12.

1
Depth Conversion
Depth Conversion
of Time
Interpretations
~
Volume Models
Depth Conversion
Based on the different types of velocity models that can be
derived from well data produce a ranked list of approaches
to depth conversion with the simplest, least accurate at the
top and most accurate at the bottom.
12.2
Depth Conversion
Long Period Static Anomalies
No LVL Static Correction
Before we begin depth conversion
it is necessary to recognise, and
correct, any long wavelength static
anomalies in the time data.
These anomalies will probably be
seen in the times sections, time
map(s) and possibly the stacking
velocity sections or maps. The
problem and solution was first
discussed by Booker et al, 1976,
then by Pickard 1992, Musgrove
1994 and Armstrong et al 2001.
After Musgrove, 1994, Time Variant Statics
Corrections During Interpretation, Geophysics v. 59,
no. 3, p. 474.
Depth Conversion
Long Period Static Anomalies
The time delay due to near
surface anomalies is estimated
from the regional residual
separation of time delays on
shallow reflectors. For deep
anomalies it may be estimated
from well depths and velocities.
The width of the time distortion
at the target horizon is derived
from the width of the velocity
anomaly, its depth and the
target horizon depth. Fresnel
zone effects are often ignored.
From Armstrong et al, 2001, Removal of overburden
velocity anomaly effects, Geophysical Prospecting v.
49, no. 1, p. 79.
12.3
Depth Conversion
Long Period Static Anomalies
The technique then simulates
the CMP stack at the target
horizon by modelling the time
delay on each of the traces in
the CMP gather with respect to
distance along the seismic line.
This step requires a knowledge
of the mute pattern at the time
of stacking velocity analysis
(just as the bias correction did).
From Armstrong et al, 2001, Removal of overburden
velocity anomaly effects, Geophysical Prospecting v.
49, no. 1, p. 79.
T
x
2
= T
o
2
+ x
2
/ V
RMS
2
- x
4
(V
RM4
4
- V
RMS
4
) / 4 T
o
2
V
RMS
8
with
V
RM4
4
= V
Ii
4
t
i
/ t
o
.
Depth Conversion
Long Period Static Anomalies
The time delay on the
stacked traces (the
required correction) is
then found from the
time axis intercept of a
least squares best fit
trend line of the time
delay on the different
traces in the CMP
gather plotted against
the offset squared.
From Armstrong et al, 2001, Removal of overburden
velocity anomaly effects, Geophysical Prospecting v.
49, no. 1, p. 79.
12.4
Depth Conversion
Ranked Methods for Functions
The least accurate methods are at the top and most accurate at the bottom.
1. Constant average velocity.
2. Mapped average velocity.
3. Average velocity function.
4. Instantaneous velocity function.
5. Instantaneous velocity function with mapped parameter.
6. Constant interval velocities.
7. Mapped interval velocities.
8. Interval or instantaneous velocity functions.
9. Interval or instantaneous velocity functions with one
parameter mapped.
10. Interval or instantaneous velocity functions with all
parameters mapped.
Depth Conversion
0
2
4
T

