Diagrams For Understanding Chemical Processes

Diagrams for Understanding Chemical Processes | 1.1. Block Flow Diag...
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ByDebangsuBha acharyya,JosephA.Shaeiwitz,RichardTurton,WallaceB.Whi ng Date:Jul3,2012 SampleChapterisprovidedcourtesyofPren ceHall. Returntothear cle Thischaptercoversdierenttypesofchemicalprocessdiagrams,howthesediagramsrepresentdierentscalesofprocessviews,one consistentmethodfordrawingprocessowdiagrams,theinforma ontobeincludedinaprocessowdiagram,andthepurposeofoperator trainingsimulatorsandrecentadvancesin3Drepresenta onofdierentchemicalprocesses. WhatYouWillLearn Dierenttypesofchemicalprocessdiagrams Howthesediagramsrepresentdierentscalesofprocessviews Oneconsistentmethodfordrawingprocessowdiagrams Theinforma ontobeincludedinaprocessowdiagram Thepurposeofoperatortrainingsimulatorsandrecentadvancesin3Drepresenta onofdierentchemicalprocesses Thechemicalprocessindustry(CPI)isinvolvedintheproduc onofawidevarietyofproductsthatimprovethequalityofourlivesand generateincomeforcompaniesandtheirstockholders.Ingeneral,chemicalprocessesarecomplex,andchemicalengineersinindustry encounteravarietyofchemicalprocessowdiagrams.Theseprocesseso eninvolvesubstancesofhighchemicalreac vity,hightoxicity,and highcorrosivityopera ngathighpressuresandtemperatures.Thesecharacteris cscanleadtoavarietyofpoten allyseriousconsequences, includingexplosions,environmentaldamage,andthreatstopeopleshealth.Itisessen althaterrorsoromissionsresul ngfrommissed communica onbetweenpersonsand/orgroupsinvolvedinthedesignandopera ondonotoccurwhendealingwithchemicalprocesses. Visualinforma onistheclearestwaytopresentmaterialandisleastlikelytobemisinterpreted.Forthesereasons,itisessen althat chemicalengineersbeabletoformulateappropriateprocessdiagramsandbeskilledinanalyzingandinterpre ngdiagramspreparedby others. Themosteec vewayofcommunica nginforma onaboutaprocessisthroughtheuseofowdiagrams. Thischapterpresentsanddiscussesthemorecommonowdiagramsencounteredinthechemicalprocessindustry.Thesediagramsevolve fromthe meaprocessisconceivedinthelaboratorythroughthedesign,construc on,andthemanyyearsofplantopera on.Themost importantofthesediagramsaredescribedanddiscussedinthischapter. Thefollowingnarra veistakenfromKauman[1]anddescribesarepresenta vecasehistoryrelatedtothedevelopmentofanewchemical process.Itshowshowteamsofengineersworktogethertoprovideaplantdesignandintroducesthetypesofdiagramsthatwillbeexplored inthischapter. TheresearchanddevelopmentgroupatABCChemicalsCompanyworkedoutawaytoproducealphabetasouptol(ABS).Process engineersassignedtoworkwiththedevelopmentgrouphavepiecedtogetheracon nuousprocessformakingABSincommercial quan esandhavetestedkeypartsofit.Thisworkinvolvedhundredsofblockowdiagrams,somemorecomplexthanothers.Based oninforma onderivedfromtheseblockowdiagrams,adecisionwasmadetoproceedwiththisprocess. AprocessengineeringteamfromABCscentralocecarriesoutthedetailedprocesscalcula ons,materialandenergybalances, equipmentsizing,etc.Workingwiththeirdra ingdepartment,theyproducedaseriesofPFDs(ProcessFlowDiagrams)forthe process.Asproblemsariseandaresolved,theteammayreviseandredrawthePFDs.O entheworkrequiresseveralroundsof drawing,checking,andrevising. Specialistsindis lla on,processcontrol,kine cs,andheattransferarebroughtintohelptheprocessteaminkeyareas.Someare companyemployeesandothersareconsultants. SinceABCisonlyamoderatesizedcompany,itdoesnothavesucientstatopreparethe120P&IDs(PipingandInstrumenta on Diagrams)neededforthenewABSplant.ABChiresawellknownengineeringandconstruc onrm(E&CCompany),DEFCo,todothis workforthem.ThecompanyassignstwooftheABCprocessteamstoworkatDEFCotocoordinatethejob.DEFCosprocessengineers, specialists,anddra ingdepartmentpreparetheP&IDs.Theydomuchofthedetailedengineering(pipesizes,valvespecica ons,etc.) aswellastheactualdrawing.Thejobmaytaketwotosixmonths.EverydrawingisreviewedbyDEFCosprojectteamandbyABCs team.Iftherearedisagreements,theengineersandspecialistsfromthecompaniesmustresolvethem. Finally,allthePFDsandtheP&IDsarecompletedandapproved.ABCcannowgoaheadwiththeconstruc on.Theymayextendtheir contractwithDEFCotoincludethisphase,ortheymaygooutforconstruc onbidsfromanumberofsources.
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Thisnarra vedescribesatypicalsequenceofeventstakingaprojectfromitsini alstagesthroughplantconstruc on.IfDEFCohadcarried outtheconstruc on,ABCcouldgoaheadandtakeovertheplantorDEFCocouldbecontractedtocarryoutthestartupandtocommission theplant.Oncesa sfactoryperformancespecica onshavebeenmet,ABCwouldtakeovertheopera onoftheplantandcommercial produc onwouldbegin. Fromconcep onoftheprocesstothe metheplantstartsup,twoormoreyearswillhaveelapsedandmillionsofdollarswillhavebeen spentwithnorevenuefromtheplant.Theplantmustoperatesuccessfullyformanyyearstoproducesucientincometopayforallplant opera onsandtorepaythecostsassociatedwithdesigningandbuildingtheplant.Duringthisopera ngperiod,manyunforeseenchanges arelikelytotakeplace.Thequalityoftherawmaterialsusedbytheplantmaychange,productspecica onsmayberaised,produc onrates mayneedtobeincreased,theequipmentperformancewilldecreasebecauseofwear,thedevelopmentofnewandbe ercatalystswilloccur, thecostsofu li eswillchange,newenvironmentalregula onsmaybeintroduced,orimprovedequipmentmayappearonthemarket. Asaresultoftheseunplannedchanges,plantopera onsmustbemodied.Althoughtheopera nginforma onontheoriginalprocess diagramsremainsinforma ve,theactualperformancetakenfromtheopera ngplantwillbedierent.Thecurrentopera ngcondi onswill appearonupdatedversionsofthevariousprocessdiagrams,whichwillactasaprimarybasisforunderstandingthechangestakingplacein theplant.Theseprocessdiagramsareessen altoanengineerwhohasbeenaskedtodiagnoseopera ngproblems,solveproblemsin opera ons,debo lenecksystemsforincreasedcapacity,andpredicttheeectsofmakingchangesinopera ngcondi ons.Alltheseac vi es areessen alinordertomaintainprotableplantopera on. Inthischapter,thefocusisonthreediagramsthatareimportanttochemicalengineers:blockow,processow,andpipingand instrumenta ondiagrams.Ofthesethreediagrams,themostusefultochemicalengineersisthePFD.TheunderstandingofthePFD representsacentralgoalofthistextbook.
1.1.BlockFlowDiagram(BFD)
Blockowdiagramswereintroducedearlyinthechemicalengineeringcurriculum.Intherstcourseinmaterialandenergybalances,o en anini alstepwastoconvertawordproblemintoasimpleblockdiagram.Thisdiagramconsistedofaseriesofblocksrepresen ngdierent equipmentorunitopera onsthatwereconnectedbyinputandoutputstreams.Importantinforma onsuchasopera ngtemperatures, pressures,conversions,andyieldwasincludedonthediagramalongwithowratesandsomechemicalcomposi ons.However,thediagram didnotincludeanydetailsofequipmentwithinanyoftheblocks. Theblockowdiagramcantakeoneoftwoforms.First,ablockowdiagrammaybedrawnforasingleprocess.Alterna vely,ablockow diagrammaybedrawnforacompletechemicalcomplexinvolvingmanydierentchemicalprocesses.Thesetwotypesofdiagramsare dieren atedbycallingtherstablockowprocessdiagramandthesecondablockowplantdiagram.
1.1.1.BlockFlowProcessDiagram
AnexampleofablockowprocessdiagramisshowninFigure1.1,andtheprocessillustratedisdescribedbelow.
Figure1.1.BlockFlowProcessDiagramfortheProduc onofBenzene Tolueneandhydrogenareconvertedinareactortoproducebenzeneandmethane.Thereac ondoesnotgotocomple on,andexcess tolueneisrequired.Thenoncondensablegasesareseparatedanddischarged.Thebenzeneproductandtheunreactedtolueneare thenseparatedbydis lla on.Thetolueneisthenrecycledbacktothereactorandthebenzeneremovedintheproductstream.
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Thisblockowdiagramgivesaclearoverviewoftheproduc onofbenzene,unobstructedbythemanydetailsrelatedtotheprocess.Each blockinthediagramrepresentsaprocessfunc onandmay,inreality,consistofseveralpiecesofequipment.Thegeneralformatand conven onsusedinpreparingblockowprocessdiagramsarepresentedinTable1.1.
Table1.1.Conven onsandFormatRecommendedforLayingOutaBlockFlowProcessDiagram
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Opera onsshownbyblocks. Majorowlinesshownwitharrowsgivingdirec onofow. Flowgoesfromle torightwheneverpossible. Lightstream(gases)towardtopwithheavystream(liquidsandsolids)towardbo om. Cri calinforma onuniquetoprocesssupplied. Iflinescross,thenthehorizontallineiscon nuousandthever callineisbroken(hierarchyforall drawingsinthisbook). Simpliedmaterialbalanceprovided.
7.
Althoughmuchinforma onismissingfromFigure1.1,itisclearthatsuchadiagramisveryusefulforge ngafeelfortheprocess.Block owprocessdiagramso enformthestar ngpointfordevelopingaPFD.Theyarealsoveryhelpfulinconceptualizingnewprocessesand explainingthemainfeaturesoftheprocesswithoutge ngboggeddowninthedetails.
1.1.2.BlockFlowPlantDiagram
AnexampleofablockowplantdiagramforacompletechemicalcomplexisillustratedinFigure1.2.Thisblockowplantdiagramisfora coaltohigheralcoholfuelsplant.Clearly,thisisacomplicatedprocessinwhichthereareanumberofalcoholfuelproductsproducedfroma feedstockofcoal.Eachblockinthisdiagramrepresentsacompletechemicalprocess(compressorsandturbinesarealsoshownastrapezoids), andablockowprocessdiagramcouldbedrawnforeachblockinFigure1.2.TheadvantageofadiagramsuchasFigure1.2isthatitallowsa completepictureofwhatthisplantdoesandhowallthedierentprocessesinteracttobeobtained.Ontheotherhand,inordertokeepthe diagramrela velyunclu ered,onlylimitedinforma onisavailableabouteachprocessunit.Theconven onsfordrawingblockowplant diagramsaresimilartoTable1.1.
Figure1.2.BlockFlowPlantDiagramofaCoaltoHigherAlcoholFuelsProcess Bothtypesofblockowdiagramsareusefulforexplainingtheoverallopera onofchemicalplants.Forexample,considerthatyouhavejust
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joinedalargechemicalmanufacturingcompanythatproducesawiderangeofchemicalproductsfromthesitetowhichyouhavebeen assigned.Youwouldmostlikelybegivenablockowplantdiagramtoorientyoutotheproductsandimportantareasofopera on.Once assignedtooneoftheseareas,youwouldagainlikelybeprovidedwithablockowprocessdiagramdescribingtheopera onsinyour par culararea. Inaddi ontotheorienta onfunc ondescribedearlier,blockowdiagramsareusedtosketchoutandscreenpoten alprocessalterna ves. Thus,theyareusedtoconveyinforma onnecessarytomakeearlycomparisonsandeliminatecompe ngalterna veswithouthavingtomake detailedandcostlycomparisons.
