INTRODUCTION

Conflict, defined as opposition among social entities directed against one another is a derivative of a Latin word c onfligere meaning to strike together (Quincy Wright, 1993) !t is a world of consistent conflict that we inha"it, whether in #ri Lan$a, %ngola, &wanda, 'ashmir, (orth )ast !ndia, or #omalia, hordes of humanity are struggling to cope with the conse*uences of destructive conflicts Conflict is also defined as the pursuit of incompara"le goals "y different groups %rmed conflicts are conflicts where parties on "oth sides resort to the use of force +iolent conflict is similar to armed conflict "ut includes only one,sided violence such as genocides against unarmed civilians Conflict resolution is a term implying deep,rooted sources of conflict that are addressed and resolved -his means that "ehaviour is no longer violent, attitudes are no longer hostile, and the structure of the conflict has also undergone changes .owever, the term refers "oth to the process (or intention) to "ring a"out these changes, and to the completion of the process (.ugh /iall et al, 1999) Conflict resolution is also used in two senses0 one, normative , other descriptive !n normative sense, conflict resolution is defined as a change in a situation which is accepta"le to the parties % peaceful resolution is the achievement of such a resolution without violence, and a 1ust resolution is one that is fair to "oth the parties 2eaceful, 1ust resolution is the ideal !n the descriptive sense, conflict resolution is often used to mean the way a conflict ends, irrespective of whether all parties find the outcome accepta"le (/iall, 1993) -here are various schools of thought a"out conflict 4ne such school defines conflict in terms of a clash of interest "etween interdependent parties 'enneth 5oulding, a mem"er of this #chool writes0 Conflicts over interests are situations in which some change makes at least one party better off and the other party worse off, each in their own estimation. If the change is positive sum, it opens the possibility, that both parties may be better off. If the change is zero sum or negative sum, this perception is no longer available. -his school is mainly concerned with international conflict !ts primary aim is the avoidance or resolution of armed conflicts "etween great powers -his type of conflict is also $nown as #ymmetric Conflict -he other school which is "est associated with 6ohan 7altung argues that in1ustice and 8structural violence9 are situations of conflict even in the a"sence of physical violence and confrontation !n 19:1, %dam Curle defines conflict as

any situation where the potential development of one group is impeded "y another -his school is more concerned with the domination and e;ploitation of the poor (periphery) "y the rich (the centre), "oth within particular societies and in world society as a whole -his type of conflict is also $nown as asymmetric conflict %nother definition of conflict is given "y 5engt .oglund %ccording to him, there are three elementary aspects of any society and it consist of0 (i) (ii) (iii) % set of individuals % set of values % set of organi<ation

%nd according to .oglund, the definition of conflict is "uilt up on three levels0 (i) (ii) (iii) -he level of structure -he level of "ehaviour -he level of ideology or utilities i e , social values and goals

%ccording to Quincy Wright, conflict can ta$e place among different sorts of entities -hey are0 (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Physical Conflict: in which two or more entities try to occupy the same space at the same time Political Conflict: a group tries to impose its policy on others Ideological conflict: systems and thought or values struggle with each other Legal Conflict: controversies over claims or demands are ad1usted "y mutually recogni<ed procedures

-he study done "y the Copenhagen 2eace &esearch !nstitute and !nstitute of )thnic &esearch and Conflict &esolution identified seven core types of conflict -hey are0 i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) %nti,regime wars or political and ideological conflicts e g 0, li"eration movements )thno,nationalist conflicts !nter,state conflicts e g 0, 2ersian 7ulf War "etween !ra* and !ran =e,coloni<ation wars of foreign state occupation e g 0, )ast -imor, 2alestine !nter,ethnic conflicts 7ang wars > non state actors 7enocide

CONFLICT TYPES: 4n the other hand, as per the #inger9s conflict typology? the following conflicts are the ma1or forms0 i) ii) iii) iv) !nterstate wars );tra,systemic (mainly colonial) wars Civil conflicts !ntra,state wars

.olsti also adopted #inger9s typology .e earlier categori<ed inter,state or international conflict in terms of twenty four issues grouped into five composite sets0 i) ii) iii) iv) v) Conflict over territory )conomics (ation,state creation !deology .uman sympathy (ethnicity@religion)

.e said incidence over first two is declining "ut last three is increasing Aor non,interstate war, he identified four categories of conflict0 i) ii) #tandard state versus state wars (e g 0 China and !ndia in 19B3) and armed intervention involving significant loss of life (C# in +ietnam) =ecoloni<ing wars of 8national li"eration9 internal wars "ased on ideological goals e g #enderoso Luminoso, 2eru, Cnited (ational Li"eration Aront of /anipur #tate,nation wars including armed resistance "y ethnic, language and religious groups, often with the purpose of secession or separation from the state e g 0, the -amils in #ri Lan$a

iii)

THE CONFLICT TRI N!LE : !n the late 19BDs, 7altung proposed that conflict should "e viewed as a triangle with contradiction (C), attitude (%) and "ehaviour (5) at its vertices FI!URE " THE CONFLICT TRI N!LE
Contradiction

%ttitude

5ehaviour

.ere contradictions refer to the underlying conflict situation Which includes the actual or perceived 8incompati"ility of goals9 "etween conflict parties Attitude includes the parties perceptions and misperceptions of each other and themselves -his can "e positive or negative "ut in violent conflicts parties tend to develop demeaning stereotypes of each other ehaviour can include cooperation or coercion, gestures signifying conciliation or hostility 7altung argues that all three components have to "e present in a full conflict % conflict structure without conflictual attitudes of "ehaviour is a latent (or structural) conflict .e sees conflict as a dynamic process in which structure, attitudes and "ehaviour are constantly changing and influencing each other -he developing tradition of thin$ing a"out conflict and conflict resolution is e;tremely relevant as the fi;ed structures of sovereignty and governance "rea$s down %ll over the world, societies are facing stresses from population growth, structural changes in the world economy, migration into cities, environmental degradation and rapid social change #ocieties with institutions, rules or norms for managing conflict and well esta"lished traditions of governance are generally "etter a"le to accommodate peacefully to change? those with wea$er governance, fragile social "onds and little consensus on values of traditions are more li$ely to "uc$le %nd strengthening the capacity of conflict resolution within societies and political institutions, especially preventatively, is a vital part of the response to the phenomenon of warlordism and ethno,nationlism Conflict resolution is an integral part of the wor$ towards development, social 1ustice and social transformation, which aims to tac$le the pro"lems of which mercenaries and child soldiers are symptoms Conflict, is not unavoida"le "ut can indeed "e prevented .ence, necessary efforts should "e made which is the aim of conflict resolution 2otential sources of conflict need to "e identified and analysed with a view to their early resolution, and concrete steps must "e ta$en to forestall armed confrontation !t these preventive measures are superseded "y a sharpening of the conflict, then an early warning must "e given in time for more rigorous conflict containment to ta$e place -here is a glo"ali<ation of contemporary conflicts Wars have glo"al effects through worldwide media coverage, refugee flows, the impact of diaspora9s and the desta"ili<ation of surrounding regions %t the same time the wea$ening