(
s
e
c
)
5000 V
i
(ft/sec) 20,000
1
Depth conversion may use a
single velocity function from
the surface down to the layer
of interest.
Fast
Less accurate
An average velocity function
or an instantaneous velocity
function.
One Function
12.5
Depth Conversion
One Function
Time
Map
Velocity
Function
Depth
Map
Velocity
Map
Depth conversion process
One Function
Depth Conversion
Time Depth
Apparent closed area depends of choice of contour
interval with respect to spill points in flat areas.
Constant Average Velocity
After Marsden, Layer cake depth conversion, Leading Edge, January 1989.
One Function
12.6
Depth Conversion
Time Depth
Constant Average Velocity
One Function
The only difference between the maps is in the level of detail
attributable to the different contour interval.
Depth Conversion
The structure in depth
map based on well control
fails to represent the true
structural picture.
The well data is used to
provide a constant average
velocity based on a time
depth plot.
Example after Laurtent Moinard, Application of Kriging to the Mapping of a Reef from Wireline Logs and Seismic Data : a Case
History, in Geostatistical Case Studies, G. Matheron and M. Armstrong (editors) 1987, D. Reidel Publishing Co.
Constant Average Velocity with External Drift
One Function
12.7
Depth Conversion
Constant Average Velocity with External Drift
Example after Laurtent Moinard, Application of Kriging to the Mapping of a Reef from Wireline Logs and Seismic Data : a Case
History, in Geostatistical Case Studies, G. Matheron and M. Armstrong (editors) 1987, D. Reidel Publishing Co.
Structure in time map;
plenty of detail due to
abundant seismic control.
This map is used to derive
the semivariogram. A
plane least squares
surface was used as the
drift so that the
semivariogram is derived
from time residuals.
One Function
Depth Conversion
The depth map produced
from the time surface
using the constant
average velocity and the
semivariogram. This depth
map follows the shape of
the time map but departs
from it in the vicinity of the
well locations where it
matches the measured
depths.
Example after Laurtent Moinard, Application of Kriging to the Mapping of a Reef from Wireline Logs and Seismic Data : a
Case History, in Geostatistical Case Studies, G. Matheron and M. Armstrong (editors) 1987, D. Reidel Publishing Co.
Constant Average Velocity with External Drift
One Function
12.8
Depth Conversion
Summary - Single Function
Leman field with production platforms
25 km
Depth conversion by
a single function is
well suited to areas
with dense well
control and simple
structure.
One Function
Depth Conversion
Single Function
In the marine environment we may be tempted to use a single layer
for depth conversion when the water layer appears to be relatively
uniform and the depth to the first interface appears to be relatively
deep. There is one anomalous well data point.
12.9
Depth Conversion
Multiple Functions
In the marine environment if we separate out the water layer from
the underlying Tertiary we will obtain a much better function. The
figure shows the same formation as the previous slide with the
water layer removed. The scatter is reduced to give a better result.
Depth Conversion
0
2
4
T

(
s
e
c
)
5000 V
i
(ft/sec) 20,000
1
A multi-layer approach
should be used in areas
where the overburden
displays lateral velocity
inhomgeneities, i.e. the
velocity structure is not
simple. Each of a number of
layers are then represented
by different functions.
Slower
Increased accuracy ?
Multiple Functions
Multiple Functions
12.10
Depth Conversion
Strategy
How do we decide the layers to be used?
Multiple Functions
Depth Conversion
Strategy
How do we decide the layers to be used?
Consider the main formation boundaries
Where are the major unconformities?
Inspect the velocity/sonic log for changes in slope, or shifts
Next, plot the time-depth charts to each of the possible
boundaries. If the plot shows little scatter the horizon can be
depth converted by a single function. If the plot shows scatter then
the interval above needs to be subdivided.
Then plot the isochron-isopach charts for each formation or
interval. Select intervals where the plot shows little scatter.
Multiple Functions
12.11
Depth Conversion Multiple Functions
Strategy
Consider the main formation boundaries
Depth Conversion
Early Jurassic
Triassic
Regression from Early Cretaceous to Early Jurassic
K= 1.49
Strategy
Inspect the velocity/sonic log for changes in slope, or shifts
Multiple Functions
12.12
Depth Conversion
Early Jurassic
Triassic
Regression from Early Jurassic to Triassic
K= 1.2
Multiple Functions
Strategy
Inspect the velocity/sonic log for changes in slope, or shifts
Depth Conversion
Early Jurassic
Triassic
Regression from Triassic
K= 0.93
Multiple Functions
Strategy
Inspect the velocity/sonic log for changes in slope, or shifts
12.13
Depth Conversion
target - 5
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
time sec
d
e
p
t
h

f
t
target - 2
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time sec
d
e
p
t
h

f
t
Multiple Functions
target - 1
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
time sec
d
e
p
t
h

f
t
target - 4
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
time sec
d
e
p
t
h

f
t
Target
8000
8500
9000
9500
10000
10500
11000
11500
12000
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3
time sec
d
e
p
t
h

f
t
target - 3
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
time sec
d
e
p
t
h