1.2.ProcessFlowDiagram(PFD)
Theprocessowdiagram(PFD)representsaquantumstepupfromtheBFDintermsoftheamountofinforma onthatitcontains.ThePFD containsthebulkofthechemicalengineeringdatanecessaryforthedesignofachemicalprocess.Forallofthediagramsdiscussedinthis chapter,therearenouniversallyacceptedstandards.ThePFDfromonecompanywillprobablycontainslightlydierentinforma onfromthe PFDforthesameprocessfromanothercompany.Havingmadethispoint,itisfairtosaythatmostPFDsconveyverysimilarinforma on.A typicalcommercialPFDwillcontainthefollowinginforma on: 1. Allthemajorpiecesofequipmentintheprocesswillberepresentedonthediagramalongwithadescrip onoftheequipment.Each pieceofequipmentwillhaveassignedauniqueequipmentnumberandadescrip vename. 2. Allprocessowstreamswillbeshownandiden edbyanumber.Adescrip onoftheprocesscondi onsandchemicalcomposi on ofeachstreamwillbeincluded.ThesedatawillbeeitherdisplayeddirectlyonthePFDorincludedinanaccompanyingowsummary table. 3. Allu litystreamssuppliedtomajorequipmentthatprovidesaprocessfunc onwillbeshown. 4. Basiccontrolloops,illustra ngthecontrolstrategyusedtooperatetheprocessduringnormalopera ons,willbeshown. ItisclearthatthePFDisacomplexdiagramrequiringasubstan aleorttoprepare.Itisessen althatitshouldremainunclu eredandbe easytofollow,toavoiderrorsinpresenta onandinterpreta on.O enPFDsaredrawnonlargesheetsofpaper(forexample,sizeD:24in 36in),andseveralconnectedsheetsmayberequiredforacomplexprocess.Becauseofthepagesizelimita onsassociatedwiththistext, completePFDscannotbepresentedhere.Consequently,certainliber eshavebeentakeninthepresenta onofthePFDsinthistext. Specically,certaininforma onwillbepresentedinaccompanyingtables,andonlytheessen alprocessinforma onwillbeincludedonthe PFD.Theresul ngPFDswillretainclarityofpresenta on,butthereadermustrefertotheowsummaryandequipmentsummarytablesin ordertoextractalltherequiredinforma onabouttheprocess. BeforethevariousaspectsofthePFDarediscussed,itshouldbenotedthatthePFDandtheprocessthatisdescribedinthischapterwillbe usedthroughoutthebook.Theprocessisthehydrodealkyla onoftoluenetoproducebenzene.Thisisawellstudiedandwellunderstood commercialprocesss llusedtoday.ThePFDpresentedinthischapterforthisprocessistechnicallyfeasiblebutisinnowayop mized.In fact,manyimprovementstotheprocesstechnologyandeconomicperformancecanbemade.Manyoftheseimprovementswillbecome evidentwhentheappropriatematerialispresented.Thisallowsthetechniquesprovidedthroughoutthistexttobeappliedbothtoiden fy technicalandeconomicproblemsintheprocessandtomakethenecessaryprocessimprovements.Therefore,throughoutthetext,weak spotsinthedesign,poten alimprovements,andapathtowardanop mizedprocessowdiagramwillbeiden ed. Thebasicinforma onprovidedbyaPFDcanbecategorizedintooneofthefollowing: 1. Processtopology 2. Streaminforma on 3. Equipmentinforma on EachaspectofthePFDwillbeconsideredseparately.A ereachofthethreetopicshasbeenaddressed,alltheinforma onwillbegathered andpresentedintheformofaPFDforthebenzeneprocess.
1.2.1.ProcessTopology
Figure1.3isaskeletonprocessowdiagramfortheproduc onofbenzene(seealsotheblockowprocessdiagraminFigure1.1).This skeletondiagramillustratestheloca onofthemajorpiecesofequipmentandtheconnec onsthattheprocessstreamsmakebetween equipment.Theloca onofandinterac onbetweenequipmentandprocessstreamsarereferredtoastheprocesstopology.
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Figure1.3.SkeletonProcessFlowDiagram(PFD)fortheProduc onofBenzeneviatheHydrodealkyla onofToluene Equipmentisrepresentedsymbolicallybyiconsthatiden fyspecicunitopera ons.AlthoughtheAmericanSocietyofMechanical Engineers(ASME)[2]publishesasetofsymbolstouseinpreparingowsheets,itisnotuncommonforcompaniestouseinhousesymbols.A comprehensivesetofsymbolsisalsogivenbyAus n[3].Whateversetofsymbolsisused,thereisseldomaprobleminiden fyingthe opera onrepresentedbyeachicon.Figure1.4containsalistofthesymbolsusedinprocessdiagramspresentedinthistext.Thislistcovers morethan90%ofthoseneededinuid(gasorliquid)processes.
Figure1.4.SymbolsforDrawingProcessFlowDiagrams Figure1.3showsthateachmajorpieceofprocessequipmentisiden edbyanumberonthediagram.Alistoftheequipmentnumbersalong withabriefdescrip venamefortheequipmentisprintedalongthetopofthediagram.Theloca onoftheseequipmentnumbersandnames roughlycorrespondstothehorizontalloca onofthecorrespondingpieceofequipment.Theconven onforforma ngandiden fyingthe processequipmentisgiveninTable1.2.
Table1.2.Conven onsUsedforIden fyingProcessEquipment
ProcessEquipment
GeneralFormatXXYZZA/B XXaretheiden ca onle ersfortheequipmentclassica on CCompressororTurbine EHeatExchanger HFiredHeater
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PPump RReactor TTower TKStorageTank VVessel Ydesignatesanareawithintheplant ZZisthenumberdesigna onforeachiteminanequipmentclass A/Biden esparallelunitsorbackupunitsnotshownonaPFD SupplementalInforma on Addi onaldescrip onofequipmentgivenontopofPFD
Table1.2providestheinforma onnecessaryfortheiden ca onoftheprocessequipmenticonsshowninaPFD.Asanexampleofhowto usethisinforma on,considertheunitopera onP101A/Bandwhateachnumberorle ermeans. P101A/Biden estheequipmentasapump. P101A/Bindicatesthatthepumpislocatedinarea100oftheplant. P101A/Bindicatesthatthisspecicpumpisnumber01inunit100. P101A/Bindicatesthatabackuppumpisinstalled.Thus,therearetwoiden calpumps,P101AandP101B.Onepumpwillbe opera ngwhiletheotherisidle. The100areadesigna onwillbeusedforthebenzeneprocessthroughoutthistext.Otherprocessespresentedinthetextwillcarryother areadesigna ons.AlongthetopofthePFD,eachpieceofprocessequipmentisassignedadescrip vename.FromFigure1.3itcanbeseen thatPumpP101iscalledthetoluenefeedpump.Thisnamewillbecommonlyusedindiscussionsabouttheprocessandissynonymous withP101. Duringthelifeoftheplant,manymodica onswillbemadetotheprocess;o enitwillbenecessarytoreplaceoreliminateprocess equipment.Whenapieceofequipmentwearsoutandisreplacedbyanewunitthatprovidesessen allythesameprocessfunc onastheold unit,thenitisnotuncommonforthenewpieceofequipmenttoinherittheoldequipmentsnameandnumber(o enanaddi onalle er suxwillbeused,e.g.,H101mightbecomeH101A).Ontheotherhand,ifasignicantprocessmodica ontakesplace,thenitisusualto usenewequipmentnumbersandnames.Example1.1,takenfromFigure1.3,illustratesthisconcept. Example1.1. OperatorsreportfrequentproblemswithE102,whicharetobeinves gated.ThePFDfortheplants100areaisreviewed,andE102is iden edastheReactorEuentCooler.Theprocessstreamenteringthecoolerisamixtureofcondensableandnoncondensablegasesat 654Cthatarepar allycondensedtoformatwophasemixture.Thecoolantiswaterat30C.Thesecondi onscharacterizeacomplexheat transferproblem.Inaddi on,operatorshaveno cedthatthepressuredropacrossE102uctuateswildlyatcertain mes,makingcontrolof theprocessdicult.Becauseofthefrequentproblemswiththisexchanger,itisrecommendedthatE102bereplacedbytwoseparateheat exchangers.Therstexchangercoolstheeuentgasandgeneratessteamneededintheplant.Thesecondexchangerusescoolingwaterto reachthedesiredexittemperatureof38C.TheseexchangersaretobedesignatedasE107(reactoreuentboiler)andE108(reactor euentcondenser). TheE102designa onisre redandnotreassignedtothenewequipment.TherecanbenomistakethatE107andE108arenewunitsinthis processandthatE102nolongerexists.
1.2.2.StreamInforma on
ReferringbacktoFigure1.3,itcanbeseenthateachoftheprocessstreamsisiden edbyanumberinadiamondboxlocatedonthestream.
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Thedirec onofthestreamisiden edbyoneormorearrowheads.Theprocessstreamnumbersareusedtoiden fystreamsonthePFD, andthetypeofinforma onthatistypicallygivenforeachstreamisdiscussedinthenextsec on. Alsoiden edinFigure1.3areu litystreams.U li esareneededservicesthatareavailableattheplant.Chemicalplantsareprovidedwitha rangeofcentralu li esthatincludeelectricity,compressedair,coolingwater,refrigeratedwater,steam,condensatereturn,inertgasfor blanke ng,chemicalsewer,wastewatertreatment,andares.AlistofthecommonservicesisgiveninTable1.3,whichalsoprovidesaguide fortheiden ca onofprocessstreams.
Table1.3.Conven onsforIden fyingProcessandU lityStreams
ProcessStreams Allconven onsshowninTable1.1apply. Diamondsymbollocatedinowlines. Numericaliden ca on(uniqueforthatstream)insertedindiamond. Flowdirec onshownbyarrowsonowlines. U lityStreams lps mps hps htm cw wr rw rb cs ss el bfw ng fg LowPressureSteam:35barg(sat)* MediumPressureSteam:1015barg(sat)* HighPressureSteam:4050barg(sat)* HeatTransferMedia(Organic):to400C CoolingWater:FromCoolingTower30CReturnedatLessthan45C+ Water:FromRiver25CReturnedatLessthan35C RefrigeratedWater:Inat5CReturnedatLessthan15C RefrigeratedBrine:Inat45CReturnedatLessthan0C ChemicalWastewaterwithHighCOD SanitaryWastewaterwithHighBOD,etc. ElectricHeat(Specify220,440,660VService) BoilerFeedWater NaturalGas FuelGas
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fo fw
FuelOil FireWater
*Thesepressuresaresetduringthepreliminarydesignstagesandtypicalvaluesvarywithintheranges shown.
+
Above45C,signicantscalingoccurs.
