum Left Lay — Overwound Right Lay — Overwound Right Lay — Underwound Mustration #244 ~ Using Hand to Indicate Proper Rope Position on Orum RIGGING Wii Winding Wire Rope Reel to Drum ‘When unwinding wire rope from its storage reel to another reel or drum, the wire rope must be reeled from the top of one reel to the top of the other, or from the bottom of one to the bottom of the other, see illustra- tion #245 and #246. Do not cross wind from top to bottom ding Reel To Drum 427 Mustration #248 Proper Winding From Bottom to Bottom Drum Winding Tips * A minimum of 3 wraps should be on the drum atall times (check with OCHS/OSHA as the requirement may be up to 5 wraps in some areas). * The drum end of the rope should be anchored by a clamp supplied by the manufacturer. * The flange on a drum should project 2 istration #248 - Proper Winding From Top to Top minimum of 2 diameters beyond the last layer of rope. + Whenever possible, not more than three layers of rope should be on the drum at one time. This helps to avoid crushing of the wire rope. onUM $9001 97 | Z __428 RIGGING Wire Rope Clips U Bolt Type - When using U Bolt clips, the U bolt section must be on the dead or short end, as indicated in illustration #247. Always use a thimble to prevent the wire rope chok- ers from wearing the eye. Tighten the clips before tension is placed on the rope. Then tighten again after a load has been applied. It is important to match the clip lay to the wire rope lay, otherwise the sharp ridges between the corrugations in the forging will run across and cut the strand. Note: Remember, never saddle a dead horse. This means the U Bolt part must always be on the dead end of the wire rope. Fist Grip Type (J Clip) - The fist grip clip offers a wide bearing surface for maximum. strength and greater holding power. A wrench can be swung in a full arc for fast installation. Note: Clips properly attached are effi- cient to approximately 80% of the ropes strength. | Wire Rope Clips/Number and Spacing Mlustration #247 - Eye Using U-Boit Clips lMlustration #248 ~ Eye Using Fist Grip Clips Number & Spacing Formulas Number of Clips - Rule of Thumb Number of wire rope clips = the diameter of the rope x 3 + 1 to the next whole number. Example: 1 1/2 inch wire rope: 1 1/2 x 3 + 1 to the next whole number = 6 clips Spacing of Clips - Rule of Thumb Spacing of wire rope clips = the diameter of the rope x 6 Example: 1 1/2 inch wire rope: 11/2 x 6 = 9inch spacing RIGGING Wire Rope Clips Table ‘Table #92 Wire Rope Clips (Number and Spacing) "APPLICATION OF WIRE ROPE CLIPS Telolt and Saddle Type integral Saddle and Bolt Type Rope Diam, [Minimum ‘Amount of Rope Torque | Mmom ‘Amount of Rope Torque Tnches No. of To turn back ” No.of to turn back it n ins. inches trom Trimble | tos Foot_| Cips inches rom Trimble _| Lbs. Foot we 2 3u = = = = he 2 3a = 2 ae 30 va 2 ri 5 2 ae 30 sie 2 5 30 2 4 20 ae 2 ou 5 2 5 5 the 2 eu 8 2 Sue 8 we 3 " 55 2 62 fa se 3 uy 95 3 me 130 oe 3 2 98 3 5 130 u 4 13 130 5 1“ 330 % 4 ane 225 4 23 225 1 4 2a 25 4 25 225 We 5 28 225, 4 23 235 ie 5 30 380 5 20 360 1 6 are 380 5 45 so | We 6 ao 380 5 ey 500 18 6 a2 35 m 6 6 465 2 7 62 650 “Apply fst cp one base widih rom end ofwre rope Tighten nuts “poy al other cips. leaving equal space between [Apply second clip nearest thimble. not tighten ut. teach clip For maximum hosing power snstall 6 oF 7 ss) a L ‘Sameters apart Take up rope siack — TIGHTEN ALL NUTS EVENLY ON ALL CLIPS to recommended toraue. 429 430 RIGGING General Shackle Rules Shackles The screw pin anchor type is the most com- monly used shackle. The safe working load of each shackle should be stamped on the bow section and is rated in tons. The shac- kle is sized by the diameter of the bow sec- tion, not the pin diameter. Note: Never replace the shackle pin with a bolt. OO « (L \\ ¢ \ Mis Wb alhib SoREW Pi ROUND PIN SAFETY TYPE a) ()) 5 rt i Mustration #249 Types of Shackles A Use a Shackla to Connect More Than One Sing Eye and Praca Shackle Pin in the Hook B. Use a Shackle when Choking Loads to Prevent Eye Loop Damage and Place the Shackle Pin in the Eye Loop (NOT on the Running End where it may Work Loose) llustration #2508 — Position Pin in Eye of Choker ©. Use the Correct Size Shackle for the Load and Hook on. Use Spacer Washers to onter the Shackle 2 itustration #250 — Use Spacers to Balance Shackle on Hook RIGGING Shackle Safe Working Loads | Shackle Safe Working Loads/Hooks Hooks SHACKLES Weidiess Construction Forged Alloy St Stock Tnsde woth | Max Sale Working Diameter ALPin Load Single Vertcal (loches) inches) Pull (Pounds) we 38 665 va "Sa 1.000 se ve 1.500 a baw 2000 ne ae | 3.000 he 000 se 6.500 u wwe 9.500 " me 13.000 1 we 17.000 18 16 19.000 1 2002 24.000 18 au 27.000 m 20 34.000 ™ 28 50.000 2 a 70,000 2 oa 100.000 3 5 150.000 ‘Table #93 - Shackle Orta ‘All hooks should be made from forged steel, except grab and sorting types. The safe working load should be stamped on the hooks. The safe working load is reduced if the load is applied anywhere between the saddle and tip of the hook. See illustration #251. Inspect hooks regularly and look for wear in the saddle, plus cracks and corrosion. The throat will open if the hook has been over loaded. Destroy the hook if there is any distortion. OCHS/OSHA regulations specify the hook must be destroyed if the throat has opened 15%, or the body has twisted 10 degrees. All hooks should be equipped with safety catches. 431 432| RIGGING | Hook Loading/Turnbuckles Hook Tip Loading Turnbuckles The safe working load is based on the out- side diameter of the threaded portion. The saumceo . , . conr Safe working loads are indicated in table #94. OAD” OFF CENTER orrcénTeR FF cENTeR——_cOKOING |f vibration is present, a well lubricated turn- buckle can loosen; therefore, it is important to lock the frame of the end fitting (a piece of + wire can be used). Do not use jam nuts if the turnbuckle didn’t originally have them, as © _ they add to the load on the thread x TURNBUCKLE SAFE WORKING LOAD ton | Stock | Jaw, Eye, Stub, | Hook End Diameter | | End Fittings Fitting caNcanRY —caNcanmy —cancanm —_cancany —_cancanny |_tnehes) {Pounds} = cornareo “trans” “Graco” “ornare” “or nareo™ a ean oa aD Bao ue Sao Sab se 800 “° ° % 1,200 4,000 {Mustration #251 - Examples of Hook Tip Loading % 21200 1,500 % 3,500 21250 % 5,200 3,000 * 7.200 4000 1 10,000 5,000 1% | 1200 5,000 ™% 21,400 7500 ™ 28.000 = '#94—Turnbuckle Sate Working Loads | RIGGING | Eye Bolts 433 Eye Bolts The safe working load for shoulderless and shouldered eye bolts are the same for verti- cal loads. Angular loading is not recom- mended for shoulderless eye bolts. All eye bolts used in the construction indus- try should be equipped with shoulders and be made of forged alloy steel. The safe working load is reduced with angu- lar loading. See Table #95. wy EYE BOLTS — Shoulder Tye Only conor — Forged Carbon Steel ) s THEI ‘Siock Diameter [SAFE WORKING LOADS (LBS) CORRESPONDING TO ANGLE OF PULL (inches) Verical 75° or | Less than 45 7. 