Anirudh Aircraft Design II

GROUP C2
Aircraft Design II Report

Unconventional Medium Commuter A/C
Ajinkya Desai, Anirudh Gupta, Ronak Karia
4/20/2013
Contents
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... 4
List of Tables .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter 1: Statistical Study of Structural Design Features of Existing Aircraft ..................................... 6
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Salient Structural Design Features of Existing Aircraft ................................................................ 7
1.2.1 ATR 72[Ref.1] ....................................................................................................................... 7
1.2.2 British Aerospace ATP [Ref. 2] ............................................................................................. 8
1.2.3 Ilyushin Il-114 [Ref. 3] .......................................................................................................... 8
1.2.4 SAAB 2000 ............................................................................................................................ 8
Chapter 2: V-n Diagram and Span-wise Lift Distribution ...................................................................... 9
2.1 V-n Diagram ................................................................................................................................. 9
Procedure and Calculations ............................................................................................................. 9
Formulae: ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Speeds for critical loads: ............................................................................................................... 12
Gust loads: .................................................................................................................................... 12
Final V-n diagram ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Distribution of Aerodynamic Loads on the Wing ....................................................................... 14
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 14
Procedure and Calculation ............................................................................................................ 14
Graphs and Variations................................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 3: Distribution of shear forces and moments ........................................................................... 16
3.1 Wing Discretization .................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Center of gravity & Aerodynamic Centre locations. .................................................................. 17
3.3 Formulation ................................................................................................................................. 17
3.4 Graphs and Variations................................................................................................................. 18
Chapter 4: Idealization of Wing Section ............................................................................................... 21
4.1 Material selection and properties ................................................................................................ 21
4.2 Actual Structure of Wing section ................................................................................................ 21
4.3 Idealized wing section properties ................................................................................................ 21
Procedure and Calculation ............................................................................................................ 21
Formulae ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Sample Calculation for root section .............................................................................................. 22
Chapter 5: Determination of Axial and Shear Stresses ......................................................................... 24
5.1 Bending Moments and Stresses .................................................................................................. 24
Procedure and Calculations:.......................................................................................................... 24
Formula: ........................................................................................................................................ 24

5.2 Shear Stress in Beams ................................................................................................................. 25
5.2.1 Shear Stress arising from Shear Forces Vx, Vy ........................................................................ 25
Formulae: ...................................................................................................................................... 25
5.2.2 Shear Stress arising from Torsion ............................................................................................ 26
Formulae: ...................................................................................................................................... 26
5.3 Principal Stresses ........................................................................................................................ 27
Procedure and Calculations ........................................................................................................... 27
5.4 Factor of Safety ........................................................................................................................... 28
Formulae ....................................................................................................................................... 28
Calculation .................................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 6: Aero-elastic Parameters....................................................................................................... 29
6.1 Shear Centre and Elastic Axis ..................................................................................................... 29
Formula ......................................................................................................................................... 29
6.2 Critical Divergence Speed .......................................................................................................... 30
Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 30
Formula ......................................................................................................................................... 30
Sample Calculation at the Tip ....................................................................................................... 30
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 30
Chapter 7: Wing Weight Calculation and Comparison with Empirical Estimate ................................. 30
Assumptions.................................................................................................................................. 30
Calculations................................................................................................................................... 31
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 8: Buckling and Crushing Loads ............................................................................................. 32
8.1 Crushing Loads on Spars and Ribs ............................................................................................. 32
Procedure ...................................................................................................................................... 32
Formula ......................................................................................................................................... 32
8.2 Buckling of Columns and Plates ................................................................................................. 34
Formulae ....................................................................................................................................... 34
Assumptions.................................................................................................................................. 34
Alternative approach ..................................................................................................................... 35
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................................... 35
References ............................................................................................................................................. 36
List of Figures
Figure 1. Two spar wing structure of ATR ............................................................................................. 7
Figure 2. Structural features of the fuselage of ATR-72 ......................................................................... 7
Figure 3. Material decomposition of the parts of the ATR-72 aircraft ................................................... 8
Figure 4. v-n diagram ............................................................................................................................ 13
Figure 5. Spanwise distribution of lift for different load factors and critical speeds ............................ 15
Figure 6.Spanwise distribution of drag for different load factors and critical speeds........................... 15
Figure 7. Spanwise distribution of pitching moment for different load factors and critical speeds .... 16
Figure 8. Schmatic of Section Spacing ................................................................................................. 17
Figure 9. Plot of Vx against spanwise station from root ....................................................................... 18
Figure 10. . Plot of Vy against spanwise station from root ................................................................... 19
Figure 11. . Plot of Mx against spanwise station from root .................................................................. 19
Figure 12. . Plot of My against spanwise station from root .................................................................. 20
Figure 13. . Plot of Mt against spanwise station from root ................................................................... 20
Figure 14. Spanwise variation of area moment of inertia ..................................................................... 22
Figure 15. Area moment of inertia inclusive of ribs along the span ..................................................... 23
Figure 16. Position of the centre of gravity, inclusive of ribs, against spanwise location from root .... 23
Figure 17. Area of section [inclusive of ribs] along span ..................................................................... 24
Figure 18. Variation of the bending normal stress with spanwise location from the root for cruise
conditions .............................................................................................................................................. 24
Figure 19. Variation of the bending normal stress with spanwise location from the root for given
critical condition ................................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 20. Variation of tau_xz with spanwise station ........................................................................... 26
Figure 21. Variation of tau_yz with spanwise station ........................................................................... 26
Figure 22. Variation of the larger principal stress with spanwise location ........................................... 27
Figure 23. Position of shear centre along the chordline, variation with spanwise location .................. 29
Figure 24. Crushing loads for front and rear spar ................................................................................. 33
Figure 25. Front and rear spar loads on ribs, variation along spanwise location .................................. 34
Figure 26. Plot of buckling stress with the longeron number ............................................................... 35
List of Tables
Table 1. Existing Turboprop Aircraft of the given kind ......................................................................... 6
Table 2. Existing Turboprop Aircraft of the given kind ......................................................................... 6
Table 3. Design features of aircraft under study ..................................................................................... 6
Table 4. Calculation of maximum and minimum Cza ............................................................................ 9
Table 5. Variation of the Cza with the angle of attack.......................................................................... 10
Table 6. : Coordinates for parabolas OA and OB (V-n diagram) ......................................................... 12
Table 7. Gust load Factors .................................................................................................................... 13
Table 8. Calculation of lift coefficient and lift for different load factors and critical speeds ............... 14
Table 9. Calculation of the moment coefficient from local angle of attack of untwisted wing ............ 16
Table 10. Material properties of structural elements ............................................................................ 21
Table 11. Wing design attributes .......................................................................................................... 21
Table 12. Area moment of inertia for root section per longeron........................................................... 22
Table 13. Area moment of inertia at the root section ............................................................................ 22
Table 14. Non-trivial solutions of the Eigen Value problem, variation with span-wise location ......... 27
Table 15. Wing geometric and aerodynamic parameters ...................................................................... 30
Table 16. Mass of each longeron .......................................................................................................... 31
Table 17. Mass of ribs ........................................................................................................................... 31
Table 18. Front and rear spar loads on ribs, variation with spanwise location ..................................... 32
Table 19. Buckling force and stress on longerons of idealized section ................................................ 34
Chapter 1: Statistical Study of Structural Design Features of Existing

Aircraft
1.1 Introduction
The aircraft presented is an unconventional design of a medium commuter aircraft. It is a five engine
turboprop aircraft, with a low wing and canard configuration. The engines are small in size. The
conventional aircraft is twin turboprop (