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Environmentally responsible buildings in the UK commercial property sector

Centre for Real Estate Management, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
Keywords Environment, Green issues, Building management Abstract Within the past ten years, the design, procurement and management of ``green'' buildings has evolved from something of a ``fringe'' activity into a new and increasingly popular approach to the provision of commercial property. Many UK Government agencies, and international corporations, now include green buildings as part of their property portfolios and green issues are already influencing many aspects of the property development process. This paper explains some of the background to this more environmentally responsible approach to property, identifies the potential benefits to owners and occupiers and discusses some of the building-related environmental issues which could provide a basis for ongoing research. The paper concludes that the way commercial buildings are conceived, located, designed and managed is changing, often incorporating new technologies, to meet a new set of project-specific and organisational environmental objectives.

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David E. Shiers

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Received October 1999 Revised July 2000

Introduction In 1991, it was suggested that ``. . . environmental issues are likely to grow in importance and occupiers will wish to be assured that their buildings conform as far as practicable to `green' criteria'' (Jones Lang Wootton et al.., 1991). This view has increasingly been shown to be a far-sighted one, as environmental considerations are now influencing many aspects of the design, development and management of buildings in terms of location and transport-related issues, site-specific environmental impact assessment, choice of building materials, energy use, purchasing policy, maintenance, indoor air quality and user health and comfort. Moreover, the growing importance of environmental considerations as a principal driver within the property development process should not be viewed in terms of onerous constraint or solely as a response to possible future legal requirements. It may also be the case that green property development could become one of the most exciting financial opportunities in the UK and North American property markets in recent years. The growing number of green buildings in the UK commercial market could be seen as evidence that green developments are fundamentally better, more healthy, less expensive to run, more ``socially responsible'', more attractive to occupiers and the public and, ultimately, have the potential to be more profitable.
Property Management, Vol. 18 No. 5, 2000, pp. 352-365. # MCB University Press, 0263-7472

This paper is previously unpublished but formed the basis of presentations given at the European Real Estate Society Conference in Athens, June 1999 and at the RICS Cutting Edge Conference in Cambridge, September, 1999. Research Team: Dr. Bousmaha Baiche, David Shiers and Dr Nicholas Walliman.

There are now some 280 commercial buildings in the UK which, according to most definitions of the term, could be considered to be ``green'' (BRE, 1999). While the introduction of a green approach to the design of UK residential property has lagged behind a number of other European countries (van Haal, 1997), the percentage of developers and owner-occupier client organisations procuring green commercial buildings in the UK in both the public and private sector has grown steadily since the launch of the first BREEAM programme in 1991. Green buildings now account for 25-30 per cent of all office space built since 1991 and an estimated 40 per cent of all schemes built in the last three years (BRE, 1999). International and UK Government commitment to reducing global and atmospheric environmental impact has gathered momentum through the development of common strategies and objectives. The Earth Summit in Rio in 1992 and the drafting of Agenda 21 and the subsequent Kyoto conference has led the UK and other governments to a commitment to reduce atmospheric emissions and energy consumption as part of a more sustainable approach to economic development (HMSO, 1994). Energy use in buildings accounts for the production of 50 per cent of UK carbon dioxide emissions, the main ``greenhouse gas'' (Baldwin et al., 1998) while the production of building materials alone consumes 29 per cent of UK industrial energy (CIRIA, 1994). In addition to offering reduced environmental impacts, the potential of green buildings to offer financial advantages has also been acknowledged. In A New Balance Buildings and the Environment (Jones Lang Wootton et al., 1991), the authors considered the costs of both a baseline City of London office scheme and a provincial office scheme. These were then appraised against comparable schemes which incorporated a number of environmental features and specifications which included reducing the scope of the air-conditioning package without reduction in comfort levels and using higher efficiency lighting, thus reducing running costs. The baseline City scheme's notional construction costs were 14 million but with environmental improvements capital costs were reduced by 85,000 (0.6 per cent saving) and running costs by 35,000 per annum (19 per cent saving). The provincial scheme's capital costs were 11 million with respective savings being 65,0000 (0.6 per cent) capital and 30,000 running costs per annum (20 per cent) This assessment, based on minimal changes in specification, showed a clear cost advantage in adopting a green approach. Sustainability issues are increasingly influencing Planning Policy Guidelines in the UK; determining, for example, the location of projects through reference to assessment of environmental impact and associated transport implications. The introduction of an energy tax or ``Climate Change Levy'' for buildings is, it seems, imminent, sending a clear message to organisations as to the importance of taking a responsible attitude to environmental issues. There are implications too for the investor as:
. . . the real cost of energy is set to increase above the rate of inflation. Energy inefficient buildings could see their costs of occupation rise and, in a competitive market, compensated for through lower (than otherwise) rents, rental growth may be hindered (McNamara, 2000).