of the norms of sovereignty and non,interference is "eginning to open spare for international interventions Question arises as to how we can prevent conflicts from "ecoming violent %ctive measures to prevent conflict can "e divided into two types 4ne is aimed at preventing situations with a clear capacity for violence from degenerating into armed conflict (Light 2revention) %im is to prevent latent or threshold conflicts from "ecoming severe armed conflicts through diplomatic interventions, long term missions and private mediation efforts -he second mode of conflict prevention is termed as F=eep 2reventionG -his aims to address the root causes, including underlying conflicts of interest and relationships !n the 199Ds success in the prevention of imminent armed conflict has "een claimed in /acedonia (1993), 7uatemala (1993), Ai1i (199B) and )stonia (1993, 9E) )ven in #outh %sia armed conflicts li$e the /i<o and the Chittagong conflicts, a su"1ect of this thesis have "een resolved successfully -his is indeed a remar$a"le achievement in this fragile region !nternal conflicts li$e are found to the most difficult of conflicts to negotiate 4nly a *uarter to a third of modern civil wars have found their way to negotiation, whereas more than half of modern interstate wars have done so %"out two thirds of the internal conflicts have ended in the surrender or elimination of one of the parties involved, fewer than a *uarter of the international conflicts have also ended Het a internal conflicts li$e as it happened in the earlier stages of the /i<o and Chittagong .ill -racts conflicts, defeat of the re"ellion often merely drives the cause underground to emerge at a later time (Iartman, 199J) !t is government9s 1o" to "e responsive to the grievances of its people 4n the other hand, it is the insurgents purpose to draw attention to their grievances and gain redress #tructurally, internal conflicts are mar$ed "y asymmetry, a characteristic generally considered unconducive to negotiation %ttempts to redress asymmetry only further complicate negotiation dynamics !n the Chittagong and the /i<o Conflicts too, it too$ a long time much "efore the time was ripe for negotiations %lso to "e noted is the e;ternal dimensions of the conflicts which have profound effects on "oth the intracta"ility and the mediation of internal conflicts

CONFLICT RESOLUTION : THEORETIC L UNDERPINNIN!S 4f the various schools of thought in conflict resolution, credit for its foundation goes to pioneers li$e 'enneth 5oulding, 6ohan 7altung, 6ohn 5urton, the .arvard #chool, %dam Curle and )lise 5oulding %ccording to 'enneth 5oulding, conflict resolution meant the development of a $nowledge "ase in which Fsocial data stationsG would emerge forming a system analogous to a networ$ of weather stations which would gather a range of social, economic and political data to produce indicators to identify social temperature and pressure and predict cold or warm fronts %ccording to 5oulding, war can "e prevented "y the development of a research and information capa"ility -he second pioneer is the #candinavian peace researcher from (orway called 6ohan 7altung Aor 7altung, 7andhian ideas formed a persistent theme in his conflict resolution theories .is was search for positive peace in the form of human empathy, solidarity and community in resolving conflicts .is theory was "ased on addressing Fstructural violenceG "y unveiling and transforming structures of imperialism and oppression, and the importance of searching for alternative values in non,western cosmologies such as 5uddhism -he third Ffounder figureG in the field of conflict resolution is 6ohn 5urton .e is most famous for propounding the F.uman (eeds -heoryG -he positing of a universal drive to satisfy "asic needs such as security, identity and recognition provided 5urton with the lin$ "etween causal analysis and modes of resolution precisely "ecause of the differences "etween interests and needs !nterests, "eing primarily a"out material 8goods9, can "e traded, "argained and negotiated (eeds, "eing non,material, cannot "e traded or satisfied "y power "argaining With proper understanding, therefore, conflicts "ased on unsatisfied needs can "e resolved %dam Curle pointed to the importance of mediation and reconciliation themes in peace research and practice in the conflict > ridden world .e identified four elements to his mediation process Airst, the mediator acts to "uild, maintain and improve communications #econdly, to provide information to and "etween conflict parties -hird, to 8"efriend9 the conflict parties and fourthly, to encourage what he refers to as active mediation, that is to say to cultivate a willingness to engage in cooperative negotiations %nother remar$a"le contri"ution in the field of conflict resolution theory was made "y )lise 5oulding who introduced the idea of 8imaging the future9 -he idea was a powerful way of ena"ling people to "rea$ out of the defensive

private sheells into which they retreated, to encourage them to participate in the construction of a peaceful and tolerant glo"al culture Women, children and many culture communities, according to )lise 5oulding needed to the accommodated for a glo"al civic culture and peaceful pro"lem solving among nations Aor her, peace,ma$ing demands specific 8crafts and s$ills9 and all those activities that lie at the heart of all human interaction that will determine whether, in the end, we are peace,ma$ers or war,ma$ers Histo#y of Conflict in Chittagong Hill T#acts and The Fla$ed Peace P#ocess -he Chittagong .ill -racts (C.-), an area of 13,331 s*uare $ilometers, is located in the #outh )astern part of 5angladesh, "ordering %ra$an and Chin states of /yanmar (5urma) and -ripura and /i<oram states of !ndia -he hill tracts are the traditional homeland of the Cha$ma, /arma, -ripura -anachangya, /ro, Lushai, 'humai, Cha$, 'hyang 5awn, 2an$hua and &eng indigenous (tri"al) peoples -hey are collectively $nown as F6umma 2eopleG and they are different from the ma1ority 5engali population of 5angladesh in respect of religion language, culture, ethnicity, social system and economic practices and the ma1ority of them are 5uddhists -he 6umma9s homeland was anne;ed "y the 5ritish in 1KBD -he 5ritish named the area FChittagong .ill -ractsG and made it an autonomous administrative district of the undivided 5ritish 5engal -he 5ritish colonial government in their &egulation of 19DD protected the area from other plains people .owever in 19E:, the 5ritish ceded the C.- to )ast 2a$istan now 5angladesh in total violation of the principle of partition which was "ased on the religion %fter partition, the government 2a$istan decided to open up the C.- !n the 19BD, the construction of the 'aptai =am resulted in the destruction of homes and livelihood of over 1DD,DDD persons "elonging to the Cha$ma community % large num"er of migrated to !ndia and they were settled in !ndia9s %runachal 2radesh "etween 19BE and 19:1, 2a$istan government amended the %ct of 19DD several times to allow migration of non,tri"als into the hill tracts and transfer ownership of land and other resources of C.- to non,tri"al people from the plains resulting in severe damages When in 19:1, 5angladesh "ecame an independent country, the rights were again misused !n 6une 19:3, shortly after the li"eration of 5angladesh, activists among the hill people formed the 2ar"atyo Chattagram 6ana #anhati #amiti (2C6##), its armed wing was the #hanti 5ahini !n 19:J, they went underground and declared armed struggle to secure a political solution to their pro"lem 5y 1991, E9 percent of C.- were 5engali settlers %nd after several meetings a peace accord was signed "etween government and 2C6## in

!ecember "##$ in which a C.- &egional Council was formed .owever, the government has pursued a policy of delay and most of the accord points have not "een implemented THE CHITT !ON! HILL TR CT CCORD