f
t
Strategy
Next, plot the time-depth charts to each of the possible boundaries.
Depth Conversion
Notice how the scatter decreases as we move up through the
overburden.
Now lets look at the intervals.
When the isopach can be
predicted from the isochron
find the best function using the
RMS depth error to select the
most suitable function.
Multiple Functions
y = 3848.9x
2
+ 13414x + 109.85
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Isochron
I
s
o
p
a
c
h
12.14
Depth Conversion
When the isochron-isopach plot shows scatter try an interval
velocity-mid point time function &/or an instantaneous velocity
function, subdivide the interval or go on to use seismic velocities.
Multiple Functions
y = 12063x + 14.855
RMS error 114 ft
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
isochron sec
i
s
o
p
a
c
h

f
t
y = -1842.9x + 13647
RMS error 91 ft
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mid Point time
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Depth Conversion
Multiple Functions
Time
Maps
Isochrons Velocity
Functions
Isochores Depth
Maps
Average
Velocity
Maps
L
a
y
e
r
s
Depth conversion process
Multiple Functions
12.15
Depth Conversion
Time to upper surface
Multi-Layer Example
From a Sattlegger brochure
Multiple Functions
Depth Conversion
Depth to upper surface
Multi-Layer Example
From a Sattlegger brochure
Multiple Functions
12.16
Depth Conversion
Map of V
o
coefficient
from Fausts equation
V
i
= V
o
z
1/n
(n=3)
Multi-Layer Example
From a Sattlegger brochure
Multiple Functions
Depth Conversion
Map of V
o
coefficient
after smoothing with a
16th order polynomial
Multi-Layer Example
From a Sattlegger brochure
Multiple Functions
12.17
Depth Conversion
Time to lower surface
Multi-Layer Example
From a Sattlegger brochure
Multiple Functions
Depth Conversion
Lower surface depth
converted using
V
i
= V
o
z
1/n
(n=3)
Multi-Layer Example
From a Sattlegger brochure
Multiple Functions
12.18
Depth Conversion
Integration
Analytic
functions
Depth
conversion
Interval,
average,
instantaneous
Macro-
velocity
model
Depth maps
Seismic
horizon
times
Velocity log
Sonic log
Checkshot
or VSP
Z.O. or
image ray
modelling
Compare
Velocity
Maps
Multiple Functions
Depth Conversion
Summary - Multiple Functions
Depth conversion by multiple
functions is well suited to
areas with moderate well
control and moderate
structural complexity.
The functions will account for
vertical gradients and rapidly
changing bed thicknesses.
1 km
When we have little well control then we have to make use of
seismic velocities to interpolate the well velocities.
Multiple Functions
12.19
Depth Conversion
Multi-layer Depth Conversion
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Time (sec)
D
e
p
t
h

(
f
t
)
Observed
Predicted -
multi-layer
Summary - Multiple Functions
Multi-layer depth conversions essentially predict variations in the
average velocity that cannot be handled by a single function
Multiple Functions
Depth Conversion Multiple Functions
Given a moderately complex macrovelocity model, structures-in-
depth may be revealed where none exist in time
Depth Conversion
You have to recommend a well on the structure seen at about 1.7 secs., on the
accompanying seismic section. This is a wildcat area with few wells having been
drilled. Make your depth prognosis using the function V
A
= 5000 + 2500t where t is the
one way time in seconds and the velocity is in ft/sec.
This function comes from good scout information which you trust. Your supervisor is
not so comfortable however and wants you to give an estimate of the error in your
depth conversion.
Make an initial guess at how accurate you think your depth prognosis is.
List the potential sources of error and assign estimates to the magnitude of each.
Exercise 12.1
12.20
Depth Conversion
12.21
0
1
2
Exercise 12.1
12.22
Depth Conversion
Average Stacking Velocity
0 4 8 miles
C.I. = 100 m/s
D
a
t
a

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

A
m
o
c
o

(
U
.
K
.
)

E
x
.