500 275 175 125 on 800 440 280 200, * 1,200 660 220 300 it 2200 1210 7 530 % 55500 928 1.228 Fa Not x 5200 21860 120 1.300 RECOMMENDED 1 7/200 31960, 2520 4800 1 10,000, 3500 5's00 21500 % 15200, 8:360 5.320, 3800 wh 24400 11970 700 | _51380, ‘Table #95 — Eye Bolt Sate Working Loads 434 RIGGING |_ Eye Bolts/Spreader Beams Eye Bolts For angular lifting, the eye must be aligned as indicated. A shim may be used for correct alignment. See illustration #252. Do not insert the point of a hook in an eye. Always use shackles for connecting, as in illustration #253. Whewine ere wovts ‘CaANOT BE ALIGNED USE A Sun OR WASHER Iilustration #252 ~ Align Eye Bolt for Angular Lifting FER INCORRECT CORRECT - USE A SHACKLE llustration #253 ~ Never Put Hook Tip in Eye Bolt. Spreader Beams Spreader beams are used to support long, hard to handle loads. The use of these beams eliminates load tipping, sliding or bending. They also decrease the possibility of low sling angles. See illustration #254. Note: Custom fabricated lifting beams, or any other lifting device, must be designed by an engineer and have its capacity clearly stamped. It should be test lifted at 125% of rated capacity. i tlustration #254 ~ Typical Spreader Beam RIGGING Sheaves Always check the condition and dimensions of sheave grooves before a new wire rope is, placed in service The bottom of the groove should have an arc of support of at least 120° to 150°, as indi- cated in illustration #255. IMustration #255 ~ Ares of Sheave Supporting Wire Rope To ensure a long and efficient rope life, the grooves should be smoothly contoured, free of surface defects and have rounded edges, Sheaves When the groove diameter wears to less than the values for minimum conditions, regroove or replace the sheave. This is indicated in table #96. + Cosme ust Jj aan Nef ans “Amount By whieh the Groove Diameter should exceed the 13160 2h el he | ‘Table #96 ~ Sheave Groove Data 435 436, RIGGING Sheave Diameter Do not operate wire rope over sheaves which are too small in diameter. When using small diameter sheaves, the excessive and repeated bending and straightening of the wires leads to premature failure from fatigue. The recommended “critical” diameters are shown in table #97. SHEAVE DIAMETER TABLE) { Rope Minimum] Critical Construction Diameter | Diameter 6x9 Seale 34xD | 20x0 6x 19 Filler Wire 30x0 | 16xD 6 x 19 Warrington 30xD | 16x0 8x 19 Seale 26xD | 16xD 8x 19 Filler Wie 26xD | 16xD 6 x 22 Filler Wire 23xD | 16xD 8x 19 Warrington 21xd | 14x0 8x 19 Filler Wire 21xD | 14x0 8x37 Seale taxd | 14x50 Table #57 Sheave Diameter Data Note: The sheave diameter rule of thumb requires the critical diameter of a sheave to be at least 20 times the diameter of the wire rope. Sheave Diameter/Snatch Blocks Snatch Blocks Snatch blocks are used to change the direc- tion of a wire rope. The block can open so alll the rope does not have to feed through. See illustration #256. lustration #256 — Typical Snatch Block The stress on the snatch block varies with the angle between the lead and load lines: To determine the stress on a hook, multiply the pull on the lead line by the correct factor from table #98. Note: When the lead and load lines are parallel, the stress on the block hook is double the weight of the load, therefore the rigging holding the block must sup- port at least double the load weight. RIGGING Snatch Blocks Snatch Blocks The angles between the lead and load lines are indicated in illustration #257. 2000 POUNDS smo PouN0s 5) G a ltrs B LO treras 110 FUNDS Pounos Le Ilustration #257 ~ Liting Tension on Snatch Block Hook 437 MULTIPLICATION FACTORS FOR ‘SNATCH BLOCK LOADS ‘Angle Between Lead | Multiplication and Factor Load Lines | 10° 1.99 20° 197 30° 1.93 40° 1.87 50° 181 60" 173 70° 164 80° 1.53 90" 141 100° 1.29 110° 1.15 120° 1.00 130° 84 140° 68 150° 52 | 160° 35 170° 47 180° _ 00 Table #98 — Snatch Block Factors 438| RIGGING | Slings & Chokers Slings and chokers are continually sub- jected to abnormal abuse due to overload- ing, abrasion, crushing, kinking and impact loading. Extra stress is often put on chokers when the sling angle is decreased to unac- ceptable levels. There is no consistent safety factor used for slings by wire rope manufacturers and the authors of safety books. The safety factors of charts and formulas vary from a low of 5:1toahigh of 8:1. The rule of thumb formula to find the safe working load (SWL) for a sling or choker is. Diameter in inches squared x 6 = SWL in tons. D? x 6 = SWL SWL Example: 3/4 inch wire rope 3/4” x 3/4” x 6 = 9/16 x 6 = 3.4tons(SWL) Note: Based on a 6 : 1 safety factor. For- mula does not apply to metric sizes. Sing Les le/Grommet Slings _ Grommet Sing Bridle Sing lustration #258¢ ~ Bridle Sting (24eg) Ilustration #2588 ~ Grommet Sting Iystration #258A — Single Leg Sling RIGGING Basket Hitches 439 Single and Double Basket Hitch This is a method of supporting a load by wrapping the sling around the load and securing both ends of the sling on the hook. Make sure this hitch is used on loads that balance and cannot shift and slip out of the sling, see illustration #259A. Do not place slings too far apart, as this could produce extra stress on the legs. Double Wrap Basket Hitch This basket hitch has one extra wrap com- pletely around the load. Itis excellent for pipe and tubes. The hitch exerts full 360 degree contact and pulls the load together, see illustration #259B. Note: Sling charts rate a basket hitch at 200% of a single vertical hitch. To get the full basket rating, the load diameter to sling diameter ratio must be 20 : 1. Lifting a rectangular load will not allow the 200% basket rating. CL Ilustration #259A~ Double Basket Hite © sno weap Bastet Hitch Double Wrap Basket Hi Lead Compressed — by Complete 360 degree tun tlustration #2598 — Double Wrap Basket Hitch 440 | RIGGING Ringle and Double Wrap Choker Hitches The choker hitch tightens as the load is lifted due to the noose formed at the point of choke, see illustration #260. The single choker hitch does not provide full 360° con- tact with the load and should not be used to. liftloose bundles. A double wrap choker hitch is in full contact with the load because the choker is wrapped completely around the load before it is hooked into the vertical part of the sling, and should be used when lifting loose material Such as Pipe. croxer Hach Dove Wrap Load Compresses by Complete 360 degree turn llustration #260A,8 - Single and Double Wrap Choker Hitch Choker Hitches Double Choker Hitches The double choker hitch is made up of two single chokers that are spread and attached tothe load. The hooks must be pointing out, as indicated in illustration #261. The double choker hitch does not provide full 360° con- tact with the load and should not be used to lift loose bundles. An extra wrap should be used when lifting pipe. Note: A choker hitch is rated at 75% of a single vertical hitch. Keep Hooks Turned Out \ ors Mlustration #261 Double Choker With Hooks Turned Out RIGGING Synthetic Web Slings Mustration #262 ~ Syathetic Web Sling Synthetic web slings are available in a num- ber of eye configurations. See illustration #264. Note: These slings are manufactured in single and double ply. The double ply capacity ranges from 140% to 200% that ofa single ply, depending upon sling type and hook up. Check before assuming that a double ply will carry twice the load of a single ply. See table #99A for capacity examples. Note: A rule of thumb for an eye type sin- ale ply is a SWL of 1600 Ibs. per inch of width. Synthetic Web Slings/Roundslings Synthetic Roundslings (Color Coded) The synthetic roundsling is a flexible, light- weight sling made up of load carrying fibres covered with a tough non-load carrying cover. It is color coded for easy capacity recognition. Normal cover damage does not affect the strength, and wear points can be moved around. They are extremely flexible with limited stretch. A safety feature is that the cover will rip when the sling is being overloaded and overstretched. See illustra~ tion #263 for an example. The colors and capacities are shown in table #99B. IMustration #263 ~ Synthetic Roundsting 442| RIGGING | Synthetic Web Slings Synthetic Web Slings — om TRIANGLE AND REVERSE EVE ENDLESS OF (CHOKER FITTINGS SUNG GROMMET SLING Iustration #264 ~ Synthetic Sling Types ‘SYNTHETIC WEB SLING giz CAPACITIES 3 2 TRANGLERTTTINGS | GROMMETSLING zg Single Py tbs. - (Single Ply Kos)_| Single ly Ls. (Single Ply os)_| = | wan wath = S| veel | choker | saster | Ines | vera | corer | sane | & 1 7] 2700 | 2500 seco | & (nn) | cesmm | dean | ran | ee60 | F | aoe | amo | oo Te | aot | ast0 | 3600 | = isin) | eso | ovo | 900 | isimm | creo | coun | so | 3 3 a0 | 3600 | 9600 ye | 7200 | se00 | rao] B ccimm | veo | caso | e860 | emmy _| 227 | oso) | 840 | e190 «200 | 12600 Jasco | anm0 | 19200 | «cémm | (2ann | ceo | 300 | cioemm | eas | 4000 | i720) = | atoo | s000 | 16000 Js] sean 1200 24000 (127mm) | (9630) | (2720) | (7260) | (127mm) | (S440) | (5080) _| (10860), © | sao | 7200 | 19000 |g | seaoo | s2s00 | zasoo rst) | ciao | care | reo | (sem | (san_| (or | 360 =| rzen0 | e600] 25600 |g | isa00 | 4200 | 20600 czas | tara | can | 42620 | cod | case) | asm | ae] | Ay 10] 6000 | ‘e000 ] aeoo0 | ror | 17200 | 16000 f seam] 2 estnmy | Ceo | ted | ces20 | este | cree) | caro) | (8600) [5 Te] sa00 | taa00 | seaao | 12 | zovo0 | 19000 f a00 5 colin | G8 | a | cs | oxtnm | Bein | tao [oe | |e Double Py Lbs. - (Double Ply Kgs.) | Double Ply Lbs. - (Double Ply Kos.) 3 r =] 390 | 1000] 10800 = smn) cesmm | ees | cso) | o00 = >| woo | samo | some |e | as00 | eon | 19000 & stm | oun | (726 | coeo | sim _| en | (s2ro_| creo a 3 | e7o0 | se00 | soson | | saaoo 0800 | 27300 = tammy | ci) | G0 | cen | mm | 00 | cee | civen | | | saa0 | 1700] sec00 |e | goon | fea00 34500 a (10mm | cata, | caso | reo) | oem | erro | (6sa0_| (7420 =] treo] 00] apao0 = | 2aaco | 16800 | 0700 | craton | 6080 | 0) | ore | 127m | ews | rez | 720, & | sao0o ] 11100] 26000 e°] anaco 18700 | S000 costnmy | 900 | 6220 | C1800 | 1s2rm | coat | (eam) | (6120 @ | seo] 15000] ase00 |g soe00 2xam0 | 61200 zon) | area | 6520 | e280 | ens | cr3n0) | (em, | eran | so] 22400 | 1000 | azgon | vor] seto0 | 21000 | sa00 casa | (0200 | 6570 | enkeo | estrmmy | 6am | 1170 | (1280 | 26500 ] 22800 | 00 | iar | arena | zazoo | 2000 cain | zs | 5460 | as800 | ccs | cian) | 20) | 7540 Table #994 ~ Synthetic Sting Capacties Ek g 3 444| RIGGING Synthetic Round Synthetic Roundslings gs ROUND SLING DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITIES ‘APPROXIMATE DIMENSIONS CAPACITIES IN LBS. Body Dia. Weight | Body Dia.| Above |Thickness| Width Minimum Color_| Lb/Ft | Relaxed | Load | AtLoad | AtLoad | Vertical | Choker | Basket | Length Purple 2 er Yar 2,650 | 2,120] 6,300] ait. Green 3 5" % 5,300 | 4,240 | 10.600] 3ft. Yellow 4 %" h" 8,400 | 6,720 | 16,800] 3tt. Tan 5 %" a" 40,600 | 8,500 | 21,200] 3t. Red 7 " 5 13,200 | 10,660 | 26,100] 3ft. Orange 8 " Se 16,800 | 13,440 | 33,600] 6 ft. Blue 12 1m" | me 21,200 | 17,000 | 42,400) 6 ft Grey 20 1%" |" 31,700 | 25,300 | 63,400) ft Brown 3.0 2" |" 52,900 | 42,300 | 105,800| 8 ft Note: Sling characteristics are regulated by ANSI B30.9 ‘Table #998 — Synthetic Roundsling Capacities, RIGGING Sling Angle The safe working load of any sling configu- ration depends on the size of the sling and the angles formed by the legs to the horizon- tal of the load. ‘Atwo legged sling with an angle of 90° on each sling would have exactly 50% of the load on each leg, see illustration #2654. soo __|500 s7s/ \svs oo | 0 wo | A B 1000 to57S205 10092 :000 8 ao" C fe 190 llustration #265 ~ Sing Angle Atfecting Tension Sling Angle/Safe Lifting Angle As the angle decreases, the load on each leg will increase. At 30°, the load on each leg will ‘equal the load itself, as indicated in illustration #2650. Note: The recommended safe lifting angle is 60°. See illustration #266. lMustration #266 - 60 Degree Safe Lifting Angle i [445 446| RIGGING Sling Leg Stress Mlustration #267 shows a 2,000 pound (908 kg) load carried by two slings (half the load and one sling is illustrated). 2,000 POUND LOAD Iustration #267 ~ Sling Leg Stress Chart 5° 47473185] 6 x LOAD 10° — "TEEBIBS} 9x Load ~e PPELBS] 1 81/2x LOAD DUD LBS_] STRESS - LOAD \ \ Nv Petronas Sling Leg Stress The loading on one sling leg as it moves out to different angles is shown. In a vertical lift, itis 1,000 pounds (454 kg), and ata5° angle, it is 11,470 pounds (5214 kg), or nearly 6 times the load weight. RIGGING | Sling Stress Formula This formula is accurate on symmetrical loads. A tape measure and basic math can be used for calculations rather than degrees and angles. All slings must be of equal length and the center of gravity must be at load center. The formula is: Wyk “oN XV tension per leg (pounds or kg) load weight (pounds or kg) number of sling legs sling length (feet or meters) vertical height (feet or meters) 9 Length Height Y i ci ] v Weight w Mustration| #268 ~ Calculating Sling Stress by Formula _Sling Stress Formula Sling Stress Formula Example W = weight = 5,250 pounds (2986.4 kg) number of leg Vertical height = 8 feet (1.524 m) sling length = 8 feet (2.438 m) WIN x LIV Imperial Solution: T = 5250/2 x 8/5 = 42000/10 = 4200 Ibs. Metric Solution: T = 2386.4/2 x 2.438/1.524 = 3,048 = 1908.8 kg Tension per leg = 4,200 Ibs. (1908.8 kg) Note: This formula is for any number of sling legs. However, it is strongly recom- mended that the formula be applied using only two legs, as there is no way of know- ing whether each leg of a three or four leg bridle is carrying its share of the load. With an inflexible load and more than two legs, itis possible to have all the weight on only two legs, while the others merely balance the load. 5818.04/ 448 RIGGING Centering a Load When preparing a lift, the main considera- tions are weight, size and the center of grav- ity of the object. Estimate the center of gravity and spot the hook directly over it. See illus- tration #269, A load rigged with the hook not posi- tioned above the center of gravity will always swing when lifted. This changes the load distribution on the slings. llustration #269 - Hook-Up With Hook Over Center of Gravity Centering a Load/Softeners Softeners All sharp corners should be covered by pads or softeners to prevent the sling from being bent or cut. These softeners can be pur- chased, or made from a split pipe section, padding or blocking, see illustration #270. A good rule to follow is to make sure that the length of contact of the wire rope is equal to one rope lay, or seven times the rope diam- eter. llustration #270 - Use Softeners on All Sharp Corners RIGGING Sling SWL Wire Rope Sling SWL | 449 Venieal Lit Choker Hitch Basket Hitch ‘Two Pan Brile Sing ‘Table #1008 ~ sting Configurations for Table #1008, 450| RIGGING Wire Rope Sling SWL Sling SWL SUNGHITN TYPE ANGLE FROM HORIZONTAL ope sice | _vericrun | crorernen | vesteten wo e ww was] mm [Poa | ka [Pods | xg [Ponds | na | Pounds | Ke [Pune] “va Rana | na me | fa ‘| 64| seo] a7 | 700] are] 1840) 005] 1.700] aor 1.600] 726] 1.200] seo | soo ~ai7 %4 | 95] 2020] 916 | 520] 690 4.040] 1a20 000] 7760] 500] 1567} 20n0| v2ar| 2020] sve % fer 106 | 2.000] 1270 | 7.<@0| 000 | 7.20| ors. | e.a00| 2220-| 5200] 2305 | 700] 1606 7H [6 2540| «.200| 1905 | 11.200] 5080 | x0.a0| «017 | 0.700] 400 | 7.920] 2592] s.600| 2500 7 [8 3685 | 6.050] 27a8 | 16.160] 7290 | 15.620| 7004 | 14.020] 6350 [11.060] 5190 | 0.000] o685 7h [223 080,{ .160| 3710 | 21840] 9906 [21.100] e671 [1.920] e582 | 15.400] 7022 [10520] #959 7 [esa 8232 | 10.600| «Gee | 20.360| ease | 2.400] 10430 | 24.600] 1158 | 20,060] 9000 fv4.190| 6aae [i [ea 7387 | 12.00] 5670 [99.520] 15114 | 32.200] 14851 | 26,000] 13109 [29.500] vo060 [16.600] 7557 aE) 9207 | 15.540] 7009 {«1.400] 19936 |e, 12016198 | 36,000| 16330 [20.900| v3200 [20-740] 9407 Pe [os 1150 | 19.000 este | 50.680 72008 | «9,000 2028 | x,e80[ 10008 [35.600] 16257 [25,00] 1458 Ti [38 73889 [22,060] 10415 | 63.240] 27778 | s9.500| 29999 [s0.020| 24058 | «a 00] r05e0 [ 20,620| 10980 ¥n [ard ane | 26.000 12211 | 71.800 32868 | 70.000| 21751 [e180] 28208 [50760 2202s [5,900] 16288 Ph [aa 16570 [3.060] 13996 | e2.320| 37340 | vo.000| a60a7 [71.200] s2532 [56,00] 2osoo | +100] 18670 1h, | 47.6] 21917 | 38,240 | 16438 | 96.640 | 43833 | 93,600 | 42456 | 83,680| 37956 | 68.320] 30990 | 48,320| 21918 | 2 _|s0.8|s2.760| 29590 [39.560] 1704 fi05.520| +7869 f10.400[ esas [91.360| «1450 [74.600] 20000 [5,700] 2930 Note: Sate Working Load Calculated on improved Plow Stoel 6 x 19 | W.AL. for Sizes 14" (6-4 mm) to 1” (25:4 mm) and 6 x 37 | LW.R.C. for Sizes 1" (28.6 mm) to 2" (50.8 mn) (SAFETY FACTOR ~ 6 1) ‘Table #1008 — Wire Rope Sling Capacities, RIGGING Crane Set-Up Summary 451 Set-Up On Outriggers HOOK 1S DIRECTLY ABOVE LOADS C of BOOM ANGLE, BOOM LENGTH AND LOAD RADIUS ARE KNOWN ‘AND. THE CRANE'S RATED SS CAPACITY IS KROWN AiGING Is connect Set-Up On Crawlers HOOK Is DIRECTLY ABOVE LOADS C of G BOOM ANGLE, BOOM LENGTH ‘AND LOAD RABIUS ARE KNOWN, ‘AND THE CRANE'S RATED. ‘CAPACITY