Eachu lityisiden edbytheini alsprovidedinTable1.3.Asanexample,locateE102inFigure1.3.Thenota on,cw,associatedwiththe nonprocessstreamowingintoE102indicatesthatcoolingwaterisusedasacoolant. Electricityusedtopowermotorsandgeneratorsisanaddi onalu litythatisnotiden eddirectlyonthePFDorinTable1.3butistreated separately.Mostoftheu li esshownarerelatedtoequipmentthataddsorremovesheatwithintheprocessinordertocontrol temperatures.Thisiscommonformostchemicalprocesses. FromthePFDinFigure1.3,theiden ca onoftheprocessstreamsisclear.Forsmalldiagramscontainingonlyafewopera ons,the characteris csofthestreamssuchastemperatures,pressures,composi ons,andowratescanbeshowndirectlyonthegure,adjacentto thestream.Thisisnotprac calforamorecomplexdiagram.Inthiscase,onlythestreamnumberisprovidedonthediagram.Thisindexesthe streamtoinforma ononaowsummaryorstreamtable,whichiso enprovidedbelowtheprocessowdiagram.Inthistexttheow summarytableisprovidedasaseparatea achmenttothePFD. Thestreaminforma onthatisnormallygiveninaowsummarytableisgiveninTable1.4.Itisdividedintotwogroupsrequired informa onandop onalinforma onthatmaybeimportanttospecicprocesses.Theowsummarytable,forFigure1.3,isgiveninTable 1.5andcontainsalltherequiredinforma onlistedinTable1.4.
Table1.4.Informa onProvidedinaFlowSummary
RequiredInforma on StreamNumber Temperature(C) Pressure(bar) VaporFrac on TotalMassFlowrate(kg/h) TotalMoleFlowrate(kmol/h) IndividualComponentFlowrates(kmol/h) Op onalInforma on ComponentMoleFrac ons ComponentMassFrac ons
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IndividualComponentFlowrates(kg/h) VolumetricFlowrates(m3/h) SignicantPhysicalProper es Density Viscosity Other ThermodynamicData HeatCapacity StreamEnthalpy Kvalues StreamName
Table1.5.FlowSummaryTablefortheBenzeneProcessShowninFigure1.3(andFigure1.5)
Stream Number Temperature (C) Pressure (bar) Vapor Frac on MassFlow (tonne/h) MoleFlow (kmol/h) Component Flowrates (kmol/h) Hydrogen Methane
10
11
25
59
25
225
41
600
41
38
654
90
147
1.90
25.8
25.5
25.2
25.5
25.0
25.5
23.9
24.0
2.6
2.8
0.0
0.0
1.00
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
10.0
13.3
0.82
20.5
6.41
20.5
0.36
9.2
20.9
11.6
3.27
108.7
144.2
301.0
1204.4
758.8
1204.4
42.6
1100.8
1247.0
142.2
35.7
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
286.0 15.0
735.4 317.3
449.4 302.2
735.4 317.3
25.2 16.95
651.9 438.3
652.6 442.3
0.02 0.88
0.0 0.0
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Benzene Toluene
0.0 108.7
1.0 143.2
0.0 0.0
7.6 144.0
6.6 0.7
7.6 144.0
0.37 0.04
9.55 1.05
116.0 36.0
106.3 35.0
1.1 34.6
Withinforma onfromthePFD(Figure1.3)andtheowsummarytable(Table1.5),problemsregardingmaterialbalancesandotherproblems areeasilyanalyzed.Example1.2andExample1.3areprovidedtooerexperienceinworkingwithinforma onfromthePFD. Example1.2. ChecktheoverallmaterialbalanceforthebenzeneprocessshowninFigure1.3.Fromthegure,iden fytheinputstreamsasStream1 (toluenefeed)andStream3(hydrogenfeed)andtheoutputstreamsasStream15(productbenzene)andStream16(fuelgas).Fromtheow summarytable,theseowsarelistedas(unitsarein(103kg)/h):
Clicktoviewlargerimage BalanceisachievedsinceOutput=Input. Example1.3. DeterminetheconversionperpassoftoluenetobenzeneinR101inFigure1.3.Conversionisdenedas =(benzeneproduced)/(totaltolueneintroduced) FromthePFD,theinputstreamstoR101areshownasStream6(reactorfeed)andStream7(recyclegasquench),andtheoutputstreamis Stream9(reactoreuentstream).Fromtheinforma oninTable1.5(unitsarekmol/h): Tolueneintroduced=144(Stream6)+0.04(Stream7)=144.04kmol/h Benzeneproduced=116(Stream9)7.6(Stream6)0.37(Stream7) =108.03kmol/h =108.03/144.04=0.75 Alterna vely,thefollowingcanbewri en: Molesofbenzeneproduced=TolueneinTolueneout=144.0436.00 =108.04kmol/h =108.04/144.04=0.75
1.2.3.EquipmentInforma on
ThenalelementofthePFDistheequipmentsummary.Thissummaryprovidestheinforma onnecessarytoes matethecostsof equipmentandfurnishthebasisforthedetaileddesignofequipment.Table1.6providestheinforma onneededfortheequipmentsummary formostoftheequipmentencounteredinuidprocesses.
Table1.6.EquipmentDescrip onsforPFDandP&IDs
EquipmentType Descrip onofEquipment
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Towers Size(heightanddiameter),Pressure,Temperature NumberandTypeofTrays HeightandTypeofPacking MaterialsofConstruc on HeatExchangers Type:GasGas,GasLiquid,LiquidLiquid,Condenser,Vaporizer Process:Duty,Area,Temperature,andPressureforbothstreams NumberofShellandTubePasses MaterialsofConstruc on:TubesandShell TanksandVessels Height,Diameter,Orienta on,Pressure,Temperature,MaterialsofConstruc on Pumps Flow,DischargePressure,Temperature,P,DriverType,Sha Power,MaterialsofConstruc on Compressors ActualInletFlowrate,Temperature,Pressure,DriverType,Sha Power, MaterialsofConstruc on Heaters(Fired) Type,TubePressure,TubeTemperature,Duty,Fuel,MaterialofConstruc on Other ProvideCri calInforma on
Theinforma onpresentedinTable1.6isusedinpreparingtheequipmentsummarypor onofthePFDforthebenzeneprocess.The equipmentsummaryforthebenzeneprocessispresentedinTable1.7,anddetailsofhowtoes mateandchoosevariousequipment parametersarediscussedinChapter11.
Table1.7.EquipmentSummaryforTolueneHydrodealkyla onPFD
HeatExchangers
E101
E102
E103
E104
E105
E106
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Type Area(m2) Duty(MJ/h) Shell Temp.(C) Pres.(bar) Phase MOC Tube Temp.(C) Pres.(bar) Phase MOC Vessels/Tower /Reactors Temperature(C) Pressure(bar) Orienta on MOC Size Height/Length(m) Diameter(m) Internals
Fl.H. 36 15,190
Fl.H. 763 46,660
MDP 11 1055
Fl.H. 35 8335
MDP 12 1085
Fl.H. 80 9045
225 26 Vap. 316SS
654 24 Par.Cond. 316SS
160 6 Cond. CS
112 3 Cond. CS
112 3 l CS
185 11 Cond. CS
258 42 Cond. 316SS V101
40 3 l 316SS V102
90 3 l CS V103
40 3 l CS V104
40 3 l CS T101
147 3 Vap. CS R101
55 2.0 Horizontal CS
38 24 Ver cal CS
38 3.0 Ver cal CS
112 2.5 Horizontal CS
147 3.0 Ver cal CS
660 25 Ver cal 316SS
5.9 1.9
3.5 1.1 s.p.
3.5 1.1 s.p.
3.9 1.3
29 1.5 42 sieve trays 316SS
14.2 2.3 Catalyst packed bed10m
Pumps/Compressors
P101(A/B)
P102(A/B)
C101(A/B)
Heater
H101
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Flow(kg/h) FluidDensity (kg/m ) Power(sha )(kW)

3
13,000 870
22,700 880
6770 8.02
Type MOC
Fired 316SS
14.2
3.2
49.1
Duty (MJ/h) Radiant Area(m2)
27,040
Type/Drive
Recip./Electric
Centrf./Electric
Centrf./Electric
106.8
Eciency(Fluid Power/Sha Power) MOC
0.75
0.50
0.75
Convec ve Area(m )
2
320.2
CS
CS
CS
TubeP (bar)
26.0
Temp.(in)(C) Pres.(in)(bar) Pres.(out)(bar) Key: MOC
55 1.2 27.0
112 2.2 4.4
38 23.9 25.5
Materialsof construc on Stainlesssteel type316 Carbonsteel Streambeing vaporized Streambeing condensed Reciproca ng Centrifugal
Par
Par al
316SS
F.H.
Fixedhead
CS Vap
Fl.H. Rbl
Floa nghead Reboiler
Cond
s.p.
Splashplate
Recipr. Centrf.
l MDP
Liquid Mul ple doublepipe
1.2.4.CombiningTopology,StreamData,andControlStrategytoGiveaPFD
Uptothispoint,theamountofprocessinforma ondisplayedonthePFDhasbeenkepttoaminimum.Amorerepresenta veexampleofa PFDforthebenzeneprocessisshowninFigure1.5.ThisdiagramincludesalloftheelementsfoundinFigure1.3,someoftheinforma on
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foundinTable1.5,plusaddi onalinforma ononthemajorcontrolloopsusedintheprocess.
Figure1.5.BenzeneProcessFlowDiagram(PFD)fortheProduc onofBenzeneviatheHydrodealkyla onofToluene Streaminforma onisaddedtothediagrambya achinginforma onags.Theshapeoftheagsindicatesthespecicinforma on providedontheag.Figure1.6illustratesalltheagsusedinthistext.Theseinforma onagsplayadualrole.Theyprovideinforma on neededintheplantdesignleadingtoplantconstruc onandintheanalysisofopera ngproblemsduringthelifeoftheplant.Flagsare mountedonastaconnectedtotheappropriateprocessstream.Morethanoneagmaybemountedonasta.Example1.4illustratesthe dierentinforma ondisplayedonthePFD.
Figure1.6.SymbolsforStreamIden ca on Example1.4. LocateStream1inFigure1.5andnotethatimmediatelyfollowingthestreamiden ca ondiamondastaisaxed.Thisstacarriesthree agscontainingthefollowingstreamdata: 1. Temperatureof25C 2. Pressureof1.9bar 3. Massowrateof10.0103kg/h Theunitsforeachprocessvariableareindicatedinthekeyprovidedatthele handsideofFigure1.5. Withtheaddi onoftheprocesscontrolloopsandtheinforma onags,thePFDstartstobecomeclu ered.Therefore,inordertopreserve clarity,itisnecessarytolimitwhatdataarepresentedwiththeseinforma onags.Fortunately,agsonaPFDareeasytoadd,remove,and change,andeventemporaryagsmaybeprovidedfrom meto me. Theinforma onprovidedontheagsisalsoincludedintheowsummarytable.However,o enitisfarmoreconvenientwhenanalyzingthe PFDtohavecertaindatadirectlyonthediagram.