C
o
.
Depth Conversion
of Time
Interpretations
~
Grid Models
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
How might we use seismically derived velocities for depth
conversion?
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Now suppose that no well velocity information was available to you. The
only velocity data are stacking velocity functions every 2 km along the line
and they were derived without the benefit of DMO.
What is your depth prognosis now given the two nearest stacking velocity
functions?
Time
msec
0
152
384
601
859
1401
1756
2151
2621
V
S
m/s
1472
1472
1717
1865
2070
2317
2441
2616
3390
V
IS
m/s
1472
1861
2102
2483
2662
2879
3283
5725
SP 253
Time
msec
0
165
439
744
968
1438
1713
2045
2572
V
S
m/s
1478
1478
1747
1891
2011
2192
2441
2677
3511
V
IS
m/s
1478
1891
2081
2367
2525
3463
3661
5688
SP 155
How accurate do you suppose this depth conversion is?
Exercise 12.2
Note:
Dips are relatively gentle so any dip correction will probably do more harm than
good.
The data are relatively old and were probably acquired with a cable short enough
that the bias correction would make no appreciable difference to the results.
12.23
12.24
Depth Conversion
Sparse Well Control
When there is only sparse
well control we usually
generate grid velocity
models from the seismic
data. By calibrating the
grids to the well velocities
we are making use of the
grids to interpolate the well
velocities.
In unexplored basins we
dont always have any wells
to interpolate or extrapolate
from.
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Substitutes
5000 10,000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16 Average
Velocity
RMS
Velocity
Velocity - ft/sec
D
e
p
t
h

-
x
1
0
0
0

f
e
e
t
Stacking
Velocity
Bias Corrected Models
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Interval Velocity m/s
D
e
p
t
h

m
Original Model
Ray Trace + Semblance Analysis
Bias Corrected
Velocity Grids
12.25
Depth Conversion
Ranked approaches to depth conversion with seismic
velocities.
1. Kriging with seismic velocities and well velocities
* these approaches have constraints
2. Estimate average velocity from interval RMS velocities
* can be done without well control
3. Use seismic velocities to augment well data in deriving
functions
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
For Kriging:
From a GX Technology brochure
Cokriging, kriging
with external drift
etc., require a good
linear correlation
between the different
parameters.
Enough data points
are needed to
produce a
reasonable
variogram (a
minimum of 8 or 10).
Histogram of
velocities to be
kriged should show
a normal
distribution.
Velocity Grids
12.26
Depth Conversion
For Kriging
Stacking,
RMS or
Average
Velocity
Simple or
Common
Kriging
Smoothed
Velocity
Kriging
with
External Drift
Cross Plot
with Well
Velocities
Final
Velocity
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Regional/Residual Calibration
A conventional
horizon oriented
stacking velocity
map. This map
can be smoothed
first by Kriging.
From Francis, Geostatistical Applications in Asset Valuation Uncertainty, PETEX 94.
Velocity Grids
12.27
Depth Conversion
Regional/Residual Calibration
From Francis, Geostatistical Applications in Asset Valuation Uncertainty, PETEX 94.
The variogram from the stacking velocities. The noise
seen in the map produces the large nugget.
Range
Sill
Nugget
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000
0
250
500
750
1000
Sample Separation (m)
V
a
r
i
a
n
c
e

(
m
2
)
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Regional/Residual Calibration
From Francis, Geostatistical Applications in Asset Valuation Uncertainty, PETEX 94.
Well velocities co-
kriged with the drift
supplied by the
seismic velocities.
This is an average
velocity map to the
horizon of interest
that ties the well
control and
honours the trends
in the seismic
velocities.
Velocity Grids
12.28
Depth Conversion
Case History / Example
GOM: Mississippi Canyon
Calibrate Stacking Velocities with VSP Data
Create Depth Map for the 10-5 Sequence
Time Horizon
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
Depth Conversion
Data:
77,000 seismic stacking velocities
X = Y = 2000 ft CDP spacing
Z (time in ms) = variable (5 15 picks)
2 wells with VSP time-velocity-depths
10-5 Sequence travel times
23,837 travel time values
Grid mesh: 1000 x 1000 ft
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
12.29
Depth Conversion
Stacking Velocity and VSP Locations
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
Depth Conversion
10-5 Sequence Time Structure
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
12.30
Depth Conversion
VSP Average Velocity Stacking Velocity
V
S
P

T
w
o
-
W
a
y

T
i
m
e
V
S
P

T
w
o
-
W
a
y

T
i
m
e
Calibration
VSP Average velocities and Stacking velocity functions at
the well locations.
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
Depth Conversion
Calibration
VSP Velocity VSP Velocity
C
a
l
i
b
S
t
a
c
k
i
n
g