IS: KNOWN RIGGING 1S) CORRECT CRANE IS LEVEL LOAO 1S © O now LOADS = LOAD WHEELS ARE CLEAR oo ALL OUTRIGGER ‘OF GROUND: ee etAMS AME FULLY EXTENDED OUTRIGGER PADS ARE ‘ON SOLID. FOOTING ‘OR BLOCKING Mustration #271 ~ Mobile Crane Set-Up Summary The majority of all crane accidents happen when lifting smaller loads because too much is taken for granted and the job is not planned CRANE IS SET UP ON FAM STABLE GROUND ‘Of BLOCKING tlustration #272 - Crawler Crane Set-Up Summary A safe set-up similar to those shown above in illustration #271 and #272 will help to reduce crane accidents, whether it is crane tipping or a structural failure. RIGGING Load Pick and Carry All crane capacity ratings are based on the crane being used ina stationary position. This also applies to models which are used for pick and carry operations. Travelling with suspended loads entails many varia- bles, including: * Type of terrain. * Boom length. * Stopping and starting momentum. Itis impossible to establish a single stand- ard rating procedure with any assurance of safety. Therefore, when travelling with a load, the prevailing conditions must be eval- uated to determine the applicable safety precautions Load Pick and Carry _ Precautions to be followed during pick and carry operations: * Keep the load as close to the carrier as possible. * Keep the boom as short as possible, * Keep the boom as low as possible * Load and boom to be carried in line with the direction of travel and in line with the axis of the crane. * Rough terrain crane - boom and load must be over the front. * Carrier mounted crane - (engine at rear) boom and load over the rear. Crawler- boom and load over the idler end. * Loads - should be carried close to the ground and tied back to the carrier or con- trolled with tag lines. RIGGING Travelling With a Load 453 Travelling With a Load Use extreme caution ifthe loadisbehindthe Never make any sudden starts or stops. In direction of travel (illustration #273). If the __ illustration #274, a sudden start could push load is not snubbed to the crane, the load _the boom over backwards. could swing out when the crane starts, thus Note: Snub the load to the crane to avoid allowing the crane to walk out from the load swingout. and tip over. couto THE CRANE CAN WALK OUT cou "FROM UNDER THE LOAD USE CAUTION === Mustration #273 ~ Snub Load to Crane When Travelling _ilustation #278 ~ Do Not Make Sudden Starts or Stops. 454 RIGGING Power Line Clearances Accidental electrocutions are among the most frequently repeated crane accidents. Most of these are caused when the boom contacts or approaches too close to over- head power lines. The fatality rate is high, Particularly among riggers guiding the load. While the danger is greater from high volt- age transmission lines, where flashover can occur without actual contact, fatal accidents have resulted from contact with 440 volts and 220 volt service lines and strut lighting sys- tems. The safest procedure is to request the local electrical authority to cut off the power. If, for any reason this is not possible or prac- tical, and it is necessary for cranes to be under or near hot power lines, see table #101 for guidelines. Power Line Clearances Electrical Hazards Clearance Guide OPERATING NEAR HIGH VOLTAGE POWER LINES | Normal Voltage Minimum Required (Phase to Phase) Clearance to S0kV 10 ft. (8.05 m) Over 5010 200 kV 151. (4.60 m) Over 200 to 350 kV 201. (6.10 m) Over 350 10 500 kV 251. (7.62 m) Over 500 10 750 kV 35 ft (10.67 m) Over 750 to 1.000 kV 45 ft (13.72 m) IN TRANSIT WITH NO LOAD AND BOOM LOWERED| Normal Voltage ‘Minimum Required (Phase to Phase) Clearance to 75kV 4H (122m) Over 7510 SOKV 6 ft (1.83 m) Over 9010 345 kV 10 ft. (3.05 m) Over 345 10 750 kV 16 ft. (4.87 m) Over 750 to 1.000 kV 20 ft (6.10 m) ‘Table #101 ~ Minimum Powerline Clearances RIGGING Powerline Absolute Li of Approach | 455 Absolute Limit of Approach Every live powerline has an area around it . called the limit of approach. A crane pen ae boom, loadline, orload cannot operate in cco siay 220000 9H this area without the power being cut off. 125,000 vote This is an absolute, no exception rule. / The absolute limit of approach area will vary somewhat with provincial, state, federal, or other regulating bodies. However the guide- lines shown in table #101 and illustration #275 are close to those guidelines. llustration #276A — Limit of Approach Examples LIMIT OF APPROACH SS eeaaoace 7 / \ IF A CRANE COMPONENT (Of THE LOAD H CAN SWING WITHIN THE LIMITS OF APPROACH, A SIGNALMAN Is REQUIRED 00 NOT NEED avoIn ’® SIGNALMAN THIS AREA {ustration #275 —Use Signalman in Limit of Approach Area IMustration #2768 — Avoid Limit of Approach Area 456 RIGGING Powerline Contact The operator should remain in the cab after powerline contact until the power has been disconnected. If this is not prac- tical, the operator must not step from the crane. He must jump clear with both feet together, being careful not to touch the crane. See illustration #277. Iustration #277 — Jump Clear With Both Feet Together Powerline Contact Crane and Hoist Signals The person giving signals and the crane operator must work as a team. The lift should be discussed with both parties knowing what, the steps will be and what signals will be used. If there are several people in the ground crew, only one person shall give signals, although anyone can give a stop signal. It is recommended that the person giving the signals wear a fluorescent vest. Always stand in view of the operator and give clear sig- nals. Try to avoid signals which will cause jerky operation movements. See illustration #278A and #278B for standard crane sig- nals. RIGGING | Crane and Hoist Signals ner Ft | STOP SIGNALS TELESCOPING BOOMS — ' of re = | a +t | + Someones - ‘ Ad | - | 2 E — CLAM BUCKET SIGNALS — hohe stration #278A ~ Crane and Hoist Signals 458 | RIGGING | Crane and Hoist Signals a 3 = a = = | Ae SINGLE or MULTIPLE - LINES HORN SIGNALS FOR CONTROL OF TRAVELLING INSTRUCTIONS PLATFORMS OR SKIPS | AND MOBILE CRANES TO SIGNAL MEN One bell or light - To stop ven aac Two bells or lights - To Raise} 1 BLAST ~ STOP . 2 BLASTS - FORWARD Three bells or lights -To lower | 3 Baers BACKWARD Four bells or lights - All clear or REVERSE Mustration #2788 ~ Crane and Hoist Signals SECTION ELEVEN QUESTIONS RIGGING gpa 1 wi 2 a. b. 3. a. b. c. d. 4. The best grade of manila rope is distinguishable by its color, hile a low grade manila is dark in color. A natural fibre rope will be stronger than a synthetic rope of the same diameter: true false Which of these synthetic fibre ropes is the strongest? polyethylene polyester polypropylene nylon The safety factor of rope and other rigging equipment under normal conditions is . When a hazard to personnel exists, it is increased to A bowline is not a popular knot as it often slips under load. true false Which knot has a reputation as a ‘killer" knot? reef knot clove hitch bowline becket hitch A knot tied in a rope will reduce the ropes strength by an average of: 10% 20% 50% 70% When an eye is spliced in a rope, the ropes strength is reduced by an average of: 10% 20% 50%. 