-he Chittagong .ill -racts %ccord was signed on 3 =ecem"er 199: "y %"dul .asnat %"dulla, Chief Whip of the 7overnment of 5angladesh (745) and the head of the government appointed Committee on the Chittagong Hill Tracts (C.-) and 6 5 Larma, the president of the 2ar"atya Chattagram 6ana #amhati #amiti (6##) -he %ccord came after two years of negotiations "etween 7459s C.- Committee and the 6## "ringing an and to a 3J years old conflict -he uni*ue feature a"out this accord was that there was no third party mediation, unli$e in other compara"le FpeaceG process around the world, li$e in (orthern !reland and )ast -imor -he C.- %ccord of 199: addresses various issues, the most important of which are the following0 =ecommissioning and deposit of arms "y 6## fighters? -he reha"ilitation of the e;,com"atants? -he reha"ilitation of the international refugees and internally displaced people? -he dismantling of non,permanent military camps and the return of soldiers to their regular "arrac$s #elf,government through district and regional councils and indigenous institutions0 Land and resource rights -he recognition of the cultural identity of the indigenous people and their laws and customs

%mong the important provisions of the %ccord is the re, affirmation of the role of the hereditary circle chiefs and their su"ordinate headmen in the district administration and in the indigenous 1udicial system 9 % committee was formed under the chairmanship of the Chief Whip of the 745 to oversee the implementation of the %ccord -he %ccord has "een hailed "y many as a 8milestone9 in the history of 5angladesh -he government of 5angladesh claimed that it was a reasona"le and practica"le settlement to a

delicate and hitherto intracta"le pro"lem 4n the other hand, the %ccord has "een severely criticised as an unfair and illegal agreement #ome of the criticisms include the allegation that the %ccord is contrary to the constitution of 5angladesh and that it compromises the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country %lso, there are allegations that the %ccord violates the fundamental rights of the ethnic 5engali inha"itants of the C.!nspite of all the criticisms, the C.- %ccord will go down in the history of conflicts in #outh %sia and the world as one of the finest e;amples of solved armed conflict -he C.- %ccord of 199: was a result of protracted political negotiations and it involved a num"er of compromises, due to political e;pediencies, and for the sa$e of esta"lishing lasting peace in the war,torn region of #outh %sia -he protracted conflict resolution process of C.- can "e traced till 19KJ when the first agreement was signed "etween the F2ritiG faction of the 6## and the government of 5angladesh, represented "y the commander of the 3E th !nfantry division of the 5angladesh %rmy stationed in the C.- -he second %ccord happened in 19KK during the )rshad regime which finally paved way for the 199: %ccord -he %ccord, according to =evashish &oy,
%&hould be looked upon as reasonable compromise for the greater interests of peace and social 'ustice. It should not be looked upon as the final culmination of the struggle of the downtrodden people of the C(), but as the beginning of a new struggle, through democratic and peaceful means* a struggle for peace, dignity, human rights, progress and amity.

ORI!IN OF THE %I&O INSUR!ENCY !t was in the morning of Ae"ruary 3K, 19BB that large scale distur"ances "ro$e out for the first time in different places of the /i<o .ills led "y armed /i<o (ational Aront (/(A) cadres % day later, on /arch 1, the /(A declared independence from !ndia -hus started one of the most violent armed struggles in #outh %sia which continued for two decades leading to massive loss of lives and properties -here are various causes of the /i<o insurgency #ome "lame the policy of the 7overnment of !ndia and its officials while according to 2 C 5aroah, political leader, the root of the trou"le lay with the 5ritish 7 7 #well, however, attri"utes the /i<o trou"le to the wrong policy of introducing %ssamese language "y the %ssam government %ccording to another school of thought, the trou"le in the /i<o .ills followed the course of events that occurred in the (aga .ills /eanwhile, /i<o tri"al society was undergoing a drastic transformation, "ecause of very *uic$ conversion of the /i<os to Christianity

followed "y rapid spread of education Arustration among the educated, unemployed youth ensued as government 1o"s were few %lso there was atmosphere of guerrilla training given to the villagers during that time %nd 2a$istan too intervened .owever, the real push has given "y the Mautam in which in the year 19BD, the /i<o (ational Aamine Aront was formed to com"at the famine 4n 33 4cto"er, 19B1, the front "ecame /i<o (ational Aront and declared esta"lishment of an independent sovereign /i<oram as its goal %rms and training were o"tained from 2a$istan and China, thus starting the fire of insurgency in the region %I&O CCORD' (UNE )*' "+,-

-he historic /i<o %ccord was signed on 3D 6une 19KB "y Laldenga of /i<o (ational Aront, & = 2radhan, .ome #ecretary, 7overnment of !ndia and Lal$hama, Chief #ecretary, 7overnment of /i<oram -he %ccord was a culmination of an armed struggle which had "een raging on in /i<oram since 19BDs some of the salient features of the %ccord are0 -o "ring an end to the distur"ed conditions in /i<oram and to restore peace and harmony -o ta$e all steps to end all underground activities, to "ring out all underground personnel of the /(A with their arms, ammunitions and e*uipment to ensure their return to civil life =epositions of arms, ammunitions and e*uipment of the /(A Cessation of any support "y /(A to -ri"al (ational +olunteers (-(+) of -ripura, 2eople9s Li"eration %rmy of /anipur (2L%) and any other such groups -he rights and privileges of the minorities in /i<oram to "e preserved Cnification of /i<oram inha"ited areas of other states to form one administration units

-he /i<o accord was the culmination of years of negotiation "etween the /(A and 7overnment of !ndia and was signed on Ae"ruary 19:B -he salient features of this %greement are0 %"1ure violence %ccept /i<oram as an integral part of !ndia

1D

#ee$ a solution to the /i<oram pro"lem within the constitution of !ndia .and over all /(A arms to the Central 7overnment

%nd again in 6uly 19KD, another %ccord was signed "etween the 7overnment of !ndia and /(A -his %ccord also failed to ta$e off /eanwhile negotiations continued and the then /2, Hashpal 'apoor started mediating for a solution !n 6an 19K3, the tal$ were called off and in %pril 19K3 Laldenga left !ndia and started living in #urrey, C' %nd in 19KE, tal$s were resumed which finally culminated in the signing of the /i<o %ccord . RIOUS ST !ES OF ND INSTRU%ENTS USED IN THE %I&O THE CHITT !ON! PE CE PROCESSES ND

