published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the

University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
SIMULATION OF PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSES IN CONCRETE
FLOORS ANS SLABS
E. Schlangen, T.Lemmens and T. van Beek, INTRON, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT, Cracks in concrete floors can be caused by many mechanisms. Thermal
effects, internal shrinkage, drying, mechanical loading are alle aspects that can lead to
cracking. These cracks can cause failure. More often the cracks will be a problem for the
durability aspects, water tightness and aesthetics. Cracks can be prevented and controlled by
proper design of the concrete mixture, reinforcement and geometry. To check the design of a
structure on the risk of cracks due to physical and mechanical phenomena described above,
the stresses occuring in concrete should be made available to the engineer.
The development of user-friendly software is an excellent way to provide this knowledge to
the engineer. FEMMASSE developed a simulation tool called the module HEAT. With this
module the engineer can simulate the physical and mechanical in young and old concrete.
This model combines the effects of drying shrinkage with autogenous shrinkage, thermal
dilation and external loads by using the state parameter approach.
In this paper the theory used in the model will be explained. An outline will be given of the
computer program. In an example the effect of the design of a structure on the risk of cracks
will be presented.
Keywords: Finite element method, temperature, moisture, floors, slabs, drying, stresses
Erik Schlangen is a senior consultant at INTRON. He also works as a Research and
Development specialist for FEMMASSE. He received his MSc at Eindhoven Technical
University, the Netherlands and his PhD. at Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands.
He has published over 60 papers in the field of material engineering and fracture mechanics.
Ton Lemmens is a senior consultant at INTRON. He has many years experience in the
design, fabrication and damage assessment of concrete floors.
Ton van Beek is a consultant in civil engineering at INTRON. He received his MSc and
PhD. at Delft University of Technology, the Netherlands. His topics of interest include non-
destructive test methods for civil structures and material properties of young concrete.
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
INTRODUCTION
Shrinkage due to hydration, thermal effects and drying is regarded to be a cause for damage
in concrete structures for many years. Not only the cracks in the concrete can be a problem.
Due to the deformation of the floor or slab overlays may be damaged (see figure 1).
During hydration the volume of cement paste changes, which results in autogenous shrinkage
of the concrete. If concrete is exposed to a dry environment, water will evaporate from the
cement paste, which will lead to drying shrinkage. In reality, however, damage mostly occurs
if there is a combination of both autogenous and drying shrinkage. Research has therefore
been focussed on both of these phenomena. To translate this knowledge of shrinkage to the
engineer in deformations and stresses the use of models has been widely accepted.
HEAT is developed specially to simulate the effects of the environment, like temperature and
humidity, on the material state and properties of concrete. The complex calculation procedure
has been incorporated in user-friendly software. In a simple manner a two dimensional
drawing of the structure in view can be made. By applying external action on the boundaries
of the structure, like humidity, temperature, radiation etc. the effect of the environment on the
material state and properties can be simulated.
Young concrete can shrink during the hydration process due to autogenous shrinkage and due
to the drying process. Both processes are highly influenced by the mix proportions of the
concrete. The cement type, water cement ratio and the amount of aggregate determine the
shrinkage. Shrinkage only causes cracks if the stresses exceed the tensile strength. The level
of the stresses depends strongly on the restrained conditions the structure is in. The stresses
are therefore depending on the geometry of the structure.
Another important issue when dealing with young concrete, especially in massive concrete
structures, is the dilation and stresses due to the heat of hydration. Although it is incorporated
in the model and in the simulations presented in this paper, the thermal effects will not be the
focus of this paper. For thermal effects in concrete the authors refer to the paper
COMPUTER SIMULATIONS AS A DESIGN TOOL FOR DURABLE CONCRETE also
presented in Dundee.

Cracks in concrete floors Loss of adhesion in overlays Cracked tiles
Figure 1 Examples of damaged floors in practice
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
THEORY OF SHRINKAGE IN CONCRETE
Shrinkage of (young) concrete is a complex phenomenon. Several non-linear processes, like
formation of microstructure, development of physical and mechanical properties and
transport of moisture are involved. All these processes can be simulated, both separately or
combined, with the module HEAT of FEMMASSE. The module is based on the finite
element method. The non-linear equations are solved using time integration. The formulation
of all the equations describing the processes are not described in this paper. The reader is
referred to [1] for details.