70% FPS B9TPN aogPe 9. The center core of a wire rope can be made up of either or wire. 0. What does the term "Regular Lay and Lang Lay" refer to? rotation of strand over core diameter of wire rope preformed and non-preformed rope direction cf winding of strands and wires in strand eogps 11. Which of the following strand classifications would be most flexible and suitable for making small diameter turns. a 6x17 bo 6x19 c 6x37 d. alll rope is equal in flexibility 12. Use the breaking strength formula on page 423 to find the breaking strength of 1/2 inch IWRC. Answer: 13. Using the table on page 428, for an improved plow steel 1/2 inch wire rope, is the answer for question twelve smaller or larger than the table equivalent? a smaller b. larger 14, — From the table on page 424, what is the Safe Working Load of an 1 1/4 inch wire rope steel core, Grade 110/120 Improved Plow, and what safety factor is this based on? Answer: 15. __ What is used as an indicator to find where a wire rope will attach to a drum or hoist? Answer: 16. What precaution must be taken when winding a wire rope from a reel toa drum or hoist? Answer: 17. When using U bolt clips, the U bolt section must be on the or short end of the eye. 18. What is the formula to find the required number of wire rope clips? Answer: 19. Use this formula to find the number of clips for a 1/2 inch wire rope. a 2clips. b. 3clips. c. — 4clips a 5 clips 20. It is a safe recommended practice to use a bolt in place of a lost shackle pin. a true b. false 21. Which pan of a shackle is usually placed in a hook when lifting a load? Answer: 22. The throat of a hook shows signs of distortion, a safe practice is to: Answer: 23. A hook being used for off center loads cannot carry its full rated capacity. a true b. false 24. Angular loading is not recommended for: a. hooks b. shackles c. eye bolts d. _ shoulderless eye bolts 25. — When connecting a sling to an eyebolt it is always best to use a 26. To help avoid accidents, all fabricated lifting beams should be designed by an engineer, have the load rating stamped on it, and be test lifted. a true b. false 27. _ Which style of block is used to achieve a change of direction without having to thread the wire rope through the block. a. headache ball type b. snatch block type c. lock pin type d. crane block type 28. _ A single block hoisting assembly has a leadline pull of 200 Ibs. What is the total load on the block if the lines are parallel to each other? a 600 Ibs. b. 400 Ibs. c. 200 Ibs. d. 100 Ibs. 29. To properly secure a load of pipe for hoisting, it is best to use: a. double wrap choker hitch b. single wrap choker hitch ¢c. _ single wrap basket hitch d. grommet sling 30. A sling chart indicates that a basket hitch is rated at two times a single vertical hitch. What diameter does the load have to be to get this double rating? Answer: ee 31. All double ply synthetic slings are twice the capacity of single ply. a. true b. false 32. At what sling to ground angle does the load on each sling or leg equal the weight of the object, when using two slings to secure the load? a. 15 degrees b. 30 degrees c. 45 degrees d. 60 degrees 33. When preparing a lift, the main considerations are weight, size and the center of ____ of the object. 34, are used to protect slings from being bent or cut from sharp comers of loads. 35. When transporting a load with a cherry picker or rough terrain crane, itis safer to allow the load to swing than to snub it to the crane. a true b. false 36. _ The safest procedure to follow if required to operate a crane near overhead power lines is to: a. request power be cut off b. do not operate closer than 10 feet c. consult distance charts on page 454 d. do not touch any part of crane or load 38. One hand moving in a left to right motion means: dog everything raise load rapidly stop emergency stop One hand extended, with the thumb pointing up and the fingers opening and Glosing, is the signal to: é ao 39. BeePA aeoDp § 3 oe lower the boom and raise the load raise the beam and lower the load raise the load lower the boom Tapping the elbow while facing the crane operator is the signal to. dog everything travel with a load lower the main load line lower the jib or whip line Both hands extended with the two thumbs pointing together is the signal to: shorten boom extend boom raise boom lower boom SECTION TWELVE APPENDICES 460 APPENDICES INDEX Appendices Index A A2 A3 A4 AS Bl CA C2 General Jobsite Safety Ladders & Scaffolds Trench Safety Confined Space Entry Hazard Information for Common Gases Identification of Piping Systems Steam Trap Selection Steam Trap Sizing Guide Condensate Loads for Steam Traps D- E-1 F-1 GA G2 H-1 Jt Temperature Conversion & Scales Pipe Hangers & Supports Metal Properties Standard Twist Drill Sizes Tap Drill Sizes Millimetres, Fractions & Decimal Inch Equivalents Imperial Metric Equivalent Tables Useful Formulas APPENDICES A-1 Safety and Accident Prevention Each and every worker has the obligation to. work safely with consideration for everyone on the jobsite. Accidents don’t just happen without a reason, and usually that reason is a result of a mistake. Therefore if accidents are to be eliminated or reduced, the only way is by exercising caution at all times. Each worker has the responsibility to follow safety rules and use common safety practices at all times. Safety practices are developed by training, consciously practicing safe work habits, and by considering consequences before acting. Careless, unsafe actions without foresight inevitably result in acci- dents, injuries and death. General Safety Requirements Include: Dress Properly For The Job: * Clothing, including boots, must fit prop- erly and be in good condition GENERAL JOBSITE SAFETY * Do not wear rings and other jewelry items that may catch or become entangled on objects or moving parts. * Long hair should be covered or confined. Use The Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment Needed For The Job: * Wear approved head and eye protection when required. * Wear gloves for hand protection. Gloves should not be used when operating power tools if they interfere with the control operation or may catch on revolving parts of the power tool. * If needed, use proper ear protection, breathing apparatus, and safety harness or nets. Use Hand And Power Tools In A Safe And Proper Manner: * Keep power tool guards in place and in working order. 462 _APPENDICES A-1 Safety and Accident Prevention Hand and Power Tools * Keep tools in good condition and repair or replace when needed. * Do not use extensions or “cheaters on pipe wrenches, open end wrenches, or come-a-longs. * Always pull on wrench handles and adjust stance to prevent a fall if something slips or lets go. + Know the proper use, limitation and pos- sible hazards of the tool before using it Keep The Work Area Clean: * Keep material and tools properly secure and out of the way when not in use. * Clean up any spilled water or oil from the work area immediately. Establish Personal Safe Working Habits And Standards: * Avoid all horseplay and practical jokes GENERAL JOBSITE SAFETY * Avoid any substance abuse which may impair safety and endanger co-workers. * Avoid strains and back injuries; use the leg muscles, not the back muscles when lifting. If the load is too heavy, get help or use a proper lifting device. * Think safety while performing any job and if not sure of the safe way of doing a job, ask. * Help the less experienced worker in safe job practice. * Learn first aid to cope with emergency injuries and illness. Know Job Site Safety And Emergency Procedure: * Find out and follow al job site safety rules and regulations. * Find out where the jobsite First Aid Kit or First Aid Station is located and who is responsible for first aid treatment. APPENDICES A-1, A-2_ JOBSITE SAFETY/LADDERS Jobsite Emergency Procedures * Find out to whom hazardous or unsafe sit- uations are reported. + Know fire regulations and procedures, as well as the location of nearest fire extin- guisher and alarm. * Know the nearest emergency exit route and area evacuation procedures. Know The Hazards Of Material And Equip- ment: * Follow and understand manufacturer's instructions and warnings dealing with any hazardous material or equipment. * Know the hazardous product symbols. * Take the proper precautions when han- dling dangerous, toxic or poisonous material. Ladders Many accidents are associated with the use of ladders. Most of them can be predicted and prevented with proper planning, proper selection of ladders, good work procedures, and adequate maintenance. Some of the more prevalent hazards in the use of lad- ders are: instability, electrical shock, falls from one level to another, and leaning too far out to the side To minimize the chance of accidents, these precautionary measures should be fol- lowed. ‘* Inspect ladders before using. Use only undamaged, unpainted ladders with