/ost important events in history have multiple causes and the /i<o and the Chittagong .ill -racts peace processes are no e;ception -he accords which were finally signed came into "eing through a com"ination of factors0 the war, weariness associated with prolonged political and military stalement? the creation of a political alternative "y a democratic nationalist consensus? the economic need for peace and sta"ility? the active partnerships of the re"el groups and their respective governments (even if there were strains in the relationships) .owever, most important of all is the overwhelming pu"lic desire for peace in "oth the regions of conflict which was perhaps the most critical factor of all -his study will loo$ into all the various stages and instruments involved in the /i<o and Chittagong .ill -racts 2eace processes which finally culminated in the signed of the %ccords We will0 );amine the genesis of the armed conflicts %nalyse the important negotiators involved in the peace processes Loo$ into the $ey actors in the War and 2eace 2rocess of /i<o insurgency and the C.- movement %ssess the roles of important organi<ations involved e g students organi<ations of /i<oram namely the /i<o Iirlai 2awl (/I2) and the %ll /i<oram #tudent Aederation (%/#A) were instrumental in pressuri<ing the early signing of the /i<o %ccord Loo$ into the civil society participation and their impact li$e church, tri"al ape; organisations role and other political parties

11

-ry to find out whether there were mediators in the peace process Loo$ into the involvement of other countries in the process =elve into the role of /i<o and Chittagong .ill -ract Women during and after the signing of the %ccords

#olving of a protracted conflict involves various stages and times -he peace tal$s "etween /(A and 7overnment of !ndia too$ a decade involving 3 rounds of tal$s while that of the C.- too$ 13 years starting from 19KJ -his study proposes to e;plore the various layers in the peace tal$s leading to the %ccords -he proposed study will also e;amine the compelling reasons "oth short run and long term "ehind signing of the accord !t would also loo$ into the *uestions li$e0 what were the favora"le conditions which emerged after two or more decades of violent armed struggleL %nd what were the agreed perspectives which finally led to the resolution of these two protracted conflictsL E. LU TIN! SITU TION THE I%PLE%ENT TION ND POST/ CCORD

%ccords are documents that contain the secret politics of two desires , the innocent desire for peace and the culpa"le desire for power that mas*uerades as the desire for peace -hey are the te;ts of resolution of conflicts plus they are protocols of power, scripts of status, arrangements of prestige, and the invitational metaphors for further conflicts and peace #ome failed as tools of peace ma$ing #ome succeeded While some remain as musty sheets in dingy archives %ccords are also interpretative documents of the current reality of conflicts -hey are also specific as events of conflict %nd the implementation of the such policies of %ccord "ecomes the site of e;change "etween the state and society -reaties and accords are an act of violence on a milieu in as much as they intend to end violence %s for instance, despite the fact that a committee was formed to oversee the implementation of the Chittagong .ill -ract %ccord -he 6## has alleged that this committee has not "een sitting often enough and is una"le to carry out its monitoring responsi"ilities &elations "etween the 6## leaders and the /2s from C.- have "een far from cordial .ow then has one to properly implement the C.- %ccordL -his study will delve into these intricacies and spell out the success or failure of the two a"ove mentioned accords

13

SUR.EY OF LITER TURE: % num"er of articles, papers and "oo$s have "een written on Conflict &esolution in general out there is a dearth of literature giving a comprehensive analysis of conflicts and conflict resolution processes in #outh %sia in general and (orth )ast !ndia and Chittagong .ill -racts in particular -herefore, most of this study will "e "ased on e;tensive fieldwor$ which will "e underta$en during the period of study 4f the ma1or "oo$s consulted, mention may "e made of 6ohn 5urton9s "oo$s namely Conflict+ ,esolution and -revention, Conflict+ (uman .eeds )heory, Conflict+ ,eadings in /anagement and ,esolution and Conflict+ -ractices in /anagement &ettlement and ,esolution. 6ohn 5urton regarded as the third Ffounder,figureG of the field of Conflict &esolution stressed the need of the application of needs theory through a Fcontrolled communication or pro"lem solving approachG to unloc$ intracta"le conflict %ccording to 5urton, while FinterestsG "eing of material, FgoodsG can "e traded, "argained and negotiated (eeds such as identity, security and recognition, "eing non,material cannot "e traded or satisfied "y power "argaining With proper understanding, therefore conflicts "ased on satisfied needs can "e resolved .owever, the early empirical studies of war and conflict were done "y 2itirim #oro$in (&ussian), Lewis Ary &ichardson ()nglish) and Quincy Wright (%merican) in 19JDs Quincy Wright wrote in 19J1 a paper called F-he (ature of ConflictG for the )he 0estern -olitical 1uarterly wherein he defines conflict as the inconsistency in the motions, sentiments, purposes or claims of entities, and sometimes to the process of resolving these inconsistencies %ccording to him, a conflict is solved "y definitive acceptance of a decision "y all parties and he stresses on non,violence methods to resolve conflicts 'enneth 5oulding, who set up the 2ournal of Conflict ,esolution in 19J: and the Centre for &esearch on Conflict &esolution in 19J99s pu"lication focussed firmly on issue of preventing war 6ohan 7altung, founder,editor of the 2ournal of -eace ,esearch introduced the concept of 8Conflict -riangle9 .is central theme was the search for positive peace in the form of human empathy, solidarity and community, the priority of addressing 8structural violence9 "y unveiling and transforming structures of imperialism and oppression and the importance of searching for alternative values in non,western cosmologies such as 5uddhism

13

'ries"erg9s )he &ociology of &ocial Conflicts (19:3) and /itchell9s )he &tructure of International Conflict 3"#4"5 helped understand the concept of peace "etter 5y the 19KDs the study of negotiation in international conflict had also ta$en on the win,win, pro"lem,solving and mutual gain voca"ulary of conflict resolution, through the wor$ of &oger Aisher and William Cry at .arvard Cniversity Adam Curle introduced the theory and practice of mediation .is "oo$ /aking -eace 3"#$"5 defines peace and conflict as a set of peaceful and unpeaceful relationships, so that 8the process of peacema$ing consists in ma$ing changes to relationships so that they may "e "rought to a point where development can occur Curle9s other "oo$ entitled In the /iddle 3"#465 points to the importance of mediation and reconciliation themes in peace research and practice in the conflict,ridden world of the late twentieth century .e identified E elements to his mediation process0 i) ii) iii) iv) /ediator acts to "uild, maintain and improve communications -o provide information to and "etween the conflict parties -o 8"efriend9 the conflict parties -o cultivate a willingness to engage in cooperation negotiation

.is is an approach to -rac$ !! or citi<en9s diplomacy -he gendered dimension to conflict and conflict resolution was provided "y the wor$s of )lise 5oulding !t was she who introduced the idea of 8imaging the future9 as a powerful way of ena"ling people to "rea$ out of the defensive private shells into which they retreated often out of fear of what was happening in the pu"lic world, and encouraging them to participate in the construction of a peaceful and tolerant glo"al culture #he also e;pounded the idea of civil society, of opening up new possi"ilities for a glo"al civic culture which was receptor to the voices of people who were not part of the traditional discourses of nation,state politics .erein comes the role of women as peacema$ers )lise 5oulding9s "oo$, The Underside of History: A View of Women Through Time (19:B) also contri"uted in this direction !t was only in 199Ds that studies in this field developed Wor$s "y -aylor and /iller (199E), =uffey (199K), 5ryne (199B), 5erhane,#elassie (199E) all argued that the international community should consult and involve women in order to understand more a"out the root causes of conflict , to understand how o"stacles to peace processes can "e removed and to gain insight a"out how traditional practices can offer alternative ways of ending conflicts 4f the ma1or "oo$s consulted on /i<oram, mention may "e made of %nimesh &ay9s, /izoram+ !ynamics of Change , (19K3), (irmal (i"edon9s, /izoram+

