Outline

Principles Acquisition and processing Interpretation methods Attributes Some current applications

Reflection Seismic
Fundamentals

Goal of Seismic
To make an image of the subsurface rock distribution
structure stratigraphy

Many individual traces plotted adjacent to one another

A Seismic Section

To make estimates of rock and fluid properties

velocity (linked to porosity, fluid content) anisotropy, other attributes

Two-Way Time

Distance

Looks Like Geology

Diapirs Slope deposits

Interpretations of Seismic
Processed seismic Interpretation overlay

Deep water systems

Detachment faults

Note: well-tie for calibration

Principles
bat

Basic Idea
insect Nothing in-between!
Sound going out Sound coming back

Single source Two receivers (ears) Processor (bats brain) to create spatial perception Additional spatial resolution from flying to new location

Single reflector (but it also moves)

Acoustic Waves
P-waves (Primary waves, Pressure waves) S-waves (Secondary waves, Shear waves)
Infinitesimal oscillations of particles within a medium Caused by a shock disturbance (external source) Disturbance passes a point, and the particles return to rest Sound waves passing through the air are P-waves

P-Waves

Push this student to the left

and the disturbance propagates to the left

P-Waves
close together far apart

P-Waves
Representation of particles (nodes) in a material, showing movements (exaggerated) as a P-wave passes

Plot of the closeness (inverse of distance) as a function of position (an analog of amplitude). This plot is a snapshot in time. It will change at the next instant of time as the wave moves along.

P-Wave Animation
Note: continuing excitation of motion

S-Waves (1)
Vertical polarisation

Particles vibrate (oscillate) this way Wave front propagates this way Students standing on springs, and springs above them, too Wave propagation

S-Waves (2)
Horizontal polarisation

S-Wave Animation
Note: continuing excitation of motion

Wave propagation

Students standing on a platform with castors (no friction)

Particles vibrate (oscillate) this way Wave front propagates this way

Point Source
In reflection seismology, the source is usually at a point:
This could be an explosion (dynamite) (typically, a few metres underground) Or an air-gun (in marine surveys) (a few metres under the water surface) Or a vibrator truck (on land, at the surface)

Spherical Radiation

t = t0 t = t1 t = t2 t = t3 Wavefront propagates away from the source point

Point Source

Downwards Propagation
We usually think of the seismic energy propagating downwards (sub-vertical), so here is a previous image rotated to show the way that the compressional/dilational waveform looks in that view

In this animation, the source is continuously pulsing

Wave Relationships

Changes at Interfaces
Frequency is conserved

So, if rock velocity changes, the wavelength changes for every frequency

Velocity Change: Fast>Slow

Change in velocity

Velocity Change: Slow>Fast

Change in velocity

Also note reflection of waveform from interface (negative reflection)

Also note reflection of waveform from interface (positive reflection)

Typical Rock Velocities

Incidence Angle

It is standard practice to represent the wave motion as a vector (a ray) which we can easily imagine as showing the movement of the wavefront

Conversions at Interfaces
The usual case

Frequency / Power
Imagine an explosion (or other sharp sound) The noise is composed of a range of frequencies, each with its own power
power

Total reflection

Same as Snells Law (optics)

frequency

Reflection of a Sharp Sound

Imagine that we hear an echo of the explosion (from previous slide) What does the echo sound like? Well, pretty much the same but less loud (lower amplitude), and deeper in pitch (higher-frequency components are attenuated)

A Simple Illustration
Lets sum together a bunch of signals of differing frequencies What does the resulting signal look like? All are in-phase at the centre of the plot

Harmonics (1 to 11)

Black line (sum of 1st to 11th harmonics) will appear again in next slide

Summed Waveforms
Summed harmonics from: 1st = fundamental frequency to 11th. Note progressive reduction in: - side lobe amplitude - peak event width with increasing frequency bandwidth.