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Property managers and investors have become more aware of the potential impact of the working environment on building occupants. Studies linking health, productivity, morale and absenteeism with the quality of the indoor environment (Leaman, 1997) provide compelling evidence that good environmental sense also makes good business sense and that organisations should constantly review investment in their most valuable asset their staff. In a study by the American Medical Association, it was shown that health problems resulting from poor indoor air quality cost 150 million workdays and about 15 billion US dollars in lost productivity every year (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1997). In the USA, there has been an increase in the number of lawsuits relating to Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) often involving all parties to the project including the manufacturers of the products used in the building. Recent cases include the award of some 26 million dollars to a client organisation for the costs of renovation of an eight-year-old public building suffering from SBS (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1997). As awareness of these issues has grown, a number of major public agencies and privately owned corporations have sought to benefit from the advantages and reduced exposure to risk offered by green property, by commissioning their own green buildings. In the USA these include AT&T, the US Post Office, Boeing Aircraft, Sony, United Parcel Services and Duracell. In the UK, British Airways, The Ministry of Defence, The DETR, Barclaycard, The University of East Anglia, Wessex Water, The Scottish Office, The British Council, The Inland Revenue and The Building Research Establishment and others, have built and occupy green buildings. The design and management of green buildings A range of design features, which commonly include the following, typify green projects:
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maximum use of natural day-lighting to offices, enhanced air-quality and individual environmental control; low energy consumption achieved by a range of techniques including the use of natural ventilation rather than air-conditioning, heat recovery systems and the use of thermal mass, careful orientation and low-energy lighting design, etc.; minimising site impact through sensitivity to site ecology and by careful landscaping; use of grey-water re-cycling for landscape irrigation and WCs; use of existing transport networks and a clear transport policy, e.g. car-sharing schemes, for building users; re-use of existing buildings; and careful specification of lower environmental impact building materials.

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Figure 1 shows a cross-section through Barclaycard Headquarters Building, architects: Fitzroy Robinson, showing a number of design features commonly found in ``green'' commercial buildings (Robinson, 1998). In the case of many projects, the incorporation of such features can profoundly affect the visual characteristics of the building in terms of the modelling of elevations and choice of materials: alongside their more conventional counterparts, such buildings actually look different as well as having different performance characteristics. For example, in Feilden Clegg's design for the BRE's Building 16 (Figure 2), the principal elevation is dominated by five, 3m-high stainless steel ``chimneys'' forming part of the natural ventilation system, external glass louvres reducing glare and solar gain, large areas of re-cycled facing brickwork and an area of photovoltaic panels generating sufficient power to light the building. In addition to design and specification, the management of projects both preand post-construction is also of critical importance in ensuring that the objectives of both building and organisation are met. Organisations may consider the use of appropriate environmental management systems for new green projects and refer to the environmental International Standard, ISO 14001, many aspects of which can be also be applied to existing or ``non-green'' buildings and businesses. The key elements in an environmental management system are:
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The organisation determines the objectives and scope of the environmental management policy. The scope may be narrow, including for example only the maintenance policy of the building, or wide, extending to all construction and building work, purchasing, cleaning and transport policies and including, for example, car sharing schemes, type of photocopying paper and equipment, recycling of office waste.