1E

)he !agger rigade (19KD), C 7 +erghese and & L -han<awna9s, -illars of /izo &ociety and )houghts to &hare (1999), Carey -uc$ and 5ertrem # Carey, )he Chin (ills , +ol 1 and !! (1993), %nimesh &ay9s /izoram (1993) 4ther "oo$s consulted are 6 = 5ave1a9s, )he 7and where the amboo 8lowers loom (19:D), /cCall9s 7ushai Chrysalis (19E9), 5 C Cha$ra"orty9s ritish ,elation with the (ill )ribes of Assam since "494 (19BE), & 7 Woodthorpe9s, )he 7ushai :;pedition (1K:3), /a1or C 6 )ast, An Account of the -roceedings of the Chittagong Column of the 7ushai :;peditionary 8orce (1K:3), Lewis 7race, )he 7ushai (ills (19D:), Captain = % Cham"er9s (andbook of the 7ushai Country (1KK9) C 7 +erghese and & L -han<awna9s "oo$ entitled A (istory of the /izos deals with the /i<o peopleMs origin, way of life, religious "eliefs, inter,clan feuds, rule of the chiefs, the influence of the Christian missionaries, the 5ritish operations, post, independence developments, the insurgency and finally integration into the national life .owever e;cept for mentioning of the signing of the 19KB /i<o %ccord and the euphoria amongst the people which followed it, no detailed has "een given a"out the %ccord and its implementation .owever, the "oo$ is good in the sense that is provides a very comprehensive "ac$ground leading to the /i<o insurgency of the 19BDs (irmal (e"edon9s "oo$ /izoram+ )he !agger rigade , one of the first "oo$s that ! found which dealt e;clusively with the /i<o insurgency =ivided into eleven chapters, the "oo$ starts with the story of legends of /i<oram followed "y an e;tensive description on the /i<o Aamine which led to the formation of the /i<o (ational Aamine Aront, the em"ryo of the /i<o (ational Aront -he fourth chapter deals with operation 6ericho and the counter attac$ that followed it -he implementation of 4peration #ecurity "y 7overnment of !ndia "ased on #ri &o"ert -hompsons concept of counter, insurgency which included large, scale force, provision with loaded gun, saturation summing and reach and destroy missions is also descri"ed in detail .owever as the "oo$ was pu"lished in 19KD, events which led to the signing of the %ccord cannot "e found /a1or "oo$s consulted on /i<oram, mention may "e made of 5 2a$em (ed ), Insurgency in .orth :ast India 3"##$5 , #u"ir 5howmic$9s Insurgent Crossfire+ .orth :ast India 3"##65 2annalal =har9s :thnic <nrest in India and her .eighbours 3"##45 , (ari &ustom1i, Imperilled 8rontiers 3"#4=5 , 5 7 +erghese, Indias .orth :ast ,esurgent 3"##$5 5 7 +erghese9s "oo$ Indias .orth :ast ,esurgent is a "rave attempt to loo$ at the various pro"lems which have afflicted the /i<oram since the "eginning of the 5ritish &a1 Aor the Chittagong .ill -ract, very few wor$s have "een done on it /ention may "e made of #u"ir 5haumi$, /eghna 7uhatha$urta and #a"yasachi &asu &ay Chaudhury (ed ) "oo$ 7iving on the :dge+ :ssays on the Chittagong (ill )racts (199:) -he "oo$ throws light on the origin of conflict in the Chittagong

1J

.ill -racts !t also includes an article on the solution of the pro"lem -he "oo$ ends with #aleem #amad9s article entitled 8-he Cncertain Course of 2eace in the Chittagong .ill -racts9 -he post>%ccord of =ecem"er 199: peace,"uilding efforts is what is lac$ing in this otherwise fine volume -he %udit &eport pu"lished "y the #outh %sia Aorum for .uman &ights entitled F2eace 2rocess in (agaland and Chittagong .ill -ractsG -he "oo$ though a slender collection on the origin of the (aga and Cha$ma pro"lems contains many factual errors -he other important "oo$ is "y the %msterdam "ased 4rgani<ing Committee of Chittagong .ill -racts entitled 7ifes .ot >urs (1991) -his "oo$ is a good collection on the political and legal history of the C.-, how the lands were dispossessed forcefully -he "oo$ also throws a lot of light into the culture and religion in the C.- and ends with recommendations as to what should "e done 4ther rare "oo$s consulted are & . # .utchinson9s, An account of Chittagong (ill )racts (19DB), - . Lewis, )he (ill )racts of Chittagong and the !wellers )herein (1KB9), Aather & W -im9s, )he Adivasis of angladesh (=ate Cn$nown), # 2 -alu$dar9s, )he Chakmas + 7ife and &truggle (19KK), /i<anur &ahman #helley, )he Chittagong (ill )racts of angladesh + )he <ntold &tory (1993) %nother find "oo$ consulted is &a1$umari Chandra 'alindi &oy9s 7and ,ights of the Indigenous -eople of the C() (199B) in which she deals at length with the uni*ue land rights system of the Cha$mas SCOPE ND O0(ECTI.ES OF THE STUDY:

/yron Weiner once said0 F-he most violent conflict in the region N#outh %siaO was not a war "etween states, "ut a war "etween peopleG Aive out of seven nations in #outh %sia were e;,colonies, the e;ceptions "eing (epal and 5hutan %ll the nations were created anew, partly as an effect of rising nationalism, a nationalism that appealed to unity and condemned all internal, spatial, religious and social particularism .owever, there remained traces of separateness and e;clusiveness of some group of people !t is a "rutal political fact that none of the mem"er states of #outh %sia could evolve into a 8nation state9, thus giving rise to conflicts of various hues %ccording to 7unnar /yrdal, one fundamental wea$ness of #outh %sian democracy stemmed from the manner of its inception, namely, that it was handed down from a"ove and was never struggled for "y any large section of the population -his led to internal strife@conflict in various #outh %sian countries %lso due to the colonial legacy, there remained animosity towards, and conflict within and with other countries in the region due to the drawing of FwrongfulG "oundaries dividing communities along the "order %nd then with su"se*uent rise in political consciousness among people, conflict in various forms and dimensions appeared "etween states and the aggrieved populations =emands "y various groups within large composite nations for either increased autonomy or outright sovereignty have "een raised -he trou"le