First harmonic Second harmonic Third harmonic Fourth harmonic Fifth harmonic Sixth harmonic Seventh harmonic Eighth harmonic Ninth harmonic Tenth harmonic Eleventh harmonic

Amplitude

Sum first & second Sum first, second & third Sum first through fourth Sum first through fifth Sum first through sixth Sum first through seventh Sum first through eighth Sum first through ninth Sum first through tenth Sum first through eleventh

Time

Single Event (Wavelet)

This waveform is created from the previous sum by reducing the amplitude of each component frequency away from the central spike to represent the single reflection event

Visual Display of Wavelet

Often, the wavelet is depicted with the positive part filled in with colour Peak

~10 ms Trough

Wavelet length (time) is a function of the frequency content of the signal for typical seismic data (~20-80 Hz), the width is about 10-15 milliseconds

This helps the eye/brain to see the peaks

Normal-Incidence Reflection
A wavelet is created at the appropriate TWT

Acoustic Impedance

distance / velocity = time x 2 for travel both ways

Energy of Reflections
The Reflection Coefficient tells us how much of the incident energy is reflected back typically much smaller than 1

Multiple Layers (Interfaces)

R12 = I2 I1 I1 + I2

Also remember the loss of energy due to spherical dispersion, which depends on distance (time)

Reflections in Series
= Interval TWT layer 1 Interval TWT layer 2 Interval TWT layer 3 Interval TWT layer 4

Synthetic Seismogram

= = =

Top and Bottom of Bed

Adding Waveforms Together

Interference: Top and Bottom

Issues to consider as beds get thinner Thickness

Signal: Top + Bottom

(expressed as ratio of seismic wavelength)

b is small compared to wavelength (which is determined by velocity and frequency)

Plotted so that the onset of the reflections are at 0 time

from Widness (1973)

What happens when we add these together?

Note that at thicknesses less than about wavelength, it is not possible to clearly resolve top and bottom of unit

Wedge Example
The wedge is a way of seeing the effects of variable (unknown) thickness of the middle layer Note how the seismic wavelets interfere with each other, even when the layer thickness is greater than the wavelength of the sonic wave
Note that this applies to real wedges of rocks: unconformities, depositional thinning, etc

Very Thin Beds

This example looks at what might be the perfect reflector but isnt

Destructive interference of two wavelets

Reflections are Composites

TVD (ft) Ip (Kg/m2*s) Synthetic trace

Recall: Wavelength & Velocity

If f = 34 Hz
100

Rock column shows lithology (also has a GR log)

100

= 216 ft = 65.4 metres

Centre column shows density of rocks lumped into 5 m intervals. The final curve is the bulk density after water replaces the oil. The synthetic trace shows the waveform(s) calculated for this rock sequence Note that a single peak represents a heterogeneous sequence of rocks

V = 2223.6 m/sec How much geology is hidden in this single waveform??

200

200

300

Initial

Final Initial Final

Note also how the changes in saturation affect the seismic signal

300

Initial

Final

xf=V

R2

Reflections are Composites

Wavelet has the characteristics of the source signal, AND the receiver system

Tuning

R3

add together

Note how difficult it may be to infer the causative rock (impedance) distribution that caused the observed seismic signal

Internal reflection of wave leads to a duplicate signal (slightly) delayed in time If the bed thickness and velocity are just right, the duplicate signal is offset by exactly one wavelength, and thus can reinforce the weak signal from the primary reflection (here, from the base of the bed)

Add signals

Frequency (Wavelength)
20 m thick intra-reservoir shale layer Note how higher frequency data resolves shale top, and also reveals intra-sand details

Multiple Layers
Need a table like this...

Vertical depth from surface (m)

Well A1 Synthetic traces

17 Hz Ricker 25 Hz Ricker
KP Transition

Time (ms) 35 Hz Ricker

Piper Sand Unit Mid-Shale Unit Scott Sand Unit Saltire Unit

...and the sign of the reflection coefficients...

from Valerie Biran (REM 2001)

to produce a synthetic trace like this at key locations

Precision
We ALWAYS operate with time (TWT) specified to the nearest 1 msec (0.001 sec) For a rock velocity of 2000 m/sec, this precision equates to 1 metre of distance
0.001 sec TWT 2 = 0.0005 sec OWT = 1.0 metre

Many Traces: Side by Side

Distance

0.0005 sec OWT x 2000 m sec

Time
Here, the same trace is repeated side-by-side, but with minor vertical shifts. Note how the coloured-in peaks (and the intervening troughs) almost merge together to give the appearance of continuous layers.