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Notallprocessinforma onisofequalimportance.Generalguidelinesforwhatdatashouldbeincludedininforma onagsonthePFDare diculttodene.However,ataminimum,informa oncri caltothesafetyandopera onoftheplantshouldbegiven.Thisincludes temperaturesandpressuresassociatedwiththereactor,owratesoffeedandproductstreams,andstreampressuresandtemperaturesthat aresubstan allyhigherthantherestoftheprocess.Addi onalneedsareprocessspecic.Examples1.51.7illustratewhereandwhy informa onshouldbeincludeddirectlyonaPFD. Example1.5. Acrylicacidistemperaturesensi veandpolymerizesat90Cwhenpresentinhighconcentra on.Itisseparatedbydis lla onandleaves fromthebo omofthetower.Inthiscase,atemperatureandpressureagwouldbeprovidedforthestreamleavingthereboiler. Example1.6. Inthebenzeneprocess,thefeedtothereactorissubstan allyho erthantherestoftheprocessandiscrucialtotheopera onofthe process.Inaddi on,thereac onisexothermic,andthereactoreuenttemperaturemustbecarefullymonitored.ForthisreasonStream6 (entering)andStream9(leaving)havetemperatureags. Example1.7. ThepressuresofthestreamstoandfromR101inthebenzeneprocessarealsoimportant.Thedierenceinpressurebetweenthetwo streamsgivesthepressuredropacrossthereactor.This,inturn,givesanindica onofanymaldistribu onofgasthroughthecatalystbeds. Forthisreason,pressureagsarealsoincludedonStreams6and9. Ofsecondaryimportanceisthefactthatagsareusefulinreducingthesizeoftheowsummarytable.Forpumps,compressors,andheat exchangers,themassowsarethesamefortheinputandoutputstreams,andcompleteentriesinthestreamtablearenotnecessary.Ifthe input(oroutput)streamisincludedinthestreamtable,andaagisaddedtoprovidethetemperature(inthecaseofaheatexchanger)or thepressure(inthecaseofapump)fortheotherstream,thenthereisnoneedtopresentthisstreamintheowsummarytable.Example 1.8illustratesthispoint. Example1.8. FollowStream13leavingthetopofthebenzenecolumninthebenzenePFDgiveninFigure1.5andinTable1.5.Thisstreampassesthrough thebenzenecondenser,E104,intothereuxdrum,V104.Themajorityofthisstreamthenowsintothereuxpump,P102,andleavesas Stream14,whiletheremainingnoncondensablesleavethereuxdruminStream19.Themassowrateandcomponentowratesofallthese streamsaregiveninTable1.5.ThestreamleavingE104isnotincludedinthestreamtable.Instead,aaggivingthetemperature(112C)was providedonthediagram(indica ngcondensa onwithoutsubcooling).Anaddi onalag,showingthepressurefollowingthepump,isalso shown.InthiscasetheentryforStream14couldbeomi edfromthestreamtable,becauseitissimplythesumofStreams12and15,andno informa onwouldbelost. Moreinforma oncouldbeincludedinFigure1.5hadspaceforthediagramnotbeenlimitedbytextformat.ItismostimportantthatthePFD remainunclu eredandeasytofollowinordertoavoiderrorsandmisunderstandings.Addingaddi onalmaterialtoFigure1.5riskssacricing clarity. TheowtablepresentedinTable1.5,theequipmentsummarypresentedinTable1.7,andFigure1.5takentogethercons tuteallthe informa oncontainedonacommerciallyproducedPFD. ThePFDistherstcomprehensivediagramdrawnforanynewplantorprocess.Itprovidesalloftheinforma onneededtounderstandthe chemicalprocess.Inaddi on,sucientinforma onisgivenontheequipment,energy,andmaterialbalancestoestablishprocesscontrol protocolandtopreparecostes matestodeterminetheeconomicviabilityoftheprocess. Manyaddi onaldrawingsareneededtobuildtheplant.Alltheprocessinforma onrequiredcanbetakenfromthisPFD.Asdescribedinthe narra veatthebeginningofthischapter,thedevelopmentofthePFDismosto encarriedoutbytheopera ngcompany.Subsequent ac vi esinthedesignoftheplantareo encontractedout. ThevalueofthePFDdoesnotendwiththeconstruc onoftheplant.Itremainsthedocumentthatbestdescribestheprocess,anditisused inthetrainingofoperatorsandnewengineers.Itisconsultedregularlytodiagnoseopera ngproblemsthatariseandtopredicttheeectsof changesontheprocess.
1.3.PipingandInstrumenta onDiagram(P&ID)
Thepipingandinstrumenta ondiagram(P&ID),alsoknownasmechanicalowdiagram(MFD),providesinforma onneededbyengineersto beginplanningfortheconstruc onoftheplant.TheP&IDincludeseverymechanicalaspectoftheplantexcepttheinforma ongiveninTable 1.8.Thegeneralconven onsusedindrawingP&IDsaregiveninTable1.9.
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Table1.8.ExclusionsfromPipingandInstrumenta onDiagram
1.Opera ngCondi onsT,P 2.StreamFlows 3.EquipmentLoca ons 4.PipeRou ng a. PipeLengths b. PipeFi ngs 5.Supports,Structures,andFounda ons
Table1.9.Conven onsinConstruc ngPipingandInstrumenta onDiagrams
ForEquipmentShowEveryPieceIncluding SpareUnits ParallelUnits SummaryDetailsofEachUnit ForPipingIncludeAllLinesIncludingDrainsandSampleConnec ons,andSpecify Size(UseStandardSizes) Schedule(Thickness) MaterialsofConstruc on Insula on(ThicknessandType) ForInstrumentsIden fy IndicatorsRecordersControllersShowInstrumentLines ForU li esIden fy EntranceU li esExitU li esExittoWasteTreatmentFacili es
EachPFDwillrequiremanyP&IDstoprovidethenecessarydata.Figure1.7isarepresenta veP&IDforthedis lla onsec onofthebenzene processshowninFigure1.5.TheP&IDpresentedinFigure1.7providesinforma ononthepiping,andthisisincludedaspartofthediagram. Asanalterna ve,eachpipecanbenumbered,andthespecicsofeverylinecanbeprovidedinaseparatetableaccompanyingthisdiagram. Whenpossible,thephysicalsizeofthelargersizedunitopera onsisreectedbythesizeofthesymbolinthediagram.
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Figure1.7.PipingandInstrumenta onDiagramforBenzeneDis lla on(adaptedfromKauman,D.,FlowSheetsandDiagrams,AIChE ModularInstruc on,SeriesG:DesignofEquipment,serieseditorJ.Beckman,AIChE,NewYork,1986,vol.1,ChapterG.1.5,AIChEcopyright 1986AIChE,allrightsreserved) U lityconnec onsareiden edbyanumberedboxintheP&ID.Thenumberwithintheboxiden esthespecicu lity.Thekeyiden fying theu lityconnec onsisshowninatableontheP&ID. Allprocessinforma onthatcanbemeasuredintheplantisshownontheP&IDbycircularags.Thisincludestheinforma ontoberecorded andusedinprocesscontrolloops.Thecircularagsonthediagramindicatewheretheinforma onisobtainedintheprocessandiden fythe measurementstakenandhowtheinforma onisdealtwith.Table1.10summarizestheconven onsusedtoiden fyinforma onrelatedto instrumenta onandcontrol.Example1.9illustratestheinterpreta onofinstrumenta onandcontrolsymbols.
Table1.10.Conven onsUsedforIden fyingInstrumenta ononP&IDs(ISAstandardISAS51,[4])
Loca onofInstrumenta on InstrumentLocatedinPlant InstrumentLocatedonFrontofPanelinControlRoom InstrumentLocatedonBackofPanelinControlRoom
MeaningsofIden ca onLe ers FirstLe er(X) A B C D E Analysis BurnerFlame Conduc vity DensityorSpecicGravity Voltage Element Control SecondorThirdLe er(Y) Alarm
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F H I J K L M O P Q R S T V W Y Z
Flowrate Hand(ManuallyIni ated) Current Power TimeorTimeSchedule Level MoistureorHumidity ControlSta on LightorLow MiddleorIntermediate Orice PressureorVacuum Quan tyorEvent Radioac vityorRa o SpeedorFrequency Temperature Viscosity Weight Recordorprint Switch Transmit Valve,Damper,orLouver Well RelayorCompute Posi on Drive Point High Indicate
Iden ca onofInstrumentConnec ons Capillary Pneuma c Electrical
Example1.9. ConsiderthebenzeneproductlineleavingtherighthandsideoftheP&IDinFigure1.7.Theowrateofthisstreamiscontrolledbyacontrol valvethatreceivesasignalfromalevelmeasuringelementplacedonV104.Thesequenceofinstrumenta onisasfollows: Alevelsensingelement(LE)islocatedonthereuxdrumV104.Aleveltransmi er(LT)alsolocatedonV104sendsanelectricalsignal (designatedbyadashedline)toalevelindicatorandcontroller(LIC).ThisLICislocatedinthecontrolroomonthecontrolpanelorconsole(as indicatedbythehorizontallineunderLIC)andcanbeobservedbytheoperators.FromtheLIC,anelectricalsignalissenttoaninstrument(LY)
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thatcomputesthecorrectvalveposi onandinturnsendsapneuma csignal(designatedbyasolidlinewithcrosshatching)toac vatethe controlvalve(LCV).Inordertowarnoperatorsofpoten alproblems,twoalarmsareplacedinthecontrolroom.Theseareahighlevelalarm (LAH)andalowlevelalarm(LAL),andtheyreceivethesamesignalfromtheleveltransmi erasdoesthecontroller. ThiscontrolloopisalsoindicatedonthePFDofFigure1.5.However,thedetailsofalltheinstrumenta onarecondensedintoasinglesymbol (LIC),whichadequatelydescribestheessen alprocesscontrolfunc onbeingperformed.Thecontrolac onthattakesplaceisnotdescribed explicitlyineitherdrawing.However,itisasimplema ertoinferthatifthereisanincreaseinthelevelofliquidinV104,thecontrolvalve willopenslightlyandtheowofbenzeneproductwillincrease,tendingtolowerthelevelinV104.Foradecreaseinthelevelofliquid,the valvewillcloseslightly. ThedetailsoftheothercontrolloopsinFigures1.5and1.7arele toproblemsattheendofthischapter.Itisworthmen oningthatin virtuallyallcasesofprocesscontrolinchemicalprocesses,thenalcontrolelementisavalve.Thus,allcontrollogicisbasedontheeectthat achangeinagivenowratehasonagivenvariable.Thekeytounderstandingthecontrollogicistoiden fywhichowrateisbeing manipulatedtocontrolwhichvariable.Oncethishasbeendone,itisarela velysimplema ertoseeinwhichdirec onthevalveshould changeinordertomakethedesiredchangeinthecontrolvariable.Theresponse meofthesystemandtypeofcontrolac onusedfor example,propor onal,integral,ordieren alarele totheinstrumentengineersandarenotcoveredinthistext. Thenalcontrolelementinnearlyallchemicalprocesscontrolloopsisavalve. TheP&IDisthelaststageofprocessdesignandservesasaguideforthosewhowillberesponsibleforthenaldesignandconstruc on. Basedonthisdiagram, 1. 2. 3. 4. Mechanicalengineersandcivilengineerswilldesignandinstallpiecesofequipment. Instrumentengineerswillspecify,install,andcheckcontrolsystems. Pipingengineerswilldevelopplantlayoutandeleva ondrawings. Projectengineerswilldevelopplantandconstruc onschedules.
Beforenalacceptance,theP&IDsserveasachecklistagainstwhicheachitemintheplantischecked. TheP&IDisalsousedtotrainoperators.Oncetheplantisbuiltandisopera onal,therearelimitstowhatoperatorscando.Aboutallthatcan bedonetocorrectoralterperformanceoftheplantistoopen,close,orchangetheposi onofavalve.Partofthetrainingwouldpose situa onsandrequiretheoperatorstobeabletodescribewhatspecicvalveshouldbechanged,howitshouldbechanged,andwhatto observeinordertomonitortheeectsofthechange.Plantsimulators(similartoightsimulators)aresome mesinvolvedinoperator training.Theseprogramsaresophis cated,real meprocesssimulatorsthatshowatraineeoperatorhowquicklychangesincontrolled variablespropagatethroughtheprocess.Itisalsopossibleforsuchprogramstodisplayscenariosofprocessupsetssothatoperatorscanget traininginrecognizingandcorrec ngsuchsitua ons.Thesetypesofprogramsareveryusefulandcosteec veinini aloperatortraining. However,theuseofP&IDsiss llveryimportantinthisregard. TheP&IDispar cularlyimportantforthedevelopmentofstartupprocedureswhentheplantisnotundertheinuenceoftheinstalled processcontrolsystems.AnexampleofastartupprocedureisgiveninExample1.10. Example1.10. Considerthestartupofthedis lla oncolumnshowninFigure1.7.Whatsequencewouldbefollowed?Theprocedureisbeyondthescopeof thistext,butitwouldbedevelopedfromaseriesofques onssuchas a. b. c. d. Whatvalveshouldbeopenedrst? Whatshouldbedonewhenthetemperatureof...reaches...? Towhatvalueshouldthecontrollerbeset? Whencanthesystembeputonautoma ccontrol?