1B

started when the groups started using arms to further their cause leading to many a violent deaths -he regions under study i e (orth )ast !ndia and Chittagong .ill -racts have "een facing conflicts which traces their origin in the colonial past policies !n this region where over JDD million people are in a"solute poverty, where the condition of women is in deplora"le state and where social and economic ine*ualities are e;treme, the prevalence of deadly protracted conflicts have caused, and will continue to cause, tremendous agony and underdevelopment .ence, there is a need to evolve ways to resolve conflicts in this region /y study, thus, will attempt to detect the roots, genesis and dynamics of two of #outh %sia9s conflicts , /i<oram (orth )ast !ndia and the Chittagong .ill -ract conflict leading to the Chittagong Hill Tract Accord of =ecem"er 199: -his study aims aim at ma$ing a survey of the conflicts, to identify "elligerent actors and their goals, to analy<e character of re"el forces, and to research the course of the conflicts as well as possi"le foreign involvement -his study would e;plore and put forward ways of structural prevention, transformation and resolution of the a"ove two conflicts The 1#inci1al o23ecti4es of the 1#o1osed st5dy $o5ld 2e to: 1 3 3 E J B : K 9 -race the root causes of the /i<o and the Chittagong .ill -racts Conflicts #tudy the various stages peace processes in the two regions which finally culminated in the /i<o accord of 199: !dentify the important negotiators, agencies, institutions involved in the peace processes Loo$ at the $ey actors in the War and peace process of the two conflicts -he role of civil society in conflict resolution of the conflicts under study Aind out the role of mediators in the negotiations -he role of foreign countries in the war and peace processs );plore the reasons0 social@political@economic "ehind the signing of the two %ccords %nalyse the clauses of the /i<o and the C.- %ccords

1D );amine the role that women of /i<oram and the Chittagong .ill -racts played in the peace process leading to the signing of the two historic accords 11 /a$e an in,depth analysis of the implementation of the two accords and study the post accord situation in the two regions under study

1:

13 2rovide a "lue, print for conflict revolution for other trou"led regions of ( ) !ndia and #outh %sia /any of the (orth )ast !ndian #tates have "een e;periencing insurgent wars for the last five decades %round thirty one armed insurgent groups operate in this region demanding secession, autonomy etc -he /i<o %ccord of 6une 19KB is the first %ccord which was signed "etween an armed group and 7overnment of !ndia leading to the end of an armed struggle -he various strands of $nowledge which this study will cull out from the /i<o %ccord, will go a long way in understanding the ongoing conflicts not only in (orth )ast !ndia "ut in #outh %sia

HYPOTHESES
1) )thnonationalist leaders have whipped up ethnic hatred and courted war in (orth )ast !ndia and #outh %sia in order to serve their own political purposes 3) #ocio,economic deprivations and peripheral location have a distinct correlation with the armed movements "ased on su",nationalism 3) /ost of the conflicts in #outh %sia are due to as 6ohn 5urton said 8(eeds9 li$e security, identity .uman (eeds -heory would "e suita"le for solving the a"ove two conflicts under study % South Asian way of Conflicts Resolution Theory and Practice of as every culture and society has its own version of a general social and political need can "e evolved E) Conflict &esolution tends to "ecome possi"le only after a conflict reaches a particular level of maturity in terms of perception and tenacity J) +iolence only "egets violence -herefore, non,violent ways to resolve conflict can only "ring a"out a healing touch to the already "leeding world Women and other civil society people and organisations have an important and crucial role to play in the Conflict &esolution processes

1K

RESE RCH %ETHODOLO!Y : .istorical %nalysis with a #u" %ltern perspective TENT TI.E CH PTERI& TION : CH PTER " Int#od5ction <nderstanding Conflict and Conflict ,esolution+ )heoretical 8ramework. CH PTER 6 Conflict in ,esponses. CH PTER ) Conflict in the Chittagong (ill )racts of and ,esponses. CH PTER 7 Conflict ,esolution -rocess in /izoram and C()+ Approaches, .egotiations and Instruments Involved. CH PTER 8 Accords as /eans of Conflict ,esolution+ Implementations, /onitoring and :valuations. CH PTER Conclusion angladesh+ ?enesis, :;pediencies /izoram of .orth :ast India + ?enesis, :;pediencies and

19

SELECT 0I0LIO!R PHY

P#i9a#y So5#ces %n %ppeal of the 6umma &efugees to the !nternational Community on the Latest #ituation of the C.-, 19, Ae"ruary 1993 %ppeal, /assacre by &ecurity 8orces in 7ogang @illage, C(), 1K %pril 1993, =ha$a Carnegie Commission on 2reventing =eadly Conflict, -reventing !eadly Conflict ((ew Hor$0 Carnegie Corporation of (ew Hor$, 199:) Chittagong .ill -racts Campaign and !nformation (etwor$, &top the ?enocide of the 2umma -eople Chittagong .ill -racts Commission ((etherlands) 8act &heet on the .egotiation etween the ?overnment of angladesh and the 2&&, 6une 1993 Chittagong .ill -racts Commission, Comments in ,elation to the angladesh >neA /an Commission ,eport on the 7ogang /assacre in the C() , 1993 Chittagong .ill -racts Commission, 8act &heet on .egotiations etween the angladesh ?overnment and the 2&& and the -erspective for a -olitical &olution to the C() conflict in the near future, %pril 1993 Chittagong .ill -racts Commission, >pen 7etter to -rime /inister egum Bhaleda Cia, 6an :, 1993 =elhi Cha$ma #tudents Cnion 2u"lication, Chittagong (ill )ribes 7overnment of !ndia &eport, -ro;y 0ar, 199K 7overnment of !ndia, (ome /inistry ,eports (1993,9E, 199J,9B, 199:,9K) 7overnment of /anipur, /emorandum on 7aw and >rder su"mitted to #hri ! ' 7u1ral, Aormer 2rime /inister of !ndia, 33nd /ay, 199: !ntervention =ocument of the !nternational Wor$ 7roup for !ndigenous %ffairs and %nti,#lavery !nternational on the &ituation in the Chittagong (ill )racts of angladesh 6oint %ppeal made "y C(LA, CLA%, 2&)2%', '(+, (#C(, -2=A, 0hy oycott Indias Independence !ay CelebrationsD 6uly E, 199: 6umma 2eoples (etwor$ (2aris), 8oreign Aid 8unds ?enocide in C(), 1993 6umma &efugee Welfare, &tatement ,egarding ,epatriation, 6uly 1993 BariAoea @illage !eclaration, &io de 6aneiro, 1993 &eport on 7ogang !isturbances of Bhagrachari (ill !istrict, 1993 #%%&C document on Convention on )errorism #eminar papers on 84pen =ialogue on the C.-0 2eace, =emocracy and #elf, =etermination9, #ept 3B,3K, 199B, =ha$a

3D

#urvival for -ri"al 2eoples (London), &ubmission to the "##E &ession of the <. Commission on (uman ,ights by &urvival International* 1993 -he Chittagong .ill -racts 6umma &efugees Welfare %ssociation, "=, points demands of the 2umma refugees submitted to Col. 3,td.5 <li Ahmed, Communications /inister, angladesh >wing his visit of 2umma ,efugee Camps at )ripura, !ndia, /ay 9, 1993 C(!=!&, &mall Arms and IntraA&tate Conflicts, 199J C(LA, (#C( ('), CLA%, !eclaration on the 8ormation of the IndoA urma ,evolutionary 8ront, /ay 33, 199D