Imaging Faults

Small Faults
Is the reflector offset??

See also later comment on diffractions

Note how it becomes difficult to recognise the fault effect when the fault offset is small

Note: fault surface is not directly imaged. Instead, the fault effect is recognised in our mind when we see the discontinuity of the reflectors

We operate on the assumption that fault throws of about the seismic wavelength can be resolved

Some of the Nitty-Gritty

Acquisition

Acquisition Activities

Acquisition Equipment

Marine Acquisition

Realistic Survey Methods

Multiple shots fired into receiver array, sorting within the computer to add together images of the same reflection point

Raypaths From One Shot

Individual traces

Gathers

Hyperbola shape

Note how each successive receiver (away from shotpoint) has a longer path for the seismic energy

Called Normal Moveout (NMO)

Estimation of Velocity

Dipping Relector

The three hyperbolae assume a different velocity. The red curve is related to the correct velocity.

Note how ray-paths are not symmetric around shotpoint

Dipping Reflector

Real Example of Gather

Lots of raypaths and different types of waves. You can see why the interpretation of shot gathers is a specialist task!

Processing
Need to put energy (data) into correct locations Have to correct for irregular acquisition geometries and distortions caused by non-uniform velocities (especially nearsurface, weathered layer) A lot like the bats brain..

Raypaths from Reflection Points

Note that the subsurface configuration may prevent signals reaching, or returning from, certain locations

Impacts of Velocity Anomaly

If there is a shallow body of slow material, the underlying reflections are late this is a push-down If there is a high-velocity anomaly at shallow depth, you get a pull-up Every reflection event below (later) than the anomaly is affected

Velocity Anomaly

The body with the anomalous velocity is replacing material whose velocity is 2440 m/sec

Seismic Profile
Seismic Horizons
TWT (sec) 0.000 -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

Velocity Push-Down
Seismic Horizons

1820 m/s
0.000 TWT (sec) -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

Seismic Horizons

2300 m/s

0.000 TWT (sec) -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000 5 15 Distance 25 35

Layer 1 Layer 2 Anomalous Body Layer 3

TWT (sec)

70 msec push-down Distance (km)

Seismic Horizons
0.000

10

15

20

25

30

35

12 msec push-down Distance (km)

Seismic Horizons
0.000 TWT (sec) -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

10

15

20

25

30

35

2400 m/s

2440 m/s

Layer 4 Layer 5

-1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

The reflections below the anomaly all have the same push-down

3 msec push-down Distance (km)

10

15

20

25

30

35

no push-down

10

15

20
Distance (km)

25

30

35

Velocity Pull-Up
Seismic Horizons
0.000 TWT (sec) -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000
TWT (sec)

Velocity Anomalies
2500 m/s

2440 m/s
0.000 -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

Seismic Horizons

no pull-up

10

15

20
Distance (km)

25

30

35

5 msec pull-up Distance (km)

Seismic Horizons
0.000 TWT (sec) -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

10

15

20

25

30

35

Seismic Horizons
0.000 TWT (sec) -1.000 -2.000 -3.000 -4.000

2600 m/s

3200 m/s

Case illustrated here with a simple geometry (flat top) More-complex shapes are possible Velocity anomaly might not be different rock, but fluid content (gas?)

13 msec pull-up Distance (km)

10

15

20

25

30

35

49 msec pull-upDistance (km)

10

15

20

25

30

35

A trap???

Gas Cloud
Gas can accumulate in small stringers of sand/silt, causing significant scattering of seismic energy

Large Scale Composed of Small Scale Heterogeneities

S h a le Q u a n t C la y 0 5600 2650
S ha le Q ua nt

% 100

50

5610

D e p th 5630 5640

5620

2700 5650

Mudstones from West Wales

Close-up

Most mudstones are not uniform; they have small stringers of silts

Oil stain (fluorescence) in mudstones with stringers of sand/silt

Micro-Reservoirs

HC can charge the silty laminae

Diffractions
Ray paths to receivers

Cross-laminated sand/silt layer capped by an erosion surface

End of body with different acoustic impedance

Wavy and discontinuous sand and silt rich lamina alternating with clay rich layers

The traces near the end receive reflections that form a hyperbola

Gas Cloud
Thin, dis-continuous stringers of silt may become charged with gas The ends of these silts may act as diffractors Many of them acting together can cause serious disruption of the seismic signals

But Some Anomalies are Real

Pipes indicating extreme fluid flow events

Interpretation

Mapping Events
Compressional and rarefactional energy is the product of many interactions Peak or trough is an event if it continues for a significant distance By hand: draw a (coloured) line along the event Then transfer the TWT of the event, at each shotpoint, to a map, and draw contours

Picking Events

Example

Here, the green event has been picked. We interpret this to indicate that the rock layers are in the shape of an anticline, with each trace indicating the depth at that point.