Theselastthreesec onshavefollowedthedevelopmentofaprocessfromasimpleBFDthroughthePFDandnallytotheP&ID.Eachstep showedaddi onalinforma on.Thiscanbeseenbyfollowingtheprogressofthedis lla onunitasitmovesthroughthethreediagrams described. 1. BlockFlowDiagram(BFD)(seeFigure1.1):Thecolumnwasshownasapartofoneofthethreeprocessblocks. 2. ProcessFlowDiagram(PFD)(seeFigure1.5):Thecolumnwasshownasthefollowingsetofindividualequipment:atower,condenser, reuxdrum,reboiler,reuxpumps,andassociatedprocesscontrols. 3. PipingandInstrumenta onDiagram(P&ID)(seeFigure1.7):Thecolumnwasshownasacomprehensivediagramthatincludes addi onaldetailssuchaspipesizes,u litystreams,sampletaps,numerousindicators,andsoon.Itistheonlyunitopera ononthe diagram. Thevalueofthesediagramsdoesnotendwiththestartupoftheplant.Thedesignvaluesonthediagramarechangedtorepresentthe
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actualvaluesdeterminedundernormalopera ngcondi ons.Thesecondi onsformabasecaseandareusedtocompareopera ons throughoutthelifeoftheplant.
1.4.Addi onalDiagrams
Duringtheplanningandconstruc onphasesofanewproject,manyaddi onaldiagramsareneeded.Althoughthesediagramsdonotpossess addi onalprocessinforma on,theyareessen altothesuccessfulcomple onoftheproject.Computersarebeingusedmoreandmoretodo thetediousworkassociatedwithallofthesedrawingdetails.Thecrea veworkcomesinthedevelopmentoftheconceptsprovidedinthe BFDandtheprocessdevelopmentrequiredtoproducethePFD.Thecomputercanhelpwiththedrawingsbutcannotcreateanewprocess. Computersarevaluableinmanyaspectsofthedesignprocesswherethesizeofequipmenttodoaspecictaskistobedetermined. Computersmayalsobeusedwhenconsideringperformanceproblemsthatdealwiththeopera onofexis ngequipment.However,theyare severelylimitedindealingwithdiagnos cproblemsthatarerequiredthroughoutthelifeoftheplant. ThediagramspresentedhereareinbothAmericanEngineeringandSIunits.Themostno ceableexcep onisinthesizingofpiping,where pipesarespeciedininchesandpipeschedule.ThisremainsthewaytheyareproducedandpurchasedintheUnitedStates.Aprocess engineertodaymustbecomfortablewithSI,conven onalmetric,andAmerican(formerlyBri sh,whonowuseSIexclusively)Engineering units. Theseaddi onaldiagramsarediscussedbrieybelow. Au lityowsheetmaybeprovidedthatshowsalltheheadersforu lityinputsandoutputsavailablealongwiththeconnec onsneededto theprocess.Itprovidesinforma onontheowsandcharacteris csoftheu li esusedbytheplant. Vesselsketches,logicladderdiagrams,wiringdiagrams,siteplans,structuralsupportdiagrams,andmanyotherdrawingsarerou nelyused butaddli letoourunderstandingofthebasicchemicalprocessesthattakeplace. Addi onaldrawingsarenecessarytolocatealloftheequipmentintheplant.Plotplansandeleva ondiagramsareprovidedthatlocatethe placementandeleva onofallofthemajorpiecesofequipmentsuchastowers,vessels,pumps,heatexchangers,andsoon.When construc ngthesedrawings,itisnecessarytoconsiderandtoprovideforaccessforrepairingequipment,removingtubebundlesfromheat exchangers,replacementofunits,andsoon.Whatremainstobeshownistheaddi onofthestructuralsupportandpiping. Pipingisometricsaredrawnforeverypieceofpiperequiredintheplant.Thesedrawingsare3Dsketchesofthepiperun,indica ngthe eleva onsandorienta onofeachsec onofpipe.Inthepast,itwasalsocommonforcomprehensiveplantstobuildascalemodelsothe systemcouldbeviewedinthreedimensionsandmodiedtoremoveanypoten alproblems.Overthepastthirtyyears,scalemodelshave beenreplacedbythreedimensionalcomputeraideddesign(CAD)programsthatarecapableofrepresen ngtheplantasbuiltinthree dimensions.Theyprovideanopportunitytoviewthelocalequipmenttopologyfromanyangleatanyloca oninsidetheplant.Onecan actuallywalkthroughtheplantandpreviewwhatwillbeseenwhentheplantisbuilt.Theabilitytoviewtheplantbeforeconstruc on willbemadeevenmorerealis cwiththehelpofvirtualrealityso ware.Withthisnewtool,itispossiblenotonlytowalkthroughtheplant butalsototouchtheequipment,turnvalves,climbtothetopofdis lla oncolumns,andsoon.Inthenextsec on,theinforma onneeded tocompleteapreliminaryplantlayoutdesignisreviewed,andthelogicusedtolocatetheprocessunitsintheplantandhowtheeleva onsof dierentequipmentaredeterminedarebrieyexplained.
1.5.ThreeDimensionalRepresenta onofaProcess
Asmen onedearlier,themajordesignworkproducts,bothchemicalandmechanical,arerecordedontwodimensionaldiagrams(PFD,P&ID, etc.).However,whenitcomestotheconstruc onoftheplant,therearemanyissuesthatrequireathreedimensionalrepresenta onofthe process.Forexample,theloca onofshellandtubeexchangersmustallowfortubebundleremovalforcleaningandrepair.Loca onsof pumpsmustallowforaccessformaintenanceandreplacement.Forcompressors,thisaccessmayalsorequirethatacranebeabletoremove andreplaceadamageddrive.Controlvalvesmustbelocatedateleva onsthatallowoperatoraccess.Sampleportsandinstrumenta onmust alsobelocatedconveniently.Foranyonewhohastouredamoderatetolargechemicalfacility,thecomplexityofthepipingandequipment layoutisimmediatelyapparent.Evenforexperiencedengineers,thereviewofequipmentandpipingtopologyisfareasiertoaccomplishin 3Dthan2D.Duetotherapidincreaseincomputerpowerandadvancedso ware,suchrepresenta onsarenowdonerou nelyusingthe computer.Inordertobuildanelectronicrepresenta onoftheplantin3D,alltheinforma oninthepreviouslymen oneddiagramsmust beaccessedandsynthesized.Thisinitselfisadaun ngtask,andacompleteaccoun ngofthisprocessiswellbeyondthescopeofthistext. However,inordertogivethereaderaavorofwhatcannowbeaccomplishedusingsuchso ware,abriefreviewoftheprinciplesofplant layoutdesignwillbegiven.Amoredetailedaccountinvolvingavirtualplanttourofthedimethylether(DME)plant(AppendixB.1)isgivenon theCDaccompanyingthisbook. Foracomplete,detailedanalysisoftheplantlayout,allequipmentsizes,pipingsizes,PFDs,P&IDs,andallotherinforma onshouldbe known.However,forthisdescrip on,apreliminaryplantlayoutbasedoninforma ongiveninthePFDofFigureB.1.1isconsidered.Usingthis gureandtheaccompanyingstreamtablesandequipmentsummarytable(TablesB.1.1andB.1.3),thefollowingstepsarefollowed:
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1. ThePFDisdividedintologicalsubsystems.FortheDMEprocess,therearethreelogicalsubsec ons,namely,thefeedandreactor sec on,theDMEpurica onsec on,andthemethanolsepara onandrecyclesec on.Thesesec onsareshownasdo edlineson Figure1.8.
Figure1.8.SubsystemsforPreliminaryPlanLayoutforDMEProcess 2. Foreachsubsystem,apreliminaryplotplaniscreated.Thetopologyoftheplotplandependsonmanyfactors,themostimportantof whicharediscussedbelow. Ingeneral,thelayoutoftheplotplancantakeoneoftwobasiccongura ons:thegradelevel,horizontal,inlinearrangementand thestructuremountedver calarrangement[5].Thegradelevel,horizontal,inlinearrangementwillbeusedfortheDMEfacility.In thisarrangement,theprocessequipmentunitsarealignedoneithersideofapiperackthatrunsthroughthemiddleoftheprocess unit.Thepurposeofthepiperackistocarrypipingforu li es,product,andfeedtoandfromtheprocessunit.Equipmentislocated oneithersideofthepiperack,whichallowsforeasyaccess.Inaddi on,ver calmoun ngofequipmentisusuallylimitedtoasingle level.Thisarrangementgenerallyrequiresalargerfootprintand,hence,morelandthandoesthestructuremountedver cal arrangement.ThegeneralarrangementfortheselayouttypesisshowninFigure1.9.
Figure1.9.DierentTypesofPlantLayout:(a)GradeMounted,Horizontal,InlineArrangement,and(b)StructureMountedVer cal
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Arrangement(Source:ProcessPlantLayoutandPipingDesign,byE.BausbacherandR.Hunt,1994,reprintedbypermissionof PearsonEduca on,Inc.,UpperSaddleRiver,NJ) Theminimumspacingbetweenequipmentshouldbesetearlyoninthedesign.Thesedistancesaresetforsafetypurposesandshould besetwithbothlocalandna onalcodesinmind.Acomprehensivelistoftherecommendedminimumdistancesbetweenprocess equipmentisgivenbyBausbacherandHunt[5].ThevaluesforsomebasicprocessequipmentarelistedinTable1.11.
Table1.11.RecommendedMinimumSpacing(inFeet)betweenProcessEquipmentforRenery,Chemical,and PetrochemicalPlants
Pumps
Compressors
Reactors
Towersand Vessels M M 15 M
Exchangers
Pumps Compressors Reactors Towers Exchangers
25 M
M 30 M
M M M M M
M=minimumformaintenanceaccess Source:ProcessPlantLayoutandPipingDesign,byE.BausbacherandR.Hunt,1994,reprintedby permissionofPearsonEduca on,Inc.,UpperSaddleRiver,NJ
Thesizingofprocessequipmentshouldbecompletedandtheapproximateloca onontheplotplandetermined.ReferringtoTable B.1.3forequipmentspecica onsgivessomeideaofkeyequipmentsizes.Forexample,thedatagivenforthereuxdrumsV202and V203,reactorR201,andtowersT201andT202aresucienttosketchtheseunitsontheplotplan.However,pumpsizesmustbe obtainedfromvendorsorpreviousjobs,andaddi onalcalcula onsforheatexchangersmustbedonetoes matetheirrequired footprintontheplotplan.Calcula onstoillustratethees ma onofequipmentfootprintsaregiveninExample1.11. Example1.11. Es matethefootprintforE202intheDMEprocess. FromTableB.1.3thefollowinginforma oncanbefound: Floa ngHeadShellandTubedesign Area=171m2 HotSideTemperatures:inat364Candoutat281C ColdSideTemperatures:inat154Candoutat250C Chooseatwoshellpassandfourtubepassexchanger Areapershell=171/2=85.5m2 Using12 ,1inODtubes,293tubespershellareneeded Assumingthetubesarelaidoutona1insquarepitch,a27inIDshellisrequired. Assumethatthefrontandrearheads(wherethetubeuidturnsattheendoftheexchanger)are30inindiameterandrequire2 each(includinganges),andthatthetwoshellsarestackedontopofeachother.ThefootprintoftheexchangerisgiveninFigure E1.11.