non- slip feet. * The ladder should extend 3 feet (1 m) beyond any landing. * The ladder should be tied or wired at the top to prevent movement. ‘The base should be placed 1/4 of the ver- tical height out from the wall. 463 464 APPENDICES A-2 LADDERS/SCAFFOLDS Ladders * Never stand on the top two rungs of a step ladder. * Ladders built on the job should be made from first grade materials. * Don't use ladders around doorways or other blind entrance areas, * Use both hands and always face the lad- der when ascending or descending. Scatfolds Scaffolds make up a very important part of many industrial jobs. They require careful planning and construction to avoid serious accidents. To help minimize accidents, the following precautionary measures should be fol- lowed. The height of rolling scaffolds must not exceed three times the smallest dimen- sion of the base in height, unless securely tied off to a structure, or outriggers are used. Scaffolds 10 feet (3 m) or more in height must have perimeter guardrails around all open sides. Scaffold planks must be a minimum of 2” x 10" (60 mm x 250 mm) and be free of defects. Allsections, including cross braces, must be used when erecting tubular scaffolds. ‘Secure the scaffold to the structure no more than 20 feet (6 m) up, and every 15 feet (4.5 m) thereafter. Wheels must be locked or blocked if the scaffold is higher than twice the width, APPENDICES A-3_ TRENCHING SAFETY 1465 Trenching Trenches five feet (1.5 m) or more in depth shall have cave-in protection by installing temporary protective structures or by cut- ting back the walls of the trench, see illustra tion #279. When the cutback method is used in trenches over 5 feet (1.5 m) in depth, the walls of the trench should be cut back as fol- lows: * In hard compact soil, not less than 30 degrees from vertical * Inall other soils, not less than 45 degrees from vertical. * The excavated material should be piled at least three feet (1 m) from the edge and not less than 45 degrees from the vertical. In trenches over 10 feet (3 m) in depth, soil piles should be placed in accordance with the specifications of a professional engineer. Note: Each state or province could have dif- ferent regulations for the shoring cut back or for temporary protective structures. Con- tact the applicable OSHA/OCHS Depart. ment for the standards. See table #102A and #102B for suggested minimum size and spacing for trench shoring. — Other on (tm) - Hare oy ci eg ra Spall or Excavated Material Trench“ st (15 m) in dopth Iustration #279 ~ Cut Back or Use Shoring When Trenching 466| APPENDICES A-3_ TRENCHING SAFETY SUGGESTED MINIMUM SIZES AND SPACING FOR TRENCH SHORING Use For Hard Solid Soil Conditions Tae Uys Stingers Trench Wid & Brae Sie ten Win Wa, Mi. Ma Wiese ory Sie Spig Sie Syatng (18m) | (.8mie37m) Spo ton Pir sh oxe an exe xe (1.5 mup to 3m) (38mm x 235 mm) (1.8m) (89. mm x 140 me) (1.2m) {89 mm x 690mm) (140 mm x 140.mm) 10h wo ER Per an exe an exe exe Gnpnssm | gamnxz5mn) | 12m | omnx 4am) | 42m) _| mmx tad) | DR x WMA) 15h. bah Per hse x6 an exe" xe (45mupto6m | 8mmx2%5mm) | __sheerng —_[(HOmmx teomm | (1.2m) _—_| (40mm x 40mm) | 40mm x 1 mn) ___Use For Crumbling and Cracking Soil Conditions Tne Ups shiagers Trench Wa Brae Se oh Win Ma, Min as Ween eRe Ste Sowing | _ Ste Spacing (18m) (18mt037m) Shwowon Px ie a exe at 4x6 x6 (1Smp03m) | Ganmx2smn)| 12m) | ommx vom | 2m) __| mmx 40m) | 40mm x 140M) 10h wo ish Px aR exe at xe a Gnwpissm | ammx2%mn) | 09m _—_| aommx Om | 12m) _—_| (Om x 10mm) | Om x 184M) SR wpwaan Tie | Coxe axe a oo xe (#Smipio6m)__| 8nenx 236mm) |__Steion__| some mm)| 2m) Dm ttm | (40mm x Tt) ‘Table #102A ~ Trench Shoring Size and Spacing APPENDICES A-3_ TRENCHING SAFETY ‘SUGGESTED MINIMUM SIZES AND SPACING FOR TRENCH SHORING Use For Sand and Free Running Soil Conditions ne Units vier Trench Width Brace Size ren enh Mi. Nas Win, Wa Wiest shore | sue scan site Spain (gm | (amaze Stpioior Pxir Chose exe at exe exe (iSmupio3m | Gamnx 26mm | __ soeing [140mm HOmm)| (42m) 40x 10m | (mmx 14m) Ok woth Txi0 ose oxe at exe xe Gmupiotsm | 8mmxza5mm | _Steing | 140mm 184mm) | (.2m)__| (adm x 184mm) | (184m x 14 | ‘sh woIe Px ose xe “n exe" rx usps) | 8nmx2x6mm) | __Sheeing [88mm 14mm) | (1.2m)_| 4mm x tA | 4mm x 28m Table #1028 — Trener Shoring Size and Spacing 1 Verical maximum spacing for allross braces shall be 4 f (1.2) 2 Horizontal maximum spacing forall cross braces shall be 6 ft. (1.8 m). 3. Approved trench jacks may be used instead ot, or in combination wit cross braces, stringers or shoring, 467 APPENDICES A-4 CONFINED SPACE ENTRY Confined Space Entry ‘Safe work orders should be requested and received before any work is begun on con- tainers which previously contained flamma- ble gases, explosive substances or purge gases. Confined spaces include vessels, bins, tanks, tankers, tunnels, silos, sewers, utility vaults or chambers and pipelines. The haz- ards encountered in these confined spaces may include: * Toxic gases. * Flammable or explosive vapors. * Oxygen deficiency. Note: See table #103 for hazard informa- tion on common gases. Only proper planning and testing can elimi- nate the risk of serious injury or death while entering, working, or leaving confined spaces. Flammable and explosive substances may be present in a container because it was previously used for one of the following sub- stances: * Gasoline, light oil or other volatile liquid that releases potentially hazardous vapors at atmospheric pressure. * Anacid that reacts with metals to produce hydrogen. + A non-volatile oil or a solid that, at ordi- nary temperature, will not release poten- tially hazardous vapors, but will release such vapors if the container is exposed to heat. * A combustible solid, finely divided parti- cles of which may still be present in the form of an explosive dust cloud, APPENDICES A-4, A-5 CONFINED SPACE/DUST HAZARDS Confined Space Entry All containers previously used for combus- tible, explosive or toxic substances should be cleaned prior to starting repair work. Containers should be gas tested before each entering. + Empty and drain the container including all internal piping, traps and stand pipes. * Inserta blind flange at the first outside joint of any pipe entering the vessel or con- tainer. * Provide adequate protection for person- nel cleaning the container. Air supply respirators may be necessary. * Clean all compartments in containers having two or more compartments. * Solution cleaning by using water, chemi- cals or steam should be decided upon after determining the properties of the substance. Maintain an alert person outside the man- way as a safety watch. Dust and Fibre Hazards There are many jobs where exposure to asbestos, silica or coal dust exceeds lev- els set out in regulation by OCHS/OSHA. Workers should have a Fibrosis check up every two years if working in any occupa- tion involving these materials. The risk of disease is very real if working where lev- els of dust or fibres are in the air. If not detected early, dust diseases could dis- able for life, or kill. 469 470 APPENDICES A-5 GAS HAZARDS HAZARD INFORMATION FOR COMMON GASES. Gas Flammable Limits Odor Compared To Air ‘Major Hazards {(% of gas in an air/gas) Acetylene 2.51081 Yes Heavier Flammable Asphyxiant ‘Ammonia 151028 Yes Lighter Toxic ‘Argon, None No Heavier “Asphyxiant Carbon Dioxide None No Heavier ‘Asphyxiant Carbon Monoxide 1251074 No Lighter Flammable Toxic Chlorine None Yes Heavier Toxic Corrosive Ethane 3.010125 No Heavier Flammable Asphyxiant Gasoline 14074 Yes. Heavier Flammable Asphyxiant Helium None No Lighter ‘Asphyxiant [Hydrogen 4.01075 __ No Lighter Flammable Asphyxiant Hydrogen Sulfide 431045 Yes Heavier Toxic, Corrosive, - Flammable Methane 5.01015 No" Lighter Flammable Asphyxiant Nitrogen None _ No Lighter ‘Asphyxiant ‘Oxygen None No Heavier Highly Reactive - ‘Supports Combustion Propane 2.20095 No" Heavier Flammable Asphyxiant ‘Sulphur Dioxide None Yes Heavier Toxic, Corrosive * Propane and Methane are usually ven a distinctive