The microstructure of the concrete is formed during the hydration process of the cement. The
degree of hydration (or the related property maturity) determines the transport properties of
the material as well as the mechanical properties. In the module HEAT the state parameter
concept is used. In this concept all the material properties are a function of the state of the
material. This state (or the state parameter) can be the maturity, degree of hydration (DOH),
temperature, moisture potential (also known as relative humidity) or moisture content, which
can be chosen by the user, depending on the problem to be tackled.
In the simulation of the drying experiments, the material properties depend on the state
parameters in the following way:
Maturity and DOH of the material is calculated as function of the age, temperature and
the moisture content.
The diffusion coefficient for temperature and the heat capacity is a function of the
moisture content.
The diffusion coefficient for moisture is obtained from experimental data [3,4,5,6]. The
diffusion coefficient for moisture is a function of the moisture potential. [7].
The moisture content (capacity) in the concrete is a function of the moisture potential [8],
the DOH and the temperature.
The mechanical properties strength and stiffness are a function of the maturity; The
viscoelasticity (relaxation of the stresses in the material) is also a function of temperature
and moisture potential. For the viscoelasticity a Maxwell Chain model is used.
The shrinkage of the concrete depends linearly on the change in moisture potential as
found experimentally by Jonasson et al. [9].
The temperature, moisture potential, stresses and displacements are calculated as follows:
The temperature change in a time step is caused by the heat development due to
hydration, the heat diffusion governed by the environment and the change of thermal
capacity.
The change of the moisture potential in a time step is caused by the moisture diffusion
governed by the environment and the change of moisture capacity (due to self-
dessication, change in temperature or DOH).
The change of stresses and displacements are analysed in each step as a result of the
change in temperature, moisture potential and due to the viscoelasticity (and external
loads).
The calculation procedure and theory will be explained in more detail in the following
section. In this section the procedure of setting up a simulation with the module HEAT is
explained.
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
HEAT MODULE
The theory behind the simulations presented in this paper has been incorporated in user-
friendly software [1, 10]. The exact formulation of the equations can be found in [1]. In this
software the engineer has to follow a step by step procedure as shown in figure 2. By
following this procedure the engineer can gain insight into the problem of shrinkage in his
structure. He can see the effects on the stresses of the proposed improvements.
Figure 2 The HEAT procedure
Choice of materials
The first step in the simulation procedure is the choice of materials. Different concrete
mixtures have different material properties like autogenous shrinkage, modulus of elasticity,
tensile strength and drying shrinkage. In young concrete these properties will not have a fixed
value but will develop in time. The mix proportions determine the rate of the development.
The HEAT module has a huge database in which a lot of experimental data of many concrete
mixtures are stored. For new mixtures, however, these properties will be different and new
experiments will be conducted to gain the data needed for the calculations. In figure 3 an
example of the database in which the mix design controls the desorption isotherm is shown.
Figure 3 The material database
Choice of
materials
Drawing of
structure
Calculation Results
Material properties
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
Design of structure
When the materials (more than one is possible) of the structure are chosen the structure can
be drawn in a design panel. Mechanical restrains have to be attached to the geometry. Next
external loads have to be placed on the structure. The external loads can be:
Temperature
Solar radiation
Humidity
Water pressure
Forces
After dividing the structure in elements the calculation can start.
Figure 4 Drawing the structure in a two dimensional plane
Viewing results
The results of the calculations can be shown in the two-dimensional plane, in line cuts and in
graphs showing evolutions in time. By comparing the results of different simulations in
which the concrete proportions have been changed, the geometry has been altered or other
measures have been taken. The engineer can make the best choice for an optimal design.
20 C
70 %
12 C
90 %
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
Figure 5 Results of the calculation
EXAMPLE OF A CONCRETE FLOOR
The problem
In this example the effect of the mix design on the stresses due to shrinkage is shown. The
structure is a new floor cast in a room with a relative humidity of 70%. The floor will be
connected to the walls, which causes a restrained condition for the floor. After casting, the
floor will be covered with plastic foil for two days to prevent drying. Figure 6 presents the
layout of the structure.