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FigureE1.11.ApproximateDimensionsandFootprintofExchangerE202 Next,thesizeofthemajorprocesslinesmustbedetermined.Inordertoes matethesepipesizes,itisnecessarytomakeuseofsome heuris cs.Aheuris cisasimplealgorithmorhintthatallowsanapproximateanswertobecalculated.Thepreliminarydesignofa pieceofequipmentmightwellusemanysuchheuris cs,andsomeofthesemightconictwitheachother.Likeanysimplifying procedure,theresultfromaheuris cmustbereviewedcarefully.Forpreliminarypurposes,theheuris csfromChapter11canbe usedtoes mateapproximatepipesizes.Example1.12illustratestheheuris cforcalcula ngpipesize. Example1.12. Considerthesuc onlinetoP202A/B;whatshouldbethepipediameter? FromTable11.8,1(b)forliquidpumpsuc on,therecommendedliquidvelocityandpipediameterarerelatedbyu=(1.3+D(in)/6) /s. FromTableB.1.1,themassowrateofthestreamenteringP202, densityisfoundtobe800kg/m . Thevolumetricowrateis8140/800=10.2m3/h=0.00283m3/s=0.0998
3 3
=Stream16+Stream10=2170+5970=8140kg/handthe
/s.
Theprocedureistocalculatethevelocityinthesuc onlineandcompareittotheheuris c.Usingthisapproach,thefollowingtableis constructed:
Clicktoviewlargerimage Therefore,thepipediameterthatsa sesboththeheuris candthecon nuityequa onliesbetween3and4in.Takinga conserva vees mate,a4insuc onlineischosenforP202. Thenextsteptoconsideristheplacementofequipmentwithintheplotplan.Thisplacementmustbemadeconsideringtherequired accessformaintenanceoftheequipmentandalsotheini alinstalla on.Althoughthisstepmayseemelementary,therearemany cases[5]wheretheincorrectplacementofequipmentsubsequentlyledtoconsiderablecostoverrunsandmajorproblemsboth duringtheconstruc onoftheplantandduringmaintenanceopera ons.ConsidertheexampleshowninFigure1.10(a),wheretwo vessels,atower,andaheatexchangerareshownintheplotplan.Clearly,V1blockstheaccesstotheexchangerstubebundle,which o enrequiresremovaltochangeleakingtubesortoremovescaleontheoutsideofthetubes.Withthisarrangement,theexchanger wouldhavetobeli edupver callyandplacedsomewherewheretherewasenoughclearancesothatthetubebundlecouldbe removed.However,thesecondvessel,V2,andthetowerT1arelocatedsuchthatcraneaccessisseverelylimitedandaverytall(and
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expensive)cranewouldberequired.Thereloca onofthesesamepiecesofequipment,asshowninFigure1.10(b),alleviatesboth theseproblems.Therearetoomanyconsidera onsofthistypetocoverindetailinthistext,andthereaderisreferredtoBausbacher andHunt[5]formoreindepthcoverageofthesetypesofproblems.ConsideringtheDMEfacility,apossiblearrangementforthefeed andreactorsubsec onisshowninFigure1.11.
Figure1.10.TheEectofEquipmentLoca onontheEaseofAccessforMaintenance,Installa on,andRemoval
Figure1.11.PossibleEquipmentArrangementfortheReactorandFeedSec onofDMEFacility,Unit200 3. Theeleva onofallmajorequipmentisestablished.Ingeneral,equipmentlocatedatgrade(ground)leveliseasiertoaccessand maintainandischeapertoinstall.However,therearecircumstancesthatdictatethatequipmentbeelevatedinordertoprovide acceptableopera on.Forexample,thebo omsproductofadis lla oncolumnisaliquidatitsbubblepoint.Ifthisliquidisfedtoa pump,then,asthepressuredropsinthesuc onlineduetofric on,theliquidboilsandcausesthepumpstocavitate.Toalleviatethis problem,itisnecessarytoelevatethebo omofthecolumnrela vetothepumpinlet,inordertoincreasetheNetPosi veSuc on HeadAvailable(formoredetailaboutNPSHAseeChapter21).Thiscanbedonebydiggingapitbelowgradeforthepumporby eleva ngthetower.Pumppitshaveatendencytoaccumulatedenserthanairgases,andmaintenanceofequipmentinsuchpitsis dangerousduetothepossibilityofsuoca onandpoisoning(ifthegasispoisonous).Forthisreason,towersaregenerallyelevated between3and5m(10and15 )abovegroundlevelbyusingaskirt.ThisisillustratedinFigure1.12.Anotherreasonforeleva nga dis lla oncolumnisalsoillustratedinFigure1.12.O enathermosiphonreboilerisused.Thesereboilersusethedierenceindensity betweentheliquidfedtothereboilerandthetwophasemixture(saturatedliquidvapor)thatleavesthereboilertodrivethe circula onofbo omsliquidthroughthereboiler.Inordertoobtainanacceptabledrivingforceforthiscircula on,thesta cheadof theliquidmustbesubstan al,anda35mheightdieren albetweentheliquidlevelinthecolumnandtheliquidinlettothe reboileristypicallysucient.Examplesshowingwhenequipmenteleva onisrequiredaregiveninTable1.12.
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Figure1.12.SketchIllustra ngReasonsforEleva ngDis llingColumn
Table1.12.ReasonsforEleva ngEquipment
EquipmenttoBe Elevated Columnsorvessels
ReasonforEleva on
WhentheNPSHavailableistoolowtoavoidcavita oninthedischargepump, equipmentmustbeelevated. Toprovidedrivingheadforthermosiphonreboilers. Toprovidegravityowofliquidscontainingsolidsthatavoidstheuseof problema cslurrypumps.
Columns Anyequipment containingsuspended solidsorslurries Contactbarometric condensers
Thisequipmentisusedtoproducevacuumbyexpandinghighpressuresteam throughanejector.Thecondensablesinthevaporareremovedbydirect contactwithacoldwaterspray.Thetailpipeofsuchacondenserissealed witha34footlegofwater. Insomeinstances,owofwaterisabsolutelycri cal,forexample,in regh ngorcri calcoolingopera ons.Themainwatersupplytankfor theseopera onsmaybeelevatedtoprovideenoughwaterpressureto eliminatetheneedforfeedpumps.
Cri calrewatertank (orcoolingwater holdingtank)
4. Majorprocessandu litypipingaresketchedin.Thenalstepinthispreliminaryplantlayoutistosketchinwherethemajorprocess (andu lity)pipes(lines)go.Again,therearenosetrulestodothis.However,themostdirectroutebetweenequipmentthatavoids clasheswithotherequipmentandpipingisusuallydesirable.Itshouldbenotedthatu litylinesoriginateandusuallyterminatein headerslocatedonthepiperack.Whenprocesspipingmustberunfromonesideoftheprocesstoanother,itmaybeconvenientto runthepipeonthepiperack.Allcontrolvalves,samplingports,andmajorinstrumenta onmustbelocatedconvenientlyforthe operators.Thisusuallymeansthattheyshouldbelocatedclosetogradeorasteelaccesspla orm.Thisisalsotrueforequipment isola onvalves.
1.6.The3DPlantModel
ThebestwaytoseehowalltheaboveelementsttogetheristoviewtheVirtualPlantTourAVIleontheCDthataccompaniesthistext.The qualityandlevelofdetailthat3Dso wareiscapableofgivingdependonthesystemusedandthelevelofdetailedengineeringthatisused
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toproducethemodel.Figures1.131.15weregeneratedfortheDMEfacilityusingthePDMSso warepackagefromCadcentre,Inc.(These guresandtheVirtual_Plant_Tour.AVIlearepresentedherewithpermissionofCadcentre,Inc.)InFigure1.13,anisometricviewoftheDME facilityisshown.Allmajorprocessequipment,majorprocessandu litypiping,andbasicsteelstructuresareshown.Thepiperackisshown runningthroughthecenteroftheprocess,andsteelpla ormsareshownwheresupportofelevatedprocessequipmentisrequired.The dis lla onsec onsareshowntotherearofthegureonthefarsideofthepiperack.Thereactorandfeedsec onisshownonthenearside ofthepiperack.Theeleva onoftheprocessequipmentisbe erillustratedinFigure1.14,wherethepipingandstructuralsteelhavebeen removed.Theonlyelevatedequipmentapparentfromthisgurearetheoverheadcondensersandreuxdrumsforthedis lla oncolumns. Theoverheadcondensersarelocatedver callyabovetheirrespec vereuxdrumstoallowforthegravityowofcondensatefromthe exchangerstothedrums.Figure1.15showsthearrangementofprocessequipmentandpipingforthefeedandreactorsec ons.Thelayoutof equipmentcorrespondstothatshowninFigure1.11.Itshouldbenotedthatthecontrolvalveonthedischargeofthemethanolfeedpumps islocatedclosetogradelevelforeasyaccess.
Figure1.13.IsometricViewofPreliminary3DPlantLayoutModelforDMEProcess(ReproducedbyPermissionofCadcentre,anAvevaGroup Company,fromtheirVantage/PDMSSo ware)
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Figure1.14.3DRepresenta onofPreliminaryEquipmentLayoutfortheDMEProcess(ReproducedbyPermissionofCadcentre,anAveva GroupCompany,fromtheirVantage/PDMSSo ware)
Figure1.15.3DRepresenta onoftheReactorandFeedSec onsoftheDMEProcessModel(ReproducedbyPermissionofCadcentre,an AvevaGroupCompany,fromtheirVantage/PDMSSo ware)
1.7.Operatorand3DImmersiveTrainingSimulators
1.7.1.OperatorTrainingSimulators(OTS)
Uptothispointinthechapter,thedierentelementsanddiagramsusedinthespecica onanddescrip onofaprocesshavebeencovered. Themeansbywhichthematerialbalances,energybalances,anddesigncalcula onsforthevariousunitopera ons,requiredtospecifyallthe designcondi ons,havebeencarriedouthasnotbeencovered.Indeed,thesimula onofchemicalprocessesusingprogramssuchas CHEMCAD,AspenPlus,PRO/II,HYSIS,andothersisnotaddressedun lmuchlater,inChapter13.Nevertheless,itshouldbeclearthat extensivesimula onoftheprocesswillberequiredtodetermineandtospecifyallofthecondi onsneededinthedesign.Typically,these simula onsarecarriedoutundersteadystatecondi onsandrepresentasingledesignopera ngpoint,orpossiblyaremadeforseveral dierentopera ngpoints.Thesteadystatesimula onoftheprocessisclearlyveryimportantfromthestandpointofdeningthedesign condi onsandspecifyingtheequipmentparameters,suchasvesselsizes,heatexchangerareasanddu es,pipesizes,andsoon.However, oncetheplanthasbeenbuilt,startedup,andcommissioned,itisrarethattheprocesswilloperateatthatdesigncondi onforanygiven periodof me.Moreover,howtheprocesscanbestarteduporrunat,forexample,65%or110%ofdesigncapacityisnotevidentfromthe originaldesign.Nevertheless,theplantwillberunatodesigncondi onsthroughoutitslife.Inordertohelpoperatorsandengineers
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understandhowtostartupandshutdowntheprocess,dealwithemergencies,oroperateatodesigncondi ons,anoperatortraining simulator(OTS)maybebuilt. Thefounda onofanOTSisadynamicsimula on(model)oftheprocesstowhichahumanmachineinterface(HMI)isconnected.TheHMI,in itssimplestform,isapictorialrepresenta onoftheprocessthatcommunicateswiththedynamicmodel,andthroughit,processvariablesare displayed.TheHMIalsodisplaysallthecontrolsfortheprocess;anoperatorcancontroltheprocessbychangingthesecontrols.Anexample ofanHMIisshowninFigure1.16.Thispar cularexampleshowsapor onofanacidgasrecovery(AGR)unitforanOTSdevelopedbythe DepartmentofEnergytosimulateanIGCC(IntegratedGasica onCombinedCycle)coalfedpowerplant.Processvariablescalculatedbythe dynamicmodelaredisplayedinboxesthroughouttheHMI.Operatorscanmonitorthechangeinthesevariableswith mejustastheywould inacontrolroomsitua on.Theonlydierenceisthattheprocessissimulatedratherthanactuallyopera ng.Ingeneralterms,theOTS func onsforanoperatorjustasaightsimulatordoesforapilotorastronaut.Therefore,operatorsandengineerscangainopera onal experienceandunderstandingaboutaprocessorplantthroughtheOTSbutwiththeaddedbenetthatanymistakesorerrorscanbe iden edandcorrectedduringtrainingsessionswithoutexposingpersonneltoanyrisksthatmightoccuriftrainingweretobedoneonthe actualplant.