odorant by the producer or gas processor lo ensure that they are readily detectable. ‘able #103 — Common Hazardous Gas Information APPENDICES B-1_ PIPING HAZARDOUS LABELLING STANDARDS 471 Identification of Piping Systems (ANSI A13.1-1981) This is acommen system of labelling for pip- ing containing hazardous materials. It con- sists of a legend and color format Information Found on Label or Legend: * Legend or wording is used as the primary method of identification of piping con- tents, with pressure or temperature given as necessary to identify hazards. * Arrows are used to indicate flow direc- tion. * Color field and letters used to identify the characteristic hazards which include: Flammable or Explosive, Chemically Active or Toxic, Temperatures or Pres- sures, Radioactive, Materials of Inher- ently Low Hazard, ‘and Fire Quenching Material. Note: See table #104 for color and size designations for legend and field, and illustration #280 for legend positioning. DESIGNATION OF COLORS USED IN FIELD AND LETTERING FOR PIPING ‘SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION Color | Cor of Ls, assication otf | torLegend ‘atrial inherently Hazardous Flammabe or Expiosve Yelow | Back Chemically Ate or Toc Yelow | Back Entree Temperature or Pressures yeiow | Back adiactve? Yyelow | Buck Materia of nerenty Low Hazard quid ar igi meu? Green | White (63 0 Gaseous Atmature Bhe white Fice Quenching Materats Water, Foam, CO, Haan ee. Bes Woite Table #104 — Piping Identification Color Code [cEGEND] LEGEND] S05 A) Iustration #280 ~ Piping Legend Positioning 472| APPENDICES C-1 STEAM TRAP SELECTION GUIDE STEAM TRAP SELECTION GUIDE ‘A= First Choice 6 = Alternate Choice FUTVSR (Poattremo- er ftaange “Staewin, —FUSLRTORange Gasnced Thermoton 1 ange Coal” StamLack fais (hemo. ‘esse sm Ua need span Tamas) “Tease lockheesse) dynam) Themosate) Gime) exateon leh ‘CANTEEN EQUIPMENT Boing Pas Fa A 8 ’ 8 8 Bong Pan - ang A 5 3 Bong Pars = Pett 8 8 Hy fe Siearng Overs, ® as 8 8 * be FUEL OIL HEATING Bulk Srage Ts A tne ears A Dion Hers a Trace Lines cated Pes o 8 68 HOSPITAL EQUIPMENT Acoaves ad Stee’s 8 8 8 A 8 INDUSTRIAL DRYERS Dnyog ais commun) A 8 8 8 Sg it) 8 & & Orpen ens 8 A 8 8 ie Ban pe Ones A 8 ® Huts Cynder Sang actin t A 8 ® 1 Wihairventin paral 2_“Atendof cooing eg Minimum length (1 m)_9. Use special wacing taps wich offer Ted temperature discharge option ‘Note: Steam trap information courtesy Spirax Sarco Canada Lt ‘Table #105A - Steam Trap Selection Guide APPENDICES C-1_ STEAM TRAP SELECTION GUIDE STEAM TRAP SELECTION GUIDE A= FiistChoice B= Alwinate Choice FIViSLR (Poavtermo eer inane “sutewin — FISLR TDRange Gaanced Thematon 1 ange {ool Steantock —(eaSteam (hemo. _resure (ered Aopcsbon Thermostatic) Talease)_CockFeeae) name) Themostte) (imealic) Expanson Buchel) {LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT amen Presses 8 A aners sn aendars 8 A * 8 8 Saher eee Units a 8 Tumble yes A 8 e PRESSES ‘MAb PtenPresses patel connectans) 8 A 8 ‘it Pte Presses (ots comectox) ® Tre mous a a 8 a PROCESS EQUIPMENT Basing Pars = Fed A 8 es 8 8 foeg Pars = Taig A 6 Brewing Capers A 8 & 8 Daestrs a . e Eras a a 8 8 Hotta: 8 A fore A ° Buk Stage Tanks ” & ears 8 s i 1. Witvar vera parle 2. Aten cooing es imum eng’ 1m) Use sped vac vps wich fe ned epee desire ton ‘te: Steam Wap ivrmation courtesy Spirax Sarco Canada id ‘Table #1058 — Steam Trap Selection Guide 473 474| APPENDICES C-1_ STEAM TRAP SELECTION GUIDE _ ‘STEAM TRAP SELECTION GUIDE A= FirstChoice _ B = Alternate Choice FIL (Poavinermo- oer Frame “sutewih —FTSLR TORange laced Termoton 8 Range (Peal Steamock oauSteam (Theme. Pressure SM tugud” (inetd opsaton Themostte) “Rease) Locks) tame) Thermostat) Gimetae) Expanson eked SPACE HEATING EQUIPMENT Shel & Tbe Exenngers A 8 ® Heat Coe & Unit esters A 8 & ° RadantPanes& Sips, A 8 oe . Caine heaters 8 A 8 venend pe Cts a A e ‘STEAM MAINS Hora Runs 8 A & 8 Swarts A a & 8 Seminal nds 3 eR ° Shu Down ran Fast Protectan _ ® A TANKS AND VATS, Process ats (sing Dserrge Pie) 8 a 8 a ProcetVats (Dschage Pipe at ase A 8 8 a sal Cou ets tas (auekboing 8 sina Cote Tanks ‘ . (low bog) A 4._withaiventn pra 2_‘Atend of cooing Mnrumiengb3 (Hm) Use sacl acing wap hich of fed Temperate dosing onion ‘Note: Steam vap intrmation courtesy Spvax Sarco Canada Lid ‘Table #105C ~ Steam Trap Selection Guide APPENDICES C-2_ STEAM TRAP SIZING GUIDE 475 Steam Traps Quick Sizing Guide Need To Know: 1. The steam pressure at the trap: after any pressure diop through control valves or equipment. 2. The Lift: if any, after the trap. Rule of Thumb: 2 ft. = 1 psi back pres- sure (approximate). 3. Possible Sources of Backpressure: in the condensate return system. Example: a. Condensate taken to a pressurized deaerator tank b. Local back pressure due to dis- charges of numerous traps close together into small sized return. 4. Quantity of Condensate: to be handled, obtained from: a. Measurement b. Calculation of heat load (see table #106) c. Manufacturer's Data 5. Safety Factor: these factors depend upon particular applications, typical examples being as follows: With Temp. General Control Mains Drainage x2 - Storage Heaters x2 = ‘Space Unit Heaters x2 x3 Air Heating Coils 2 x4 Submerged Coils (ow level drain) x2 = Submerged Coils, (siphon drain) 3 - Rotating Cylinders 3 Tracing Lines x2 Platen Presses x2 - Rule of Thumb: Use factor of 2 on every- thing except Temperature Controlled Air Heater Coils and Converters, and Siphon applications. APPENDICES C-2_ STEAM TRAP SIZING GUIDE/CONDENSATE How To Use: The difference between the steam pressure at the trap, and the total black pressure, including that due to any lift after the trap, is the Differential Pressure. The quantity of condensate should be multi plied by the appropriate factor, to produce Sizing Load. The trap may now be selected using the Differential Pressure and the Sizing Load. Example: A trap is required to drain 22 Ib/hr of condensate from a 4 inch insulated steam main, which is supplying steam at 100 psig. There will be a lift after the trap of 20 feet. Supply Pressure 00 psig Litt 0 tt = 10 psi aprox > Therefore Differential Pressure = 100- 1090 psi Quatity = 22 |b/hr Mains Drainage Factor => Therefore sizing to General Useage Formula Heating water with steam ths Condensate = SEM (11) x Temperature Rise °F Heating fuel oil with steam Ibs Condensate = SEM (1.1) x Temperature se °F Healing air wit steam coils EM Temperature Rise °F Ibs Condensate/ne = Steam Radiation Ibs Condensatemhr= S4-FL.ED.R. ‘Steam Jacketed Dryers Ibs Condensate/hr = "Our ewwie an) Wi= Initial weight of the material-pounds per hour Wi Final weight of the material-pounds per hour AT= Temperature rise of the material °F L_=Latent heat of the steam BTU/ID APPENDICES C-3_ CONDENSATE LOADS FOR STEAM TRAPS 477 ‘Steam Tracing Lines: Approximate load is 10 to 50 Lb/Hr for each 100 tt. of tracer. Heating Liquids in Steam Jacketed Kettles and Steam Heated Tanks Gxsg.xCoxATx83 uxt G =Gallons of liquid to be heated 5.9.