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
U
n
c
a
l
i
b
S
t
a
c
k
i
n
g

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
Calibrated and uncalibrated stacking velocity functions
Note the linear relationship between the uncalibrated velocities.
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
12.31
Depth Conversion
Variograms in three directions
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
Depth Conversion
Deterministic Velocity Cube from Kriging
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
12.32
Depth Conversion
10-5 Sequence Average Velocity
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
Depth Conversion
10-5 Time Horizon
Calibrated Velocity Cube with Time Horizon
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
12.33
Depth Conversion
10-5 Sequence Depth Map
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
Depth Conversion
Work Flow
Quantitative
Geosciences, LLP
12.34
Depth Conversion
Kriging 1 many wells
Stacking,
RMS or
Average
Velocity
Simple
Kriging
Smoothed
Seismic
Velocity
Cokriging
Cross Plot
Final
Velocity
Well
Average
Velocity
Variogram
Variogram
Time
Map
Deterministic
Depth
Map
This approach is best if the seismic velocities are noisy.
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Kriging 1 few wells
Stacking,
RMS or
Average
Velocity
Simple
Kriging
Smoothed
Seismic
Velocity
Kriging
with
External Drift
Cross Plot
Final
Velocity
Well
Average
Velocity
Variogram
Time
Map
Deterministic
Depth
Map
This approach is best if the seismic velocities are noisy.
Velocity Grids
12.35
Depth Conversion
Kriging 2 many wells
Stacking,
RMS or
Average
Velocity
Cokriging
Cross Plot
Final
Velocity
Well
Average
Velocity
Variogram
Variogram
Time
Map
Deterministic
Depth
Map
Will produce unreliable results with noisy seismic velocities.
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Kriging 2 few wells
Stacking,
RMS or
Average
Velocity
Kriging
with
External Drift
Cross Plot
Final
Velocity
Well
Average
Velocity
Variogram
Time
Map
Deterministic
Depth
Map
Will produce unreliable results with noisy seismic velocities.
Velocity Grids
12.36
Depth Conversion
Ranked approaches to depth conversion with seismic
velocities.
1. Kriging with seismic velocities and well velocities
* these approaches have constraints
2. Estimate average velocity from interval RMS velocities
* can be done without well control
3. Use seismic velocities to augment well data in deriving
functions
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
For Average Velocity
Stacking,
RMS
Velocity
Robust Filter,
Smooth
Interval RMS
Velocity
Calibrate to
Well Interval
Velocities
Final
Average
Velocity
Robust Filter,
Smooth
Robust Filter,
Smooth
Calibrate to
Average
Velocity
Calibrate to
Well Interval
Velocities
Robust Filter,
Smooth
Interval RMS
Velocity
Calibrate to
Well Interval
Velocities
Velocity Grids
12.37
Depth Conversion
Calibration
Before depth conversion it is necessary to calibrate the
seismically derived velocities to the velocities measured in
the wells.
Calibration is the process of using the abundant seismic
estimates, which probably reflect regional geological
variations, to interpolate and extrapolate the sparse well
control which aliases the geological variations.
The result of calibration is that we have velocities in our
model which honour the well measurements and display the
spatial sampling of the seismic data.
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Calibration
The calibration is frequently performed in two steps.
The first is a regional calibration which takes care of any shift
between the trends of the two data sets.
The second is a residual calibration which accounts for the
local variations, the residuals, after the first calibration, and
ensures the wells are tied exactly.
Velocity Grids
12.38
Depth Conversion
Regional Calibration
We can correlate the VSP
or checkshot data to
stacking velocity (or V
RMS
or V
AS
) functions. Linearity
is not required. Correlated
data points must relate to
the same points in the
subsurface, i.e. we need
the V
RMS
value at the same
travel time as the observed
V
A
.
This approach correlates
the whole velocity volume.
Velocity Grids
Well v. Seismic Average Velocity
y = 3.7050934E-07x
3
- 6.7773959E-03x
2
+ 4.1711981E+01x -
8.0315444E+04
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500
seismic
w
e
l
l
s
Depth Conversion
Regional Calibration
To calibrate the stacking
velocities (or V
RMS
or V
AS
) to
a particular horizon a
percentage calibration
factor is required or used
(93.35% in the example).
A percentage calibration
factor is equivalent to a
linear trendline being fitted
to the data, which goes
through the origin.
Velocity Grids
Level 8 Interval Velocities
IntVel = 0.9335Vdix
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Seismic
W
e
l
l
12.39
Depth Conversion
Regional Calibration
For interval velocity the
interval stacking (or RMS)
velocities are cross plotted
against the corresponding
well velocities.
A good correlation is
usually observed but the
trend does not always go
through the origin.
Velocity Grids
Level 9 Interval Velocities
IntVel = 0.9662Vdix - 329.57
6800
7000
7200
7400
7600
7800
8000
7400 7600 7800 8000 8200 8400 8600
Seismic
W
e
l
l
Depth Conversion
Regional Calibration
After calibration the trend
does go through the origin.
The remaining scatter in
the data means that none
of the wells will be tied
exactly.
As with checkshot function
misties these misties are a
measure of the overall
accuracy of the method.
Velocity Grids
Calibrated Average Velocities
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000
Well
S
e
i
s
m
i
c
12.40
Depth Conversion
Misties
Data from a Paradigm Geophysical brochure
After regional calibration the misties at the wells are greatly reduced.
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Ranked approaches to depth conversion with seismic
velocities.
1. Kriging with seismic velocities and well velocities
* these approaches have constraints
2. Estimate average velocity from interval RMS velocities
* can be done without well control
3. Use seismic velocities to augment well data in deriving
functions a hybrid approach
Velocity Grids
12.41
Depth Conversion
We now have either a calibrated volume of seismically
derived velocities or a number of calibrated interval velocity
grids associated with different horizons which are used to
derive an average velocity to the horizon of interest.
Velocity functions from the calibrated volume may be treated
as additional checkshot values and used to augment sparse
checkshot data to derive analytical functions.
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Determining K and V
0
From Seismic
Given an estimate of the V
RMS
curve, obtained by the
correction of V
S
, estimates of analytical function parameters
can be obtained directly from the seismic data and mapped.
From Arnaud et al, K coefficient
determination of an interval velocity
law Vo + Kz from stacking velocity
analyses, EAEG-95 Workshop
Depth Conversion
K
V
0
Velocity Grids
12.42
Depth Conversion Velocity Grids
Determining K and V
0
From Seismic
V
rms
2
= [V
I
2
.t] / [t] from our definitions
V
rms
2
= [