Seconda#y So5#ces 0oo:s 1) %llen, 5 C , Assam !istrict ?azetters, @ol.F+ )he Bhasi and 2aintia (ills , -he garo .ills and the Lushai .ills (#hillong0 %ssam #ecretariat 2ress, 19DB) 3) %<ar, )dward ) , )he /anagement of -rotracted &ocial Conflict+ )heory and Cases ()ngland0 =armouth, 199D) 3) 5arry, =avid, 0omen and -olitical Insurgency (London0 /ac/illan, 199B) E) 5ave1a, 6 = )he 7and where the 5oard, 19:D) amboo 8lower loom (7uwahati0 2u"lication

J) 5haumi$, #u"ir, et al, (ed ) 7iving on the :dge+ :ssays on the Chittagong (ill )racts ('athmandu0 #outh %sia Aorum for .uman &ights, 199:) B) 5howmic$, #u"ir, Insurgent Crossfire+ .orth :ast India ((ew =elhi0 Lancer 2u"lication, 199B) :) 5urton, 6ohn and =a$es, Aran$ (ed ) Conflict+ ,eadings in /anagement and ,esolution (London0 /ac/illan, 1993) K) 5urton, 6ohn, Conflict+ (uman .eeds )heory ((ew Hor$0 #t /artin9s 2ress, 1993) 9) 5urton, 6ohn, Conflict+ ,esolution and -revention ((ew Hor$0 #t /artin9s 2ress, 1993) 1D) 5urton, 6ohn, @iolence :;plained ((ew Hor$0 /anchester Cnion 2ress, 199:) 11) Carey, 5 # and -uc$, . ( )he Chin (ills+ A (istory of the -eople , >ur !ealings with )hem, )heir Customs and /anners and a ?azetter of )heir Country +ols ! and !! (&angoon0 7overnment 2rinting, 1K9B) 13) Cha$ra"orty, 5 C , ritish ,elation with (ill )ribes of Assam &ince "494 (Calcutta 0 Airma, 19BE) 13) Cham"ers, Captain, = % (andbook of the 7ushai Country (Calcutta 0 7overnment of !ndia !ntelligence 5ranch, 1KK9) 1E) Coo$e, /iriam and &ustom1i,'erms &oshni, lood into Ink+ &outh Asian and /iddle :astern 0omen 0rite 0ar (#an Arancisco0 Westview 2ress, 199E)

31

1J) Cranna, /ichael (ed ), )he )rue Cost of Conflict (London0 )arthscan 2u"lication, 199E) 1B) =avies, % W , ?azetters of the .orth 7ushai (ills (#hillong, 1K9E) 1:) =ewan, %ditya ', Class and :thnicity in (ills of dissertation /c7ill Cniversity, 199D) angladesh (Cnpu"lished 2h=

1K) =har, 2annalal, :thnic <nrest in India and (er .eighbours ((ew =elhi0 =eep and =eep 2u"lications, 199K) 19) =om"rows$i, (icole %nn , 0omen and 0ar in the )wentieth Century ((ew Hor$0 7arland 2u"lishing, 1999) 3D) )ast, /a1or C 6 , An Account of the -roceedings of the Chittangong Column of the 7ushai :;peditionary 8orce "4$"A$E (#imla 0 7overnment of !ndia, 1K:3) 31) )lles, Col, ) & /ilitary ,eport on the ChinA7ushai Country (#himla0 7overnment Central 2rinting 2ress, 1K93) 33) 7aundevia, H = , 0ar and -eace in .agaland (=elhi0 2alit and 2alit 2u"lishers, 19:J) 33) 7overnment of %ssam, Annual ,eports on the Administration of the 7ushai (ills for the years "4#4A## to "#GHAG9 from "#"EA"= to "#H9AH6 (#hillong) 3E) 7overnment of %ssam, -olitical ,eport on the .orth 7ushai (ills for the year "4#GA 91 (#hillong0 %ssam #ecretariat 2rinting 2ress, 1K93) 3J) 7overnment of /i<oram, Annual -lans from "#$" to "##G (%i<ual) 3B) .oglund, 5engt, Concepts of Conflict (Cppsala0 =epartment of 2eace and Conflict &esearch, 19:D) 3:) .oram, / , .aga Insurgency+ )he 7ast )hirty Iears (=elhi0 Cosmo 2u"lications, 19KK) 3K) .ughes, W 7 )he (ill )racts of Arakan (&angoon 0 1KK1) 39) .utchinson, 6ohn and #mith, %nthony = , (ed ) .ationalism+ Critical Concepts in -olitical &cience +olumes !, !! and !!! (London0 &outledge, 3DDD) 3D) .utchinson, & . # An Account of Chittagong (ill )racts (Calcutta0 19DB) 31) 'eane, 6ohn, ,eflections on @iolence (London0 +erso, 199B) 33) Leatherman, 6anie, =emars, William et al, reaking Cycles of @iolence+ Conflict -revention in IntraA&tate Crisis (Connecticut0 'umarian 2ress, 1999) 33) Lewin, - . )he (ill )racts of Chittagong and the !wellers )herein (Calcuta0 5engal 2rinting 2ress Company, 1KB9) 3E) Lewis, 7race, )he 7ushai (ills (London0 5aptist /ission #ociety, 19D:) 3J) Loffler, ! 7 , :cology and (uman ,ights+ ,eport on a &hort @isit to andarban and ,angamati (Iurich, 1991) 3B) Lorent<en, Lois %nn and -urpin, 6ennifer, )he 0omen and 0ar ,eader ((ew Hor$0 (ew Hor$ Cniversity 2ress) 3:) /cCall, % 7 7ushai ?rysalis (London0 Lu<ac P Co, 19E9)

33

3K) /iall, .ugh et al, Contemporary Conflict ,esolution+ )he -revention, /anagement and )ranformation of !eadly Conflicts (Cam"ridge0 2olity 2ress, 1999) 39) /iall, .ugh, )he -eacemakers+ -eaceful &ettlement of !isputes since "#H9 (London0 /ac/illan, 1993) ED) /itra, #u"rata ' and Lewis, & %lison (ed ) &ubnational /ovements in &outh Asia (Colorado0 Westview 2ress, 199B) E1) /ohsin, %mena, )he -olitics of .ationalism+ the C(), 2h= -hesis, 199J) angladesh (Cnpu"lished