Figure 1. A cross-section through Barclaycard Headquarters

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Figure 2. Building 16, BRE: Architects: Feilden Clegg

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The current management systems and practices are reviewed, identifying those aspects needing modification or entirely new systems. This should include the nature or ``style'' of the management systems to be used, e.g. consultative or hierarchical, degree of openness, possible use of specialists and other outsourcing requirements. The setting of performance targets, for example, for energy and resource use, derived from industry standards or published data. Evaluation techniques, timescale for implementation of new management systems and resources required should also then be determined.

Environmental management objectives should be appropriate and achievable. This will depend on the nature and constraints of the business, operating costs and the degree of goodwill and commitment among managers and staff to the idea of environmental management. It is better to succeed in achieving relatively modest targets initially (success may then provide a basis for more ambitious future programmes), rather than setting unrealistically high standards which may lead to a sense of failure and frustration within the organisation. In terms of environmental management systems, purchasing policy, building maintenance and transport policy are arguably the areas likely to have the greatest impact. The adoption of an environmental purchasing policy can have implications for the procurement of a very wide range of goods and services including office paper, cleaning materials, office furniture and

equipment as well as materials used in maintenance and refurbishment, e.g. paints and varnishes, carpets and floor coverings and external pavings and landscaping materials. Building managers should take every opportunity to incorporate best practice in the writing of specifications and building or maintenance contracts. Clauses relating to waste disposal and recycling, use of particular adhesives and cleaning fluids should be continually reviewed in the light of the latest technical and Health and Safety information. Similarly, external landscape management documentation should include clauses on the use of pesticides and other chemical treatments as well as the general management principles of the landscape and ecosystems. The design and implementation of environmental management systems for business is possibly best organised through the use of environmental consultants, although it is feasible that with reference to ISO 14001, BREEAM (BRE's Environmental Assessment Method) or other documents of this type, an organisation may be able to develop its own strategies perfectly satisfactorily. The perceived benefits of green buildings Many claims are made in support of green commercial buildings including: . reduced running costs generally in particular, dramatically reduced energy costs; . reduced health and safety risks to occupants from Sick Building Syndrome, Legionnaire's Disease due to improved internal environments, air quality, etc.; . lower absenteeism and improved productivity; . more positive, ``environmentally responsible'' image for the organisations involved in projects; . buildings easier to let at higher rents because of market distinction and a more appealing product; and . comparable or reduced capital costs of construction (Rocky Mountain Institute, 1997). In a recent pilot study carried out at Oxford Brookes University, a team has begun to investigate a number of these claims from the perspective of property investors, developers, owners, occupiers and managers. The sample of buildings to be studied consisted of 20 green projects, completed within the last five years, ranging in size from 2,000 square metres to 120,000 square metres; the largest project accommodating up to 4,500 occupants. In construction cost terms, values for shell-and-core and fit-out ranged from between 1 million and 165 million. ``Green'' buildings were to be defined as:
Buildings which by an integrated and holistic approach to location, siting, design, specification and use of energy and resources, seek to minimise their environmental impact.