Example

3D Seismic

Picking the Brent event (tied to well control)

Southern North Sea

Central North Sea

Time slice through 3D dataset

Time slice through 3D dataset

Attributes

AVO
Amplitude versus Offset Some due to raypath lengths (in theory, can be removed by data processing) Some due to incidence angles
sensitive to changes in rock properties (e.g. porosity, rigidity, etc) also sensitive to fluid content (saturations)

Other Methods
Time-lapse seismic (4D) Wellbore seismic (VSP) Cross-well seismic

Full-Field Reservoir Simulation

Saturation changes
bar

Pore pressure changes

Vp

Gas production

Water flood

Schematic of the elements of the modelling method

Water Oil Gas

+Vp

+Vp

FLOW SIMULATOR
Permeability change Pore pressure change

Fluid change effect PETRO-PHYSICAL MODEL

Gas injection

After Nur, 1995

Gas out of solution GEOMECHANICAL Stress change effect Forward modelling

-Vp

-Vp
eff

SIMULATOR

Vp changes during common hydrocarbon production processes Fluid change effect Stress change effect

Geometry change due to deformation

SEISMIC MODEL

Mean effective stress distribution at the end of the simulation

Unperturbed stress field (constant gradient)

Apparent deepening of reservoir due to decreasing pore pressure

Perturbed stress field above and below reservoir

Localized effects at faults

Time-lapsed seismic trace model

Wellbore Seismic Survey

Survey Well Wireline
WESTERN ATLAS

Recording
ATLAS WESTERN

WESTERN ATLAS

Source

Reflector at top of caprock

Perturbations at reflector event due to fluid change effects

Shallow 3-component reference geophone

Reservoir top Reservoir base Movable 3-component wall lock geophone Pull-up in reflector event due to stress change effects

Baker Atlas

VSP Record

Baker Atlas

ATLAS WESTERN

1 2

Seismic Waves 1. Downgoing multiple 2. Direct arrival 3. Upgoing reflection 4. Upgoing multiple

Types of Surveys

Frequencies of Survey Tools

natural earthquake exploration geophysics well logging Ultra Sonic

It Isnt all THAT Mysterious!

10-4 10-3 10-2

10-1 100

101

102

103 104

105

106

108

VSP free oscillation

Frequency (cycles/sec)

Interpretation Examples

Brasil, Campos Basin

Eastern Mediterranean

Nicaragua

Norway

Ormen Lange

Gulf of Mexico

Tunisia

Uncertainty / Errors
Picking an event (in time) involves an error So calculated velocities are uncertain And predictions based on those numbers must compound the errors What is the size of the errors?
300

Wavelength & Velocity

If f = 34 Hz
100

200

= 216 ft = 65.4 metres

V = 2223.6 m/sec

Time between peaks is 1/34 sec = 0.0294 sec = 29.4 msec

Initial

Final

How much geology is hidden in this single waveform??

xf=V

Wavelength & Velocity

Location (time) uncertainty
100

Propagating Errors
So, 10% error (+/- 5%) in time of peak translates to 10% error in calculated velocity. If we use that velocity to predict the depth of another observed peak, we compound the errors.

If f = 34 Hz V = 2223.6 m/sec

= 216 ft = 65.4 metres

200

Error is about one part in 6.5 parts, or about 16%. So, we will be VERY conservative if we say the error is +/- 5%. Time between peaks is 1/34 sec = 0.0294 sec = 29.4 msec

300

Initial

Final

How much geology is hidden in this single waveform??

xf=V

Rules for Seismic

ALWAYS work to the nearest millisecond (msec) THINK about the potential for expensive errors if you are sloppy!