V
i
2
.dt] / [

dt] and V
i
= dz / dt
V
rms
2
= [

(dz / dt)
2
.dt] / [

dt]
V
rms
2
= [

(dz / dt).dz] / [

dt]
Substitute any expression for dz/dt and integrate.
Depth Conversion
Determining K and V
0
From Seismic
For a single layer model:
For V
i
= V
0
+ Kz, V
RMS
2
= V
0
2
(e
2Kt
- 1)/2Kt
For Faust V
RMS
2
={ nK/(n + 1)t}{(n - 1)Kt/n}
[(n + 1)/(n - 1)]
For Evjen V
RMS
2
={ V
0
K/(1 + n)t}{[1 + V
0
(1 - n)Kt]
[(1 + n)/(1 - n)]
- 1}
It is therefore possible to use the corrected V
RMS
data to map
directly the parameters of standard analytic functions.
Velocity Grids
12.43
Depth Conversion
Pseudo Checkshots
It is also possible to use the
calibrated interval and
average velocity values as
checkshots thus permitting a
wider range of values to be
used in determining the
analytical function
parameters.
VELOCITY
D
E
P
T
H
After Marsden et al, Leading Edge, 1995
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Summary - Grid Models
Grids of seismically derived RMS velocities can be used when
we have no well control or sparse well control.
We can use kriging to smooth the generally noisy grids and tie
them to the well control. This approach usually yields better
results than the more traditional ways of smoothing the noisy
grids.
The velocities have to be calibrated in some way to well
velocities.
The velocities may also be used to augment well checkshot
data.
Velocity Grids
12.44
Depth Conversion
Tying
the Well
Control
PGS Reservoir (U.S.) Inc. Doe Contract #DE-AC-22-94-PC 91008
Depth Conversion
Residual Calibration - Tying Well Control
We have our preliminary depth map that does not tie the
well control exactly. We have analysed our misties and
quantified the accuracy of our depth conversion.
How might we make the map tie the well control?
What are the disadvantages of the different methods?
Residual Calibration
12.45
Depth Conversion
Tying Well Control
How might we make the map tie the well control? What are the
disadvantages of the method?
For multi-layer depth conversion only tie the target horizons.
Intermediate errors tend to cancel out.
If the errors are random, distribute over an area whose radius
is half the average well spacing. Can produce bulls-eyes at the
wells.
Autocontour the errors. Produces unreasonable gradients and
error values outside the limits of well control.
Kriging. Will separate trend and random components of the
errors.
Residual Calibration
Depth Conversion
One-Step Calibration - Wells
Residual Calibration
A popular approach when using checkshot data from
multiple wells:
Fit a simple (linear?) function
Fix all but one of the parameters
Vary the one parameter to effect a tie to each data point
Map the variation of the parameter
Use the parameter grid in depth conversion
12.46
Depth Conversion
One-Step Calibration - Wells
Residual Calibration
Keep the slope K constant and derive a V
o
for each data
point..
0 100 200 300 400 500
One Way Time (msec)
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
Fit used
Slope (K) = 0.73
I
n
t
e
r
v
a
l