Figure1.16.ExampleofanHMIInterfaceforanOTS(ReproducedbyPermissionoftheDOEsNa onalEnergyTechnicalLaboratoryand InvensysSystemsInc.,PropertyandCopyrightofInvensysplc,UK) Thestar ngpointfordevelopinganOTSisthesteadystatesimula on,theequipmentinforma on,andinstrumenta onandcontroldata.In general,theP&IDsareusedasthestar ngpointforthegenera onoftheHMIsincetheycontainallthenecessaryinforma onforthe controlsandinstrumenta on.Thedynamicmodelisdevelopedsothatthesteadystatedesigncondi onwillbesimulatedwhenalltheinputs (feeds)areattheirdesignvalues.DetailsofhowdynamicsimulatorsareusedinprocessdesignareincludedinChapter17.Needlesstosay, thedevelopmentofafullyfunc oningdynamicmodelforaprocessthataccuratelyreectsallthecontrolsandvalvesintheprocessisa substan altaskthattakesateamofengineersmanymonthstoaccomplish.
1.7.2.3DImmersiveTrainingSimulators(ITS)
InSec on1.6,theconceptofa3Dplantmodelwasintroduced.Suchmodelsareconstructedinanelectronicenvironmentusingprecise designdataonthesize,loca onandeleva on(x,y,andzcoordinates),andorienta onofeachpieceofequipment.Inaddi on,thepiping arrangementandloca onofvalves,nozzles,instruments,sampleports,drains,andsoforthareallspecied.Sucharepresenta onallowsthe engineerandoperatortoevaluatetheaccessibilityofcri calprocesscomponentsandtoobtainafeelforhowtheplantwilllook(and operate)whenconstructed.Theengineermayaccessthisinforma onthrougheithera2Dviewerora3Dvirtualenvironment(forexample, using3Dgoggles).However,noma erhowtheinforma onisviewed,theresul ngimagesareessen allysta candaregenerallyoflowto mediumdelity.Therefore,whenviewinga3Dplantmodel,itwillalwaysbecleartotheviewerthatitisjustamodel,andthatthe representa onofthe3Dobjectiscrude. Thevisualenhancementof3Dmodelsusingsophis catedimagingso wareandoverlayingphotorealis cimagesontopofaskeletonofthe 3Drepresenta onarenownotonlypossiblebutcommonplaceforhigherendvideogames.Computergeneratedgraphicsarenowso advancedthat,asanymoviefanwilla est,itiso endiculttodeterminewhatisrealandwhatisanimated.Thistechnologyisnowbeing appliedtodevelop3Dimmersivetrainingsimulators(ITS)forchemicalplants.AscanbeseenfromFigure1.17,thequalityandrealism capturedbycomputergeneratedgraphicsaretrulyamazing.Furthermore,theuseofavatarstorepresentplantoperatorsmakesitpossible forausertonavigatethrough,interactwith,andbetrulyimmersedinthevirtualplant.
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Figure1.17.AnExampleofaComputerGeneratedImageofaHorizontalDrum(ReproducedbyPermissionoftheDOEsNa onalEnergy TechnicalLaboratoryandInvensysSystemsInc.,PropertyandCopyrightofInvensysplc,UK)
1.7.3.LinkingtheITSwithanOTS
Thepoten alforeduca onandtrainingofengineers,operators,andstudentsusingboththeOTSandITSappearstobelimitless.Indeed, thesetwosystemscanbelinkedtogethersuchthattheycancommunicate,andthereal meopera onoftheprocess,bothinthecontrol roomandoutsideintheplant,canbesimulatedinthevirtualenvironment.Considerthefollowingscenariothatmightoccurduringthe startupofachemicalprocess: Feedtoadis lla oncolumnfromanonsitestoragedrumhasbegun.Thefeedpumphasbeenstartedandtheowthroughthepump hasbeenconrmedfromtheHMIdisplayinthecontrolroom.Theliquidfeedowsintothetopofthetower,andtheliquidlevelson thedis lla ontraysstarttoincrease.Theprocessappearstobeworkingasdescribedinthestartupmanualthattheoperatoris following.However,approximately30minutesa erthestartofthefeedpumps,alowlevelalarmsoundsontheonsitestoragedrum. Theoperatormonitorsthelevelinthedrumfromthecontrolroomanddeterminesthatitiscon nuingtofallandwillcausethefeed pumptovaporlock(cavitate)ifthesitua onisnotremedied.Inreviewingthestartupprocedure,theoperatordeterminesthatthere isaremotefunc onvalve(onethatcannotbeoperatedremotelyfromthecontrolroom)thatconnectstheonsitestoragedrumtothe ositestoragetank,andthatthisvalvemayhavebeenclosedinadvertently.Shethencontactsanoperatorintheeldbywalkietalkie andaskshimtocheckthestatusoftheremotefunc onvalve.Theeldoperatorwalkstothestoragedrum,iden esthetagnameon thevalve,andconrmsthatthevalveisindeedclosed.Thecontrolroomoperatortheninstructstheeldoperatortoopenthevalve, whichhedoes.Thecontrolroomoperatorthenconrmsthatthelevelinthedrumhasstartedtogobackupandthankstheeld operatorforhishelp. Thisscenariomightwellrepresentanactualincidentduringascheduledplantstartup.However,thisscenariocouldjustaseasilybe simulatedinthevirtualenvironment.Thecontrolroomoperatorwouldbesi nginfrontoftheHMIscreenthatisconnectedtotheOTS.A eldoperatorcouldbesi ngintheroomnextdoorwithawalkietalkieandwearing3DgogglesconnectedtotheITS.Theeldoperator wouldmovehisavatartotheloca onoftheonsitestoragedrumandlocatetheremotefunc onvalve.Theeldoperatorusinghisavatar wouldthennotethese ngofthevalveanda erreceivinginstruc onsfromthecontrolroomoperatorwouldopenthevalve.Atthispoint, theITSwouldcommunicatetotheOTSthatavalvehadbeenopened,andthiswouldthenallowtheowofproducttocon nuetothedrum; thatis,thedynamicmodeloftheprocesswouldrespondtothevalvebeingopenedandmodeltheowtothedrum.Thecontrolroom operator,monitoringtheHMI,wouldseetheresultoftheowofproductasanincreaseinthedrumlevel. Clearly,anynumberofscenariosinvolvingcontrolroomoperatorsandeldoperatorscouldbeimplemented.Moreover,maintenance opera ons,safetytraining,andawholehostofotheroperatorfunc onscouldbesimulatedallinthevirtualplant. AugmentedReality.Fromthepreviousexampleitisclearthatanyfeasiblescenariothatmightoccurintheactualplantcanbesimulatedin thevirtualenvironment.However,aseriesofcasescanbesimulatedthatwouldbealmostimpossibletosimulateintheactualplantbutare easilyaccomplishedinvirtualreality.Forexample,itmightbehelpfultoshowayoungengineerhowapar cularpieceofequipmentworksby showinghimorherthedetailsoftheinternalsofthatequipment.Intheactualplant,thisopportunitymightnotbeavailableun lascheduled plantshutdownoccurs,andthatmightnothappenforoneortwoyears.However,inthevirtualenvironment,theopera onofagivenpiece ofequipmentcanbeeasilydisplayed.Infact,theavatarcanmoveintotheplantandsimplystripawaytheouterwallofapieceof equipmentandlookinsidetoseewhatishappening.Thisaddi onalfeatureissome mesreferredtoasaugmentedreality(AR).Asan exampleofAR,theopera onofareboilerandadis lla oncolumnisillustratedinFigures1.18(a)and1.18(b),respec vely.
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Figure1.18.AugmentedRealityinITS:(a)Reboiler(b)BubbleCapDis lla onColumn(ReproducedbyPermissionoftheDOEsNa onalEnergy TechnicalLaboratoryandInvensysSystemsInc.,PropertyandCopyrightofInvensysplc,UK) AnotherexampleofARisthedisplayofprocessdatainthevirtualplant.Forexample,ifanoperatorwantedtocheckonthetrendofacertain processvariable,say,thetemperatureinareactor,orlookataschema cofapump,theavatarcansimplyclickonapieceofequipmentand displaythattrend,asshowninFigure1.19.Clearly,inthevirtualenvironment,thereareveryfewlimita onsonwhatinforma onthe operator(avatar)canaccess.
Figure1.19.AnAvatarCanAccessProcessTrendsandObserveEquipmentSchema csinAR(ReproducedbyPermissionofInvensysSystems Inc.,PropertyandCopyrightofInvensysplc,UK) TrainingforEmergencies,Safety,andMaintenance.Thepossibili esfortrainingoperatorsandengineersinthevirtualplantenvironmentare unlimited.Ofpar cularimportancearetheareasofsafety,emergencyresponse,androu nemaintenance.Forexample,theresponseofan operatororteamofoperatorstoanemergencysitua oncanbemonitored,recorded,andplayedbackinthevirtualplant.Anymistakesmade bytheoperator(s)canbeanalyzed,feedbackgiven,andthentheexercisecanberepeatedun lthecorrectresponseisachieved.Although suchtrainingdoesnotabsolutelyguaranteethatwhenarealemergencyarisesintheplanttheoperatorswillrespondcorrectly,it neverthelessprovidescrucialemergencytrainingunderrealis ccondi onswithoutthefearofactualharmtopersonnelandequipment. Furthermore,themoreo ensuchscenariosarerehearsed,themorelikelyareoperatorstorespondcorrectlywhenrealemergenciesoccurin theplant. Correspondingscenariosforsafetyandmaintenancetrainingcanalsobeimplemented.O entheseac vi esmustfollowwelldened procedures,andagain,thevirtualenvironmentoersaperfectvenuetorecord,analyze,andprovidefeedbacktopersonnelastheyperform thesevarioustasks. Insummary,theuseofthevirtualplantenvironment(ITSlinkedtoanOTS)providesunlimitedopportuni estoanewgenera onofengineers andoperatorstolearnandtotrainasprocessplantpersonnelandtohonetheirrespec veskillsinanenvironmentthatisbothrealis cand safe.