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These objectives were to be clear and explicit in the design brief of each of the projects under consideration. Furthermore, 18 of the buildings studied had been awarded a high credit rating either Very Good or Excellent in the Building Research Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method BREEAM (Baldwin et al., 1998) a design and building management tool offering guidance and credits for good environmental practice. It is not possible to draw any conclusions from the study to date as the sample studied is small and in a number of areas, data are either incomplete or inaccessible. The response of the property professionals thus far interviewed, together with the data gathered, has however provided a number of useful indicators which may direct further research and contribute further to the debate. Energy costs There are inherent problems in making meaningful comparisons between the performance of buildings of different ages, design and functional characteristics. In comparing the energy consumption of green and conventional projects, however, use can be made of good practice guides and energy cost predictors, for example, the DETR's Energy Consumption Guide, so that predicted expenditure for comparable conventional buildings can be contrasted with the energy use and costs of green projects. In the case of one of the buildings studied, the MOD complex at Abbey Wood, Bristol, completed in 1997, building economists undertook a very thorough life cycle costing analysis as the design progressed. As a public agency, the MOD is accountable for expenditure and was required to justify the adoption of a green approach to the project. The project was awarded the RICS Efficient Building prize for 1997. For this very large, new-build development of approximately 120,000m2, net office space 97,587m2, projected energy savings were estimated at some 2,000,000 per annum compared with the projected costs for a ``typical'' comparable office. The design utilises ``natural'' or ``displacement' ventilation systems rather than traditional air-conditioning systems. It should be noted that the report does not contain a fully itemised breakdown of these projected savings and so it is not possible to comment in detail on the figures shown in Table I. Other sources suggest that the energy needed specifically for the air-conditioning operation would be no more than 5-8 per m2 net internal area and that, therefore, no more than a 500800,000 (1991 prices) saving could be found from this element (Williams, 1996). A further example of the design of green buildings reducing energy use and costs was found in the smaller, four-storey 3,250m2, Elizabeth Fry Building at the University of East Anglia, completed in 1995. The building's designers adopted a green approach to the design of the building's services involving the use of high levels of insulation and heat recovery systems. Following detailed monitoring of the building's energy and environmental performance between

Year 1 5 10 30 50

Abbey Wood (101 kWh/m2 PA) cumulative PV ( '000) 411 1,728 3,020 5,648 6,647

>``Good'' office (300 kWh/m2 PA) cumulative PV ( '000) 1,219 5,134 8,970 16,7760 19,210 Cost saving per annuma ( '000) 25 28 2,000

``Typical'' office (600 kWh/m2 PA) cumulative PV ( '000) 2,437 10,268 17,940 33,552 38,420 Present value over 50 years ( '000) 400 413 32,000

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These energy cost savings are attributed to:

Low-energy lighting Triple in lieu of double glazing ``Displacement'' ventilation in lieu of air conditioned Note: a Compared with a ``typical'' comparable office Source: MOD (1997)

Table I. Life cycle costing analysis

January 1996 and August 1997 under a joint BRE/BRECSU contract, it was found that the building's energy consumption was 61kWh/m2/annum; 20 per cent below the good practice figure for academic buildings and 50 per cent below that normally found in a ``good'' comparable office (PROBE, 1998). Moreover, an occupant satisfaction survey carried out within the Elizabeth Fry building measuring comfort levels, building health, management and control strategies, showed performance significantly higher than the National Benchmark Standard (PROBE, 1998) This would indicate that good building performance can be achieved by the use of non-air-conditioned, greener technology. Of the other projects studied, 12 out of 18 reported energy use at levels below those expected or previously experienced by the organisation in conventional buildings, reduced energy use and savings ranging from between 6 per cent and 30 per cent. In the case of the six remaining projects, data were not available. Energy savings can be achieved not only by the use of such features as lowenergy lighting, natural ventilation techniques with low-energy requirements (low-level or no air-conditioning), thermally efficient designs, including heat recovery systems and thermal mass heat storage, but also by the use of ``highperformance'' external walls. The utilisation of high-performance walls is significant: perceptions concerning the function of the external envelope appear to have changed from walls being regarded simply as elevations, designed for appearance and to satisfy Building Regulation minimum standards, to being seen as interactive,