E3) 4gley, &oderic$ C, Conflict <nder the /icroscope (#ydney0 %ve"ury, 1991) E3) 2a$em, 5 , (ed ) Insurgency in .orth :ast India ((ew =elhi0 4msons 2u"lications, 199:) EE) 2arry, ( ) A /onograph on the 7ushai Customs and Ceremonies (#hillong0 %ssam 7overnment 2ress, 193K) EJ) 2erera, 6ehan, -eace -rocess in .agaland and Chittagong (ill )racts+ An Audit ,eport ('athmandu0 #outh %sia Aorum for .uman &ights, 1999) EB) 2oonte, 5 !istrict (andbook (/i<o =istrict, %ssam) (2u"lishing =eputy Commissioner, /i<o =istrict 19BJ) E:) &ay, % C , /izoram+ !ynamics of Change (Calcutta0 2earl 2u"lishers, 19K3) EK) &eid, % # ChinA7ushai 7and, including a description of the various e;pedition into the ChinA7ushai (ills, and the final anne;ation of the country (Calcutta0 #pin$ P Co, 1K93) E9) &oy, &a1$umari Chandra 'alindi 7and ,ights of the Indigenous -eoples of the Chittagong (ill )racts ((orwegian %gency for =evelopment Corporation, 199B) JD) &upesinghe, 'umar (ed ), Conflict )ransformation ((ew Hor$0 #t /artin9s 2ress, 199J) J1) #amaddar, &ana"ir, )hose Accords+ A unch of !ocuments ('athmandu0 #outh %sia Aorum for .uman &ights, 1999) J3) #chendel, Willem +an et al, )he Chittagong (ill )racts+ 7iving in a (5ang$o$0 White Lotus 2ress, 3DDD) JE) #helley, /i<anur &ahman, )he Chittagong (ill )racts of &tory (=ha$a0 C=&5, 1993) orderland

J3) #ha$espear, 6 )he 7ushai Buki Clan (London0 /ac/illan P Co Ltd , 1913) angladesh+ )he <ntold

JJ) #tavenhagen, &udolfo, :thnic Conflicts and the .ationA&tate ((ew Hor$0 C(&!#= and /ac/illan, 199B) JB) -alu$dar, # 2 )he Chakmas+ 7ife and &truggle ((ew =elhi 0 7ian 2u"lishing .ouse, 19KK) J:) -im, Aather & W !nternational) )he Adivasis of angladesh (London0 /inority &ights

JK) -offler, %lwin and .eidi, 0ar and AntiA0ar (London0 Little 5rown and Company, 199E)

33

J9) +ayrynen, &aimo, .ew !irections in Conflict )heory+ Conflict ,esolution and Conflict )ransformation (London0 #age 2u"lication, 1991) BD) +erghese, 5 7 Indias .orth :ast ,esurgent (=elhi0 'onar$ 2u"lishers 2vt Ltd , 199:) B1) Wasle$ar, #undeep, A (andbook for Conflict ,esolution in &outh Asia (=elhi0 'onar$ 2u"lications, 199B) B3) Wi"erg, .a$an and #cherrer, Christian 2 , :thnicity and IntraA&tate Conflict (%ldershot0 %shgate, 1999) B3) Woodthorpe, & 7 )he 7ushai :;pedition ( London? .urst and 5lac$ett,1K:3) #ticles 1) 5rown, =avid, FWhy is the (ation,#tate so +ulnera"le to )thnic (ationalismLG, .ations and .ationalism, +ol E part 1, 6anuary 199K, pp 1,1J 3) Carment, =avid and 6ames, 2atric$, F);plaining -hird,2arty !ntervention in )thnic Conflict0 -heory and )videnceG, .ations and .ationalism +ol B, no 3, 3DDD, pp 1:3,3D3 3) Cochrane, Aeargal, F5eyond the 2olitical )lites0 % Comparative %nalysis of the &oles and !mpacts of Community 5ased (749s in Conflict &esolution %ctivityG, Civil 0ars, #ummer 3DDD, +ol 3, no 3, pp 1,33 E) Cowell =avid and Cowell, 'im"erly, F.uman &ights as Conflict /anagement0 -he Cnionist Cse of .uman &ights Language in (orthern !relandG, .ationalism and :thnic -olitics (London) +ol J, no 1, #pring 1999, pp 1,3K J) =uyvesleyn, !sa"elle, FContemporary War0 )thnic Conflicts, &esource Conflict or #omething )lseLG, Civil 0ars (London), +ol 3 no 1, #pring 3DDD, pp 93,11B B) )llingsen, -an1a, FColourful Community or )thnic Witches9 5rewL /ultiethnicity and =omestic Conflict =uring and %fter the Cold WarG, 2ournal of Conflict ,esolution, +ol EE, no 3, %pril 3DDD, pp 33K,3E9 :) 7riffiths, .ugh, F% 2olitical )conomy of )thnic Conflict, )thno,(ationalism and 4rgani<ed CrimeG, Civil 0ars, +ol 3, no 3, #ummer 1999, pp JB,:3 K) .alliday, Ared, F-he 2erils of Community0 &eason and Cnresaon in (ationalist !deologyG, .ations and .ationalism, +ol B, no 3, 3DDD, pp 1J3,:1 9) .eraclides, %le;is, F)thnicity, #ecessionist Conflict and the !nternational #ociety0 -owards (ormative 2aradigm #hiftG, .ations and .ationalism +ol 3, no E, =ecem"er 199:, pp E93,J3D 1D) 6afa, +i1endra #ingh, F%dministrative 2olicies and )thnic =isintegration0 )ngineering Conflict in !ndia9s (orth )astG 11) 'arim, Lamia, F2ushed to the /argins0 %divasi 2eoples in 5angladesh an the Case of 'alpana Cha$maG in Contemporary &outh Asia +ol :, no 3, 199K, pp 3D1,31B 13) /ishra, -ilotama and /ishra, Cdayan F/ovements for %utonomy in !ndia9s (orth )astG in - + #athyamurthy (ed ) ,egion, ,eligion, Caste, ?ender and Culture in Contemporary India (=elhi0 4C2, 199B), pp 1D:,1EE 13) /ousseau, /ichael, F=emocracy and Compromise in /ilitari<ed !nterstate Conflicts, 1K1B,1993G, 2ournal of Conflict ,esolution, +ol E3, no 3, %pril 199K, pp 31B,33D

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1E) 2rins, 7wyns, FCivil and Cncivil WarG, Civil 0ars +ol 3, no 1, #pring 1999, pp 11:,139 1J) Wimmer, %ndreas, FWho 4wns the #tateL Cnderstanding )thnic, Conflict in 2ost, Colonial #ocietiesG, .ations and .ationalism +ol 3, no E, 199:, pp B31,BBJ Encyclo1edias 1) :ncyclopedia of Conflict ,esolution (4;ford0 %5C,CL!4, 199:) 3) :ncyclopedia of /odern &eparatist /ovements (California0 %5C,CL!4, 3DDD) 3) :ncyclopedia of -olitical Anarchy (4;ford0 %5C,CL!4, 1999) E) :ncyclopedia of @iolence, -eace, Conflic t +ols !, !!, !!! (Alorida0 %cademic 2ress, 1999) J) :ncyclopedia of 0arrior -eoples and 8ighting ?roups (4;ford0 %5C,CL!4, 199K) B) )he :ncyclopedia of -olitical ,evolutions (Chicago0 Aitgray =ear"orn 2u"lishers, 199K) F#o9 Inte#net 1) http0@www unog ch@unidir 3) http0@www sipri se@ 3) www "asicint org
E) www an apc as@sworld

J) www no"el no se B) www prio no :) www northeastvigil com K) www o;fam org u$ 9) www epao com Othe# So5#ces #!2&! Hear 5oo$s (#toc$holm) 2u"lic 4pinion and -rends %nalysis (=elhi) 6aneMs =efence 6ournal and other 2u"lications (London) (o"el 2eace 2ri<e Lectures (4slo)

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