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
e
c
)
Data courtesy of Amoco
Depth Conversion
One-Step Calibration - Wells
Residual Calibration
Map of V
o
from previous
plot. The greatest
danger in this approach
to depth conversion is
that this map is
meaningless. The map
should reflect the
geology, variations in V
0
should reflect the
tectonic history.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of this
approach to macrovelocity model building?
10 Miles
1600
1700
1800
1900
CI = 50 m/sec
Data courtesy of Amoco
12.47
Depth Conversion
One-Step Calibration - Seismic
Average Stacking Velocity
The regionally
calibrated seismic
velocities display
variations of geological
significance even
though they do not tie
points of well control
with the desired
accuracy.
0 4 8 miles
C.I. = 100 m/s
D
a
t
a

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

A
m
o
c
o

(
U
.
K
.
)

E
x
.

C
o
.
Residual Calibration
Depth Conversion
0 4 8 miles
C.I. = 100 m/s
Average Velocity from Wells
Velocity maps based
on well control will tie
the wells, more or less
exactly depending on
the contouring
algorithm, but alias the
geological trends.
D
a
t
a

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

A
m
o
c
o

(
U
.
K
.
)

E
x
.

C
o
.
Residual Calibration
One-Step Calibration - Seismic
12.48
Depth Conversion
0 4 8 miles
C.I. = 2 %
Calibration Factor
The calibration factor or
residual is determined at
each well control point.
These values are then
gridded to determine the
values to be applied to the
seismic grid.
Note that steep gradients
can be introduced which
may not be geologically
reasonable.
D
a
t
a

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

A
m
o
c
o

(
U
.
K
.
)

E
x
.

C
o
.
Residual Calibration
One-Step Calibration - Seismic
Depth Conversion
0 4 8 miles
C.I. = 100 m/s
Calibrated Average Velocity
The calibrated interval
velocity map ready for
use in depth conversion.
This map ties the well
control and honours the
trends seen in the
seismic data.
Kriging can be used
instead of this traditional
approach.
D
a
t
a

c
o
u
r
t
e
s
y

o
f

A
m
o
c
o

(
U
.
K
.
)

E
x
.