= Specific gravity ofthe liquid Co = Specific neat ofthe liquid AT = Temperature rise of the liquid °F L atent heat of the steam BTU/ID t=Timein hours Sterilizers, Autoclaves, Retorts Heating Solid Material tbs Condensate/ar = Wx Cpxat lbs Condensateihr = Uxt W = Weight of materals-Ibs Cp= Specific heat of the material AT= Temperature rise of the material °F = Latent heat of steam BTU/Ib t= Time in hours, Heating Air with Steam; Pipe Coils and Radiation tbs Condensateynr = A AXUXAT T ‘A. = Area ofthe heating surface in square feet U_ = Heat transfer coeficient (2 for fee convection) AT= Steam temperature minus the air temperature °F L_ = Latent heat of steam BTU/Ib Note: The condensate load to heat the equipment must be added to the condensate load for heating the material. Use same formula 478| APPENDICES D-1_ TEMPERATURE CONVERSION & SCALES To Convert From: Use the Formula: To Obtain Temperature Conversion _Degreas Golsus (0x88) «32 Dogroos Fahrenhal Degrees Colsus T+ 279.18 Kelvin Degrees Fanronhet (F-32)x59 Degrees Colsus Degrees Farenheit “F +48869 Degrees Rankin Temperature Scales Faronhea Rankin Celsius Kewin Water 8s ef oror e7169°R 100% 973.16 Room Tom, eB ror 529.69°R aie 208.27K Water Freezes eH oor 491.60 oc 273.16K Absolte Zero I asoc0F on 273.6% ok ‘Table #106 ~ Temperature Conversion and Scales 479 APPENDICES E-1_ PIPE HANGERS & SUPPORTS HANGERS AND SUPPORTS RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM PIPE SUPPORT AND HANGER SPACING ‘NOMINAL PIPE SIZE ‘STEEL PIPE SYSTEMS. ‘COPPER TUBE SYSTEMS NGHES MILLIMETRES FEET METRES FEET METRES %e 3 7 zi 5 15 3% 0 7 21 § is rH i 7 ra 5 1 I 3 20 7 Bi a is i 25 7 zi s 18 1 2 7 21 7 zt 1 m 3 ar z 2a z = 70 aa 8 2a mn 5 i aa 2 ar 3 20 2 ar 70 30 a 0 ra a0 i ae a 700 ie a3 2 a7 $ 135 ma rn ra 20 6 150 i 52 2 a3 3 200 a 58 6 a9 0 250 20 oa 5s 2 500 2 70 18 58 it 30 25 78 = = 16 00 er a2 = = a 50 28 as = = 2 500 50 31 = = 2 300 @ 38 = = 0 750 2 7s = = ‘Table #107 — Pipe Hangers and Supports 480 APPENDICES E-1_ PIPE HANGERS & SUPPORTS. Hanger Spacing For Other Material Asbestos Cement: as per manufacturer's recommendations, Cast Iron Pressure Pipe: 12 ft. (3.7 m) max- imum: Cast Iron Soil Pipe: 10 ft. (3.0 m) maximum. Fiberglass Reinforced Pipe: as per manu- facturer’s recommendations. Glass Pipe: 8 ft. (2.4 m) maximum. Plastic: depends on material and tempera- ture, as per manufacturer's recommend- ations. NOTE: 1. Extra support or hangers are required when heavy valves or fittings are placed in a piping system, at changes of direc- tion, and/or as per code or job specifica- tions. 2. Flexible plastic tube or similar material should be supported continuously. 3. Rod diameter may be reduced one size ‘smaller when double rods are used (min- imum reduction % of inch (9.6 mm) (table #108). 4, Maximum safe load taken at rod temper- ature of 610°F (321°C) conforming to ASTM A107 (table #108). RECOMMENDED SINGLE ROD DIAMETER FOR PIPE NOMINAL PIPE SIZE ROD SIZE MAX. SAFE LOAD. Inches Millimetres Inches Millimetres___Pounds _Kilograms 2" and smaller ‘50mm and smaller a 9.6mm 610276 2¥e to 3M 651090 mm Ye 127mm 1180512, 4105 100 to 125 mm, 5 158mm 181082 6 150mm) 4 19.1 mm 2710 1229 81012 200 0 300 mm th 22.2mm 3770 1710 1410 18 350 to 450 mm 1 25.4mm 4.960 2249 201024 5500 to 600 mm 1M 31.8mm 8,000 3628 ‘Table #108 Single Rod Diameter 481 APPENDICES F-1_ METAL PROPERTIES METAL PROPERTIES specinic | speciric |__MELTING PONT WEIGHT __| ass METAL sywpot | Gravity | Heat | oec.c. | DEG.F. | trim | ite | kgm ‘Aluminum (Cast a | 256 ates ese | 1217 | ose] 15967| 2557.70 Aluminum (Roles) a fan | — = — | 0978] 16900] 270715, Amimony S| an | ost 690 | 1166 | 2404] a1887| 670073 Bismuth 8 | a8 | ost ant 520 | 3540 | ort71| 979877 Boron 8 | 230 | soa zoo | 4172 | 0831 | 14960 | 230028 Bass — | as | ‘ove = = | 3075 | sa136| 851167 Cadmium ca | 860 | 057 1 610 | ‘3107 | 596.89] 9600.25 Calcium ca | 157 | “170 so | 1430 | 0567) sre] 156951 Carbon c | 222 | 165 = — | 0802] 19859 | 2220.02 Chromium Ge | 680 | 120 1510 | 2750 | 2057 | 42457 | 6801.04 Cobait Go | aso | 10 sao | ame | sort | sane7 | as0061 Copper - Gu | 989 | 094 toss | i982 | ‘3212 | 555.03) 880083 Columbium cm | esr | — 1950 | 542 | 3096 | sa499| 9569.92 Gold au | 1932 | 032 woes | i945 | (6979 | 120597 | 1931801 ium | zoe | 033 2300 | 4170 | 13099 | 1999.51 | 22,418.26 iron Fe | 706 | “110 vs20 | 2768 | 2534 | 485.16 | 7291.05, ‘ron (Cast Fe | 7218 | 1298 1375 | 2507 | 2605] a60.14| 721063 iron Wrought). Fe | 770 | ‘1138 | 18001600 |2rse2a12 | 2773 | 480.21) 769231 Lead po | its7 | oat 327 621 | 4108 | 70888 | 1,570.99 Luthiu| fu os7_| get 136 367_| 0213 | _s6et| ‘589.65 ‘Table #109A - Metal Properties 482 APPENDICES F-1_ METAL PROPERTIES METAL PROPERTIES speciric | speciric |___ MELTING POINT WEIGHT | wags METAL sywpot | Gravity | HEAT | DEG.c. | EGF. | tine | itt | kgim? Magnesium Mg | 174 | 250 51 1204 | 0628 | 10869 [3741.07 Manganese mn | 800 | “120 1225 | 2237 | 2800 | 4909] 7o90.55, Mercury Hg | 1359 | ‘032 2287 377| 4909 | 949.28 | 1359.30, Molyodenum Mo | 102 0647 2620] vas | ‘368 | 695.90 | 10.186 25 Monel Metal = | esr | tar 1360 | 280 | ‘s20 | 552.96) 6057.67 Nickel ni} aao | 490 1452 | 2606 | 19 | 551.20 | 992096 Phosphows ep | see | a 2 1114) 0657 | 11389] 1818.60, Platinum pe | aso | lo 175s | stat’ | 7767 | 1942.16 | 21,499.27 Potassium k | sr | “170 @ 14s | ost | 5426] 960.17 Selenium se | 4a1 | ‘og 220 aa | 178 | 0067] as16.32 Silicon si | 240 | 176 1427 | 2600 | 087 | 150.94] 240824 Siver Ag | 1053 | 056 961 761 | 360s | 65750 | 10532.26 Sodium Na | os7 | 290 a7 207 | 0350} 60.48 | ‘968.81 Stel = | 7958] “1175 | 19304378 | zs7225a2 | 2aa0 | 49058) 7058.43 Strontium sx | 256 | ‘or = — | o918| 15863| 2541.08 Sulphur s | 207 | 175 15 236.4] 075 | 129.60 2076.02 Tantalum Ta | 10% | — so | st60 | 902} 674.27 | 10,800.89 Tn so | 729 | 056 232 450 | 2606 | 455.16) 7291.05 Titan m | sa 130 1300 | 450 | 1915 | 33091 | 590073 Tungsten wo] 1910 | a3 3000 | 5432 | ‘5900 | 1192.32 | 19,009 95 Uranium uf | = = — | ‘6755 | 116726 | 3607.92 Vanadium vf oss | = 1730 | 3146 | 1987 | 349.35 | $500.00 Zine zn_| 719 | 0 a9 738_| 2596 | 440.903 7191.25 ‘Table #1098 — Metal Properties APPENDICES G-1_ STANDARD TWIST DRILL SIZES 483 ‘STANDARD TWIST DRILL SIZES (Numbers, Letters, Inches and Millimetres) ‘wire | Decimals ‘Wire | Decimals ‘ire | Decimals Wire | Decimals tron _| mm. | Gage | otaninen || inch _| mm. | Gage | otaninen || inen | mm. | Gage | fan inch mm. | Gage | ofan inch eo | ors || 192 oss || 3164 469 | ‘o7et 1 | ons 8 0318, 12 wre a7 | coms or | ose0 128 ‘ose 2 787 164 0156 5 | oss0 13 512 205, ‘807 ‘ os? a5 035 | 35 | 0500 4s | 010 me | ove. 65 | 0350 135 0531 45 | 0820 7 | ow ° 058 sa | 0550 2s ‘a? 5 or ex | 0380 14 05st 218 0846 75 | zoo | 0x70 148 srt a5 | 0060 5 0217 se | ono sa | oss 205 86 va | 22s st | 0300 135 ‘510 «3 | ‘0000 6 0236 1 ‘308 23 ‘206 3 | 2a. 60 | oa || 116 0828, 235, 025 rm | 0050 3 | ono 18 0650 a2 | ons 6 0256 108 oa | se | 06s n | 0280 sa | oo 168 cso || 9192 938 7 278 sr | o«0 7 669 2a 0945 ro | 0280 1 as si | 0670 ar | coco ca | oso 18 0709, 25 coy 185 0728 | ons «| ono se | sors. 19 ona 28 102 4s | ovo a7 | 100 195 768 ar 1063, 36 | 1065 278 1085 | ‘Table #1108 ~ Standard Twist Drill Sizes 484| APPENDICES G-1_ STANDARD TWIST DRILL SIZES STANDARD TWIST DRILL SIZES (Numbers, Letters, Inches and Millimetres) tnen_| mm. | Se atone || imen_[ mm. | ge | atomic || tnen_[ mm. | Cae [ote || ich | m. | cee | Sets Tse vase | 2168 veoe | 164 ‘re |p ra6@ 3) a | eo 30 tar a) ie s | imo 2 tee »| tte “ Be se jour a | ze | ti as we sas | ° | doer we | ee Se os | ies ao || ae «| mo a vet 38 ine Pare se ite a | 0 a | im | cso 3 | da a ta a0 is “7 is 3s a 18 1230 “° ha zal a =] 32 ta || sie vss || ane vars ,| = 3s tao 2] ise a ‘ame 7 za ao | | tae a | two 8] as ss] | ae FH id | tee “0 ‘to wo zm as |" | ine 2 tase 3 | seo sa] | ae a | os w | eso : ‘ao sas iso a | io |] 15166 ue a ‘eo oa . be «| toe >| ie | a0 a ma co} do ts an ‘Table #1108 ~ Standard Twist Drill Sizes APPENDICES G-1_ STANDARD TWIST DRILL SIZES ‘STANDARD TWIST DRILL SIZES (Numbers, Letters, Inches and Millimetres) wire | Oscinaia Wire | Decimals Wire | Decinsia Wire | Becimae tncn_| mm. | Gage ctaninen || nen_| mm. | Gage |otaninch || men _| mm. | Gage | otannen || incn_| mm. | Gage | ofaninch wa = | 00 || 19964 cece | 11152 ‘ase || 25064 06 os 720 7 92 ars 38 0 ae 65 289 ny | s020 ae es x | 570 «| 3500 7 eat s | a0 y | 000 66 2508 ts st 29 soe || 19132 063 o | 2510 78 aa ° aos 2 | a0 or 28 79 310 1 | 3800 wos. 136 o ‘583 || 27164 2219 1768 ese || 516 125 " a 67 237 * iso || 2068 aoe || 716 a nw | 20 o | 3160 92 azz ns se oe ar a ate 925 see || 29168 ss eo ar a2 m8 93 eet || 15032 a8 | 320 e | sm vu | 36a0 2 oe 7 on 25 m8 ry rot || 31164 oue a | an aa Eo 35 30 ns ‘eet a 2105 12 ‘5000 x | aero || 2160 veer || 3 750 13 oe. as x07 v | aro || sae 5156 91se za o | 3x0 96 rao || 17132 ene 72 mas es sue 97 a8 ns sa15 225 254 Be S006 375 ae ta 213 99 ‘208 ‘Table #1106 - Standard Twist Dil Sizes 485
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