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engineered component parts of an overall low-energy design strategy. Each individual external wall is now more likely to be carefully designed to optimise thermal performance and to respond to specific micro-climate and orientation considerations. Thus, in many green buildings, south-facing and north-facing walls are no longer necessarily of the same design or materials. Capital costs As with the evaluation of running costs, methodological problems exist when attempting to compare the construction costs of conventional and green buildings on a like-for-like basis: some green buildings may indeed be less expensive than their conventional counterparts but may be significantly different in both concept and in terms of detail design. However, in the case of the MOD Abbey Wood project, both the project team and the client organisation make it clear in the project report that substantial savings were made as a result of the decision to ``go green''. With a total shell-and-core cost of 100 million, the average construction cost of the project was 850/m2, comparing favourably with such projects as Stanhope's 1992 Ludgate development which had a shell-and-core cost of 860/m2 (Macneil, 1996). Savings arising from utilising a displacement system to assist natural ventilation rather than full air-conditioning are reported as being 5,000,000. The adoption of a ``lower-tech'', non-air-conditioned heating and ventilation installation involving much less air-handling equipment, ducting, chillers, pumps, fans, cabling and control mechanisms, etc. has, in this case, produced savings on the costs of services installations of around 40 per cent (MOD, 1997). Other capital cost reductions for the project include 1,500,000 arising from a low-impact approach to the use of the site involving the optimisation of existing site contours and the retention of existing features and planting. In terms of other value-for-money advantages, the report also cites the optimisation of building layouts and the clear, simple and efficient planning of buildings due to requirements and constraints of natural ventilation systems, i.e. need for a ``stacking'' effect. More careful specification practices, justifying decisions on the grounds of a range of life cycle considerations including maintenance, replacement, necessity and functionality, is also identified as an advantage. Although cost savings are attributed to these benefits, the base-line figures from which the savings are derived are not provided. In one other project, the new 28,885m2 Scottish Office Headquarters in Edinburgh, capital costs were reported as being approximately 20 per cent lower, due in part to a 40 per cent saving on services costs where a natural ventilation system replaced conventional air-conditioning. A further nine of the 20 projects studied showed capital costs as being of an equivalent cost to comparable conventional buildings. For these nine projects, costs were in the 850-1,100 range and the quantity surveyors or project managers in each case considered costs to be within the range expected for similar buildings in comparable locations.

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Of the other projects, the cost data in seven cases were either not available or inconclusive. In the case of the two remaining projects, it was apparent that capital costs seemed to have exceeded normal levels. In the Doxford International Solar Office, a scheme in the North East of England which incorporates an entire elevation of photovoltaic panels to generate electricity for the building, construction costs were 30 per cent higher than the normal, equivalent business park development. The approach adopted here was at the ``radical'' end of green building design and the use of such unconventional and innovative technologies clearly incurred a cost premium. None of the buildings studied to date is in a city-centre location and it may be that technical difficulties in utilising natural or low-tech ventilation systems in such environments will result in increased costs when compared with buildings situated in lower density, out-of-town locations. Management issues The authors of a specially commissioned study of the Abbey Wood project concluded that the higher quality internal environments created by the adoption of a green approach had led to a reduction in the levels of absenteeism among staff within the organisation. An average of six days sick leave per annum was recorded for the occupants of the green building as opposed to an average of 9-12 days for staff working in comparable posts but in conventional buildings (MOD et al., 1998). Facilities managers in three of the projects studied: Abbey Wood, the Barclaycard HQ in Northampton and Leeds City Office Park, were extremely positive about many features of their buildings including the ease of access to areas such as ducts and spaces above ceiling panels, for maintenance and cleaning. The Barclaycard HQ is equipped with localised sensors that can detect poor air quality or uncomfortably high temperatures, triggering the input of cooled, filtered outside-air into the relevant zone. In all three projects, however, there were concerns regarding the need to ``educate'' occupants in the control of their own working environments. A number of problems were, it seems, caused by staff not understanding aspects of finely-tuned environmental control systems, particularly when opening and closing windows. This type of problem suggests that elements of the green technologies currently being used are still evolving into robust and reliable systems. This also raises an important point regarding ``ownership'' giving staff both enhanced control and responsibility for problems which affect their comfort and there are clearly issues here for the facilities manager both in the design and post-occupancy stages of green projects. By contrast, conventional buildings, particularly those with full airconditioning, tend to be a more ``passive'' experience for occupants. This was put forward as an explanation by one developer when describing both the lack of enthusiasm on the part of tenants and the operational difficulties experienced when letting green speculative office space, where natural ventilation systems had been utilised. There was an apparent lack of faith in