Figure 6 Structure of the floor and its environment
RH = 90%, T = 12C
RH = 70%
150 mm
fixed to the wall
T = 20C
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
The model
The floor has been modelled as a slab as could be seen in figure 4. At the top of the slab the
boundary conditions were the indoor environment (temperature 20C and relative humidity
70%). The boundary conditions at the bottom were equal the temperature and relative
humidity of the foundation.
The deformations of the slab were kept completely restrained. The conditions were because
of the connection of the floor with the wall.
The material properties (see table 1) used in this model were obtained from experiments from
Kim, J-K and Lee, C-S [2]. The implementation of the results of the experiments into the
HEAT model is explained in reference [11].
Table 1 Mix proportions of concrete.
Mixture w/c (%) cement content (kg/m
3
) fc (MPa)
A (low strength) 68 310 22
B (medium strength) 40 423 53
C (high strength) 28 541 76
Stresses in the structure
The following simulation has been focussed on the stresses, which can occur due to
shrinkage. Temperature effects due to hydration and the environment have been incorporated.
When the concrete cracks the stresses will be lowered. The cracks have not been simulated in
this example, but it is possible in the HEAT program to show the effect of cracks on the
stresses by incorporating fracture mechanics. In figure 7 it is shown that in the top layer of
the floor the stresses will exceed the tensile strength. These stresses cause cracks in the top
layer of the floor.
Stresses [N/mm
2
]
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [hours]
strength
20 mm
50 mm
80 mm
Figure 7 The stresses and strength development at 20 , 50 and 80 mm depth for mixture B
To prevent cracks to occur the mix design could be changed. With the knowledge that the
stresses exceed the tensile strength it seems reasonable to use a mixture with a higher tensile
strength, like mixture C (the high strength concrete). However another effect of using high
strength concrete is that it has more autogenous shrinkage. From figure 8 it can be seen that a
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
structure with this mixture will have cracks too. By using mixture A with the lowest strength
and the lowest autogenous shrinkage the stresses are so low that they do not exceed the
tensile strength.
Stresses [N/mm
2
]
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [hours]
Stresses mixture A Stresses mixture B Stresses mixture C
Strength mixture A Strength mixture B Strength mixture C
Figure 8 The stresses and tensile strength for the three mixtures at 20 mm from the surface
Another way to prevent cracks to occur is by preventing moisture evaporation in the early
stage of hydration. By placing the foil for 7 days instead of 2 days the stresses will be
lowered to a value below the tensile strength. The risk of cracks will be reduced significantly.
Stresses [N/mm
2
]
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Time [hours]
strength
168 hours of sealed curing
48 hours of sealed curing
reduction in stresses
Figure 9 Reduction of stresses in mixture C by leaving the foil on the surface for 7 days.
In this example it is shown how you can optimise the mix proportions to prevent cracks in a
floor. The example also shows that taking adequate measures to prevent moisture exchange
can reduce the stresses. In table 2 the results are shown of the simulations. Also the effect of a
very low relative humidity in the environment is presented, which causes cracks with all
mixtures.
published in: CONCRETE FLOORS AND SLABS, Proceedings of the International Seminar held at the
University of Dundee, Scotland, UK on 5-6 September 2002, edited by R.K. Dhir et.al., pp 45-56.
Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
Table 2 Reduction of maximum stresses by adequate measures.