1.8.Summary
Inthischapter,youhavelearnedthatthethreeprincipaltypesofdiagramsusedtodescribetheowofchemicalstreamsthroughaprocess aretheblockowdiagram(BFD),theprocessowdiagram(PFD),andthepipingandinstrumenta ondiagram(P&ID).Thesediagrams describeaprocessinincreasingdetail. Eachdiagramservesadierentpurpose.Theblockowdiagramisusefulinconceptualizingaprocessoranumberofprocessesinalarge complex.Li lestreaminforma onisgiven,butaclearoverviewoftheprocessispresented.Theprocessowdiagramcontainsallthe necessaryinforma ontocompletematerialandenergybalancesontheprocess.Inaddi on,importantinforma onsuchasstreampressures, equipmentsizes,andmajorcontrolloopsisincluded.Finally,thepipingandinstrumenta ondiagramcontainsalltheprocessinforma on necessaryfortheconstruc onoftheplant.Thesedataincludepipesizesandtheloca onofallinstrumenta onforboththeprocessand
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u litystreams. Inaddi ontothethreediagrams,thereareanumberofotherdiagramsusedintheconstruc onandengineeringphaseofaproject. However,thesediagramscontainli leaddi onalinforma onabouttheprocess. Thelogicforequipmentplacementandlayoutwithintheprocesswaspresented.Thereasonsforeleva ngequipmentandprovidingaccess werediscussed,anda3Drepresenta onofaDMEplantwaspresented.Theconceptofoperatortrainingsimulatorsispresentedandtherole of3Dimmersivetrainingsystemsisalsointroduced. ThePFDisthesinglemostimportantdiagramforthechemicalorprocessengineerandwillformthebasisofmuchofthediscussioncovered inthisbook. WhatYouShouldHaveLearned Thedierencebetweenandusesoftheblockowdiagram,theprocessowdiagram,thepipingandinstrumenta ondiagram,plot plans,eleva ondiagrams,andpipingisometrics Amethodfordrawingconsistentprocessowdiagrams Howoperatortrainingsystemsand3Dgraphicprocessrepresenta onsareusedtotrainoperatorsandengineers
References
1. Kauman,D.,FlowSheetsandDiagrams,AIChEModularInstruc on,SeriesG:DesignofEquipment,serieseditorJ.Beckman, AmericanIns tuteofChemicalEngineers,NewYork,1986,Vol.1,ChapterG.1.5.ReproducedbypermissionoftheAmericanIns tute ofChemicalEngineers,AIChEcopyright1986,allrightsreserved. 2. GraphicalSymbolsforProcessFlowDiagrams,ASAY32.11(NewYork:AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,1961). 3. Aus n,D.G.,ChemicalEngineeringDrawingSymbols(London:GeorgeGodwin,1979). 4. InstrumentSymbolsandIden ca on,ResearchTrianglePark,NC:InstrumentSocietyofAmerica,StandardISAS51,1975. 5. Bausbacher,E.,andR.Hunt,ProcessPlantLayoutandPipingDesign(UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Pren ceHallPTR,1998).
ShortAnswerQues ons
1. Whatarethethreeprincipaltypesofdiagramsusedbyprocessengineerstodescribetheowofchemicalsinaprocess?Onwhichof thesediagramswouldyouexpecttoseethefollowingitems? a. Thetemperatureandpressureofaprocessstream b. Anoverviewofamul pleunitprocess c. Amajorcontrolloop d. Apressureindicator e. Apressurereliefvalve 2. Aproblemhasoccurredinthemeasuringelementofalevelindica ngcontrollerinabatchreactor.Towhatprincipaldiagramshould youreferinordertotroubleshoottheproblem? 3. Whyisitimportantforaprocessengineertobeabletoreviewathreedimensionalmodel(actualorvirtual/electronic)oftheplant priortotheconstruc onphaseofaproject? 4. Namevethingsthatwouldaecttheloca onsofdierentpiecesofequipmentwhendeterminingthelayoutofequipmentina processunit. 5. Whyareaccurateplantmodels(madeofplas cparts)nolongermadeaspartofthedesignprocess?Whatfunc ondidthesemodels playandhowisthisfunc onnowachieved? 6. Inthecontextofprocessmodelingtools,whatdoOTSandITSstandfor? 7. Whatisaugmentedreality?Giveoneexampleofit.
Problems
8. Therearetwocommonreasonsforeleva ngthebo omofatowerbymeansofaskirt.OnereasonistoprovideenoughNPSHAfor bo omsproductpumpstoavoidcavita on.Whatistheotherreason? 9. Whichoftheprincipaldiagramsshouldbeusedtodothefollowing: a. Determinethenumberoftraysinadis lla oncolumn? b. Determinethetopandbo omtemperaturesinadis lla oncolumn? c. Validatetheoverallmaterialbalanceforaprocess? d. Checktheinstrumenta onforagivenpieceofequipmentinaprestartupreview? e. Determinetheoverallmaterialbalanceforawholechemicalplant? 10. Whatisthepurpose(s)ofapiperackinachemicalprocess?
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11. Whenwouldastructuremountedver calplantlayoutarrangementbepreferredoveragrademounted,horizontal,inline arrangement? 12. Aprocessthatisbeingconsideredforconstruc onhasbeenthroughseveraltechnicalreviews;blockow,processow,andpiping andinstrumenta ondiagramsareavailablefortheprocess.Explainthechangesthatwouldhavetobemadetothethreeprincipal diagramsifduringanalpreconstruc onreview,thefollowingchangesweremade: a. Theeciencyofaredheaterhadbeenspeciedincorrectlyas92%insteadof82%. b. Awasteprocessstreamowrate(senttoasludgepond)wascalculatedincorrectlyandisnow30%greaterthanbefore. c. Ithasbeendecidedtoaddasecond(backup)driveforanexis ngcompressor. d. Theloca onsofseveralcontrolvalveshavechangedtoallowforbe eroperatoraccess. 13. Duringaretrotofanexis ngprocess,avesselusedtosupplythefeedpumptoabatchreactorhasbeenreplacedbecauseof excessivecorrosion.Thevesselisessen allyiden caltotheoriginalone,exceptitisnowgroundeddierentlytoreducethecorrosion. Ifthefunc onofthevessel(namely,tosupplyliquidtoapump)hasnotchanged,answerthefollowingques ons: a. Shouldthenewvesselhaveanewequipmentnumber,orshouldtheoldvesselnumberbeusedagain?Explainyouranswer. b. Onwhichdiagramordiagrams(BFD,PFD,orP&ID)shouldthechangeinthegroundingsetupbenoted? 14. Drawasec onofaP&IDdiagramforavesselreceivingaprocessliquidthroughaninsulated4inschedule40pipe.Thepurposeofthe vesselistostoreapproximately5minutesofliquidvolumeandtoprovidecapacityforafeedpumpconnectedtothebo omofthe pumpusinga6inschedule40pipe.Thediagramshouldincludethefollowingfeatures: a. ThevesselisnumberedV1402andthepump(s)areP1407A/B. b. Thedischargesideofthepumpismadeof4inschedule40carbonsteelpipeandallpipeisinsulated. c. Acontrolvalveislocatedinthedischargelineofthepump,andadoubleblockandbleedarrangementisused(seeProblem 1.15formoreinforma on). d. Bothpumpsandvesselhaveisola on(gate)valves. e. Thepumpsshouldbeequippedwithdrainlinesthatdischargetoachemicalsewer. f. Thevesselisequippedwithlocalpressureandtemperatureindicators. g. Thevesselhasapressurereliefvalvesetto50psigthatdischargestoaaresystem. h. Thetankhasadrainvalveandasamplingvalve,bothofwhichareconnectedtothetankthroughseparate2inschedule40CS lines. i. Thetanklevelisusedtocontroltheowofliquidoutofthetankbyadjus ngthese ngofthecontrolvalveonthedischarge sideofthepump.Theinstrumenta onissimilartothatshownforV104inFigure1.7. 15. Astandardmethodforinstrumen ngacontrolvalveistermedthedoubleblockandbleed,whichisillustratedinFigureP1.15.
FigureP1.15.DoubleBlockandBleedArrangementforProblem1.15 Undernormalcondi ons,valvesatocareopenandvalvesdandeareclosed.Answerthefollowing: a. Explain,carefully,thesequenceofopeningandclosingvalvesrequiredinordertochangeoutthevalvestemonthecontrol valve(valveb). b. Whatchanges,ifany,wouldyoumaketoFigureP1.15iftheprocessstreamdidnotcontainaprocesschemicalbutcontained processwater? c. Ithasbeensuggestedthatthebypassvalve(valved)bereplacedwithanothergatevalvetosavemoney.Gatevalvesarecheap butessen allyfunc onasonovalves.Whatdoyourecommend? d. Whatwouldbetheconsequenceofelimina ngthebypassvalve(valved)? 16. O en,duringthedis lla onofliquidmixtures,somenoncondensablegasesaredissolvedinthefeedtothetower.These
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noncondensablescomeoutofsolu onwhenheatedinthetowerandmayaccumulateintheoverheadreuxdrum.Inorderforthe columntooperatesa sfactorily,thesevaporsmustbeperiodicallyventedtoaareorstack.Onemethodtoachievethisven ng processistoimplementacontrolschemeinwhichaprocesscontrolvalveisplacedontheventlinefromthereuxdrum.Apressure signalfromthedrumisusedtotriggertheopeningorclosingoftheventlinevalve.Sketchthebasiccontrolloopneededforthis ven ngprocessonaprocessowdiagramrepresen ngthetoppor onofthetower. 17. RepeatProblem1.16,butcreatethesketchasaP&IDtoshowalltheinstrumenta onneededforthiscontrolloop. 18. Explainhoweachofthefollowingstatementsmightaectthelayoutofprocessequipment: a. AspecicpumprequiresalargeNPSH. b. Theowofliquidfromanoverheadcondensertothereuxdrumisgravitydriven. c. Pumpsandcontrolvalvesshouldbelocatedforeasyaccessandmaintenance. d. Shellandtubeexchangesmayrequireperiodiccleaningandtubebundlereplacement. e. Pipeslocatedatgroundlevelpresentatrippinghazard. f. Theprevailingwindisnearlyalwaysfromthewest. 19. Es matethefootprintforashellandtubeheatexchangerfromthefollowingdesigndata: Area=145m2 Hotsidetemperatures:inat300C,outat195C Coldsidetemperature:bfwat105Cmpsat184C Use12 ,1inODtubesona11/4insquarepitch,useasingleshellandtubepassbecauseofchangeofphaseonshellside Useavaporspaceaboveboilingliquid=3 mesliquidvolume 20. Makeasketchofalayout(plotplanonly)ofaprocessunitcontainingthefollowingprocessequipment: 3reactors(ver caldiameter1.3meach) 2towers(1.3and2.1mindiameter,respec vely) 4pumps(eachmoun ngpadis1mby1.8m) 4exchangers(footprintsof4mby1m,3.5mby1.2m,3mby0.5m,and3.5mby1.1m) Thetwocolumnsandthethreereactorsshouldallbealignedwithsuitablespacingandalltheexchangersshouldhaveclearancefor tubebundleremoval. 21. UsingthedatafromTable1.7,es matethefootprintsofalltheequipmentinthetolueneHDAprocess. Fortheshellandtubeexchangers,assume12 ,1.25intubesona1.5insquarepitch,andassume2 addi onallengthat eitherendoftheexchangerfortubereturnandfeedheader. Fordoublepipeexchangers,assumean8inschedule20ODanda6inschedule40IDpipewithalengthof12 including ubend. Forthefootprintsofpumps,compressors,andredheater,assumethefollowing: P101use2mby1m,P102use2mby1m C101(+D101)use4mby2m H101use5mby5m 22. Withtheinforma onfromProblem1.21andthetopologygiveninFigure1.5,accuratelysketchaplantlayout(plotplan)ofthe tolueneHDAprocessusingagrademounted,horizontal,inlinearrangementsimilartotheoneshowninFigure1.9.Youshould assumethattheareaoflandavailableforthisprocessunitissurroundedonthreesidesbyanaccessroadandthatapiperackruns alongthefourthside.Usetheinforma oninTable1.11asaguidetoplacingequipment. 23. Whatdothefollowingsymbols(asseenonaP&ID)indicate?
(a)
(b)
(c)
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(d)
(e) 24. Determinealltheerrorsinthesec onofaP&IDshowninFigureP1.24.
FigureP1.24.ASec onofaP&IDtoBeUsedinProblem1.24
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Diagrams For Understanding Chemical Processes

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Diagrams for Understanding Chemical Processes | 1.1. Block Flow Diag...