C
o
.
Residual Calibration
One-Step Calibration - Seismic
12.49
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
When the residuals are small and
random then the errors are
dispersed over an area with a
radius of up to one half the
average inter-well spacing. This
approach is only acceptable when
there is no spatial correlation
between the residuals.
Residual Calibration
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
Residual Calibration
Mistie grid.
Mistie values
when flexing
surface over too
small a radius
around wells.
12.50
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
Residual Calibration
Tied map.
When the radius
of flexing is too
small then the
circular nature of
the flexing will
show in the final
map.
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
Residual Calibration
Mistie grid.
Mistie values
when flexing
surface over a
distance of about
half the average
well spacing.
12.51
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
Residual Calibration
Tied map.
The circular
nature of the
mistie contour
values does not
show up.
Depth Conversion
Gridding the calibration
factor or residual from
each well control point can
produce undesirable
trends and steep gradients
when dissimilar values
occur in closely spaced
wells.
Data from a Paradigm Geophysical brochure
Residual Calibration
One-Step Calibration
12.52
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
Residual Calibration
Mistie grid.
Minimum
curvature gridding
with bicubic
interpolation
of mistie values.
The extrapolation
is geologically
unreasonable.
Depth Conversion
Random Errors
Residual Calibration
Mistie grid.
Inverse distance
weighted gridding
with bicubic
interpolation
of mistie values.
Produces almost
exactly the same
correction grid as
the previous
example.
12.53
Depth Conversion
Kriging
A semivariogram of the residuals
is a powerful tool that will find
any spatial correlation.
Kriging residuals results in a
calibration grid or error grid that
shows both any remaining -
possibly undetected - trend and
the true random residual error.
The effect is a series of bulls-
eyes in a regional smooth trend.
Residual Calibration
Depth Conversion
A semivariogram of the residuals
is a powerful tool that will find
any spatial correlation.
Kriging residuals results in a
calibration grid or error grid that
shows both any remaining -
possibly undetected - trend and
the true random residual error.
The effect is a series of bulls-
eyes in a regional smooth trend.
Residual Calibration
Kriging
12.54
Depth Conversion
Structure-in-time Map
After Marsden, Layer cake depth conversion, Leading Edge, January 1989.
Examples
Depth Conversion
After Marsden, Layer cake depth conversion, Leading Edge, January 1989.
Depth conversion using five layers and seismic interval
velocities, the one step calibration method was used.
Examples
12.55
Depth Conversion
After Marsden, Layer cake depth conversion, Leading Edge, January 1989.
Depth conversion by average velocity.
Examples
Depth Conversion
After Marsden, Layer cake depth conversion, Leading Edge, January 1989.
Depth conversion using six analytic functions based on wells.
Examples
12.56
Depth Conversion
Calibrate
Analytic
functions
Depth
conversion
Interval,
Average,
velocity
Macro-
velocity
model
Depth maps
Seismic
horizon
times
Dip correct,
Interpolate
Well
Velocity
Seismic
Velocities
Z.O. or
image ray
modelling
Compare
Velocity
Maps
Invert,
(Dix/Bias)
Edit,
Smooth
Velocity Grids
Depth Conversion
Quality Control
Depth converting the same structure-in-time map by
different methods can result in different depth maps even
though all of the well control is honoured.
So how do we know which depth conversion is the most
accurate?
A final quality control step on our depth conversion, one
that is rarely applied, should be to model our seismic data
by ray tracing through our macrovelocity model.
12.57
Depth Conversion
Forward Modelling
Data courtesy of Paradigm Geophysical (UK) Ltd.
Normal incidence ray trace
modelling on the velocity /
depth section generates
synthetic event with diffractions
to overlay on the stack section.
Depth Conversion
Summary
When well control is adequate to define the velocity
distribution in the macrovelocity model analytical functions
are used.
When well control is inadequate then seismic velocities may
be used. The seismic velocities have to be calibrated to well
velocities.
The residual misties at the well locations are used to quantify
the accuracy of the depth conversion.
The residual error adjustment of the depth maps is made
when depth maps are required that tie the well control
exactly.
12.58
Depth Conversion
Summary
Accuracy of depth conversion: -
Rank Wildcat (50 km to well control) ~5%
Exploration well (10km to well control) ~2.5%
Appraisal well (2 or 3km to well control) ~1%
Development wells <0.5%
The final depth structures should be no more complex than
the time structures. If they are there needs to be a very good
explanation for the complex velocity model used.
Depth Conversion
Contractor Depth Conversion
CGG Time Depth Mapper
GeoQuest InDepth
GX GX VM
Paradigm Explorer
Atos (Sattlegger) ISP0003
Scott-Pickford (CoreLabs) Cubit/Velit
Landmark (Sierra) Depth Team
SMT VelPak
Velocity Manager Velocity Manager