Mixture A Mixture B Mixture C Relative
Humidity

f
t /f
t

f
t /f
t

f
t /f
t
50 % 2.8 1.8 1.6 5.9 3.5 1.7 7.4 4.8 1.5
70 % 1.6 2.0 0.8 4.3 3.8 1.1 5.8 3.1 1.9
70 % +
7 days foil
4.4 5.5 0.8
tensile stress (N/mm
2
)
f
t
tensile strength (N/mm
2
)
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
The module HEAT is constant under development. At the moment various options are being
incorporated to make it suitable for even more applications. One of the developments that is
now being tested is the use of reinforcement in the concrete. The reinforcement can be used
together with the already explained hydration, temperature and moisture effects. In figure 10
two examples are given of the use of reinforcement. In figure 10a a simple 3-point-bending
beam is shown with a reinforcement bar at the bottom of the beam. In the top figure the
deformed mesh is given. In the middle figure the localized cracks are shown and in the figure
at the bottom the shear stress in the interface between steel and concrete is given. In figure
10b an application of an other new development is given. The use of a interface element. This
element is forming in this case the mechanical interface between a concrete slab and a
concrete overlay. In the top figure it is clearly shown that debonding and curling of the
overlay takes place. In the middle figure a steel reinforcement anchor is placed forming a
fixation of the overlay to the slab. In the bottom figure the deformed mesh with the
reinforcement is shown.



Figure 10 Cracking in a reinforced beam(a); deformed mesh (top), localized cracks (middle),
shear stress at steel-concrete interface (bottom)
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Simulation of physical and mechanical processes in concrete floors and slabs, Schlangen et.al.
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper it is shown that numerical tools can be helpful for the engineer to predict the
stresses in young and old concrete due to physical and mechanical processes, like hydration,
temperature effects and drying shrinkage. By using these types of tools the design of the
structure can be optimised and the effect of measures that are needed during construction can
be visualised.
In practice the prediction of cracks can be difficult by the lack of information of the concrete
mixture. The database available in the HEAT program can give the engineer the opportunity
to show the effect of the choice of mixture. At the moment the model is often used to explain
why cracks are found in the structure, while most of these cracks could be prevented in a
simple manner. Especialy also the new developments will give the engineer a tool to optimize
the design of floor systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Peter Roelfstra for the fruitful discussion on the subject and for
the collaboration in developing the module HEAT of FEMMASSE.
REFERENCES
1. FEMMASSE b.v. Online Help/Manual module HEAT of FEMMASSE, 1990-2000, available on
www.femmasse.com.
2. Kim, J-K and Lee, C-S. Moisture diffusion of concrete considering self-desiccation at early ages, in Cement
and Concrete Research, Vol. 29, 1999, pp. 1921-1927.
3. Hundt, J. and Kantelberg, H. Sorptionsuntersuchungen an Zementstein, Zementmortel und Beton, in
Deutscher Ausschuss fur Stahlbeton, Vol. 297, 1978.
4. Roelfstra, P.E. A Numerical Approach to Investigate the Properties of Concrete, PhD-thesis EPFL
Lausanne, 1989, pp. 199.
5. Nilsson, L.-O. Hygroscopic moisture in concrete drying, measurements and related properties, Lund
Institute of Technology, Report TVBM-1003, 1980.
6. Jonasson, J-E. Modelling of Temperature, Moisture and Stresses in Young Concrete, PhD-thesis Lulea
University of Technology, 1994, pp. 225.
7. Bazant, Z.P., Creep and shrinkage of concrete, mathematical modelling, in Proceedings 4th Rilem
International Symposium, Evanstone, Illinois, USA, (1986)
8. Neville, A.M. Properties of Concrete, Longman Group Limited, Essex, UK, 1995, pp. 844.
9. Jonasson, J-E., Groth, P. and Hedlund H., Modelling of temperature and moisture field in concrete to study
early age movements as a basis for stress analysis, in Thermal Cracking in Concrte at Early Ages, Rilem
Proc. 25, ed. R. Springenschmid, E&FN Spon, London, 1994, pp. 45-52.
10. Roelfstra, P.E., Salet, T.A.M. and Kuiks, J.E., Defining and application of stress-analysis-based temperature
difference limits to prevent early-age cracking in concrete structures, in Thermal Cracking in Concrete at
Early Ages, Rilem Proc. 25, ed. R. Springenschmid, E&FN Spon, London, 1994, pp. 273-280.
11. Beek A. van, Schlangen E., Simulating the effect of shrinkage on concrete structures, Shrinkage of
Concrete - 'Shrinkage 2000', Rilem Pro. 17, Paris, France, 16-17 October 2000, Edited by V. Baroghel-
Bouny and P. C. Atcin