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the effectiveness of such systems about which neither the prospective tenant management nor staff knew anything in advance and an initial unwillingness of occupants to actively manage their own environment. The use of demountable partitions in offices is not a new idea but in the context of green building design, enhances the green credentials of projects by minimising future waste and disposal costs, reducing management and ``downtime'' costs due to lost productivity resulting from churn and by providing flexible and responsive working environments. At Abbey Wood, the additional 40 per cent capital cost of demountable ``Monoblock'' partitioning systems was offset by an estimated life-cycle cost saving of 135,000 per annum or 2,000,000 over a 50-year period (MOD et al., 1998). Management of the landscape of the same project has produced savings of some 17,000 per annum by the planting of trees rather than large areas of ``manicured'' grass, requiring high levels of irrigation and maintenance. As the landscape designers point out, this approach has produced a more ``natural'' and mature landscape where ``. . . staff would be made to feel more comfortable straight away by moving from the usual business park environment to something less `artificial' looking'' (Findlay, 1990). Marketing and investment considerations The majority of the 20 properties studied were designed for owner-occupiers; only four projects, Bedfont Lakes Business Park, Doxford International Solar Office and the BG developments at Thames Valley, Reading and Leeds City Office Park, being speculative developments. None of the developers involved in these schemes appears to have found raising project funding either easier or more difficult due to the green nature of their developments. It is possible that in the future, however, speculative developers and indeed owner occupiers will be vetted as the major lending institutions come to expect borrowers to subscribe to an environmental agenda as they themselves become more ``socially responsible'' investors. Organisations commissioning new buildings could, it seems, be required to show that they are well-managed, responsible companies who will protect the value of shareholders' investments. As the Prudential's 1998 Annual Report states:
We expect companies in which we invest to be able to demonstrate and report on appropriate environmental policies especially where commercial activities have a significant impact. We are unlikely to hold shares in companies where we are not satisfied with the appropriateness of this environmental policy or ability to manage the risks associated with environmental impact.

Although this is primarily a policy for equities, many companies are involved in the procurement and management of their own buildings and will therefore be required to demonstrate implementation of appropriate property-related environmental policies. It is also very likely that these principles will apply in time to the funding or acquisition of property for investment purposes.

Both the developer BG Properties and Cellnet, the current occupiers of No. 1 Leeds City Office Park, considered green projects to represent ``. . .the way ahead'' (Shaw, 1999) and ``. . . good for the image of the company'' (Taylor, 1999). Letting agents for both the buildings in Leeds and in Doxford felt that as speculative offices, green buildings were an attractive package and that ``green was good'' as a marketing tool. However, it was their view that tenants would not necessarily pay more for green property even if running costs were less, if a comparable property were available in same location, particularly in areas such as business parks. Other studies have shown that in locations where demand is arguably higher, good quality green accommodation can command an additional green premium on rent for ``value added'', as long as other variables were strong (Goodman, 1994). Developers, investors and agents are traditionally wary of involvement in more ``radical'' building solutions that are perceived to be unconventional and high-risk. In one case, it was felt that the unusual external appearance of a particular green building had ``put off'' prospective tenants already nervous about lack of conventional air-conditioning. Furthermore, letting agents felt that savings in running cost were of little interest to many tenants, driven by their accountants to adopt a financial ``short-term'' view of their businesses. It was however possible that with the introduction of an energy tax, the value of having lower energy costs might modify attitudes among tenants. At Leeds City Office Park, a ``mixed-mode'' ventilation system was introduced comprising part low-energy or natural ventilation and part full air-conditioning for special areas such as computer suites and high use areas. It was felt that such a solution would have both practical and marketing advantages and reassure particular groups of prospective tenants that the buildings would in fact ``work''. Summary It would appear that within property, environmental issues are now a key consideration and have the potential to impact on virtually all aspects of property investment, development and management. Although more studies are needed containing more detailed information derived from large representative samples of projects, there are a number of indications that green commercial property can offer certain benefits to both building owners and occupiers. For example:
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A number of developers and investors are beginning to acknowledge that green buildings can offer a lower level of environmental risk providing more healthy buildings, particularly in terms of internal working conditions. Organisations commissioning green buildings may engender positive responses among occupants and employees toward the organisation, which can be perceived as more socially responsible and progressive.

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Green buildings have the potential to offer cost advantages, particularly in terms of running costs. Although there may be some advantages in terms of capital costs, problems arise in making comparisons on a likefor-like basis fully air-conditioned buildings being of fundamentally different design and performance to naturally ventilated, green alternatives. Occupiers of speculative offices may not be willing to pay higher rents for green benefits, such as lower running costs, if comparable accommodation is available in the same location, particularly in the case of business parks. While green buildings can be more efficient both functionally and thermally as size and site impact is minimised and buildings respond to site specific microclimate and orientation factors, there are some technical difficulties being experienced as designers, engineers and occupiers come to terms with new approaches to internal environmental control. A green approach to design can provide a form of value engineering, driven and validated by life cycle assessments and an enhanced valuefor-money, waste minimisation approach. Green buildings can benefit from this more rigorous approach resulting in simpler, better-engineered solutions. This is in sharp contrast to the over-specification and stylistic excesses of 1980s commercial building. As environmental considerations grow in importance in the design, development and management of commercial property, it is possible that organisations who do not develop and implement appropriate environmental policies will be increasingly disadvantaged. Finally, green buildings have different visual characteristics and it is possible that an entirely new aesthetic or architectural style is emerging as our understanding increases regarding the environmental impact of building materials, green building design and low-energy building services systems.

References Baldwin, R., Yates, A. and Rao, S. (1998), BREEAM for Offices '98, BRE. Building Research Establishment (1999), ``Numbers of `BREEAM' commercial buildings'', unpublished data. CIRIA (1994) report, SP94, Vol. II. Gilbert, D. and Callaghan, W. (1997), Photograph from an original article, RIBA Journal, April. Findlay, J. (PTP Landscape Architects) (1998), unpublished report. Goodman, T. (1994), ``Occupiers will pay more for green buildings'', Survey in Property Week, March. HMSO (1994), Sustainable Development: The UK Strategy, HMSO, London.

Jones Lang & Wootton, McKenna & Company, Gardiner & Theobald (1991), A New Balance Buildings and the Environment. Leaman, A. (1997), Building Services Journal, CIBSE, May, pp. 37-41. Macneil, J. (1996), ``MOD Procurement HQ'', Building Magazine, 9 February, pp. 41-5. McNamara, P. (2000), ``Socially responsible investment'', unpublished paper. Ministry of Defence (1997), ``Project report'', unpublished. MOD/Jones, O'Sullivan & Bowman, Wilson & Hedge (1998), ``Office environment survey'', unpublished report PROBE Team: Bordass et al. (1998), ``The Elizabeth Fry Building'', Building Services Journal, April, pp. 37-42. Prudential Annual Report (1998). Robinson, F. (1998), Illustration from an original article, Architecture Today, Vol. 80. Rocky Mountain Institute and US Dept of Energy (1997), Green Development: Integrating Ecology and Real Estate, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY. Shaw, H./BG Properties (1999), Interview. Taylor, D./Cellnet Ltd (1999), Interview. Van Haal, A. (1997), ``Sustainable housing in Europe'', Sustainable Building, Vol. 3. Williams, B. (1996), Facilities Economics, Figures 5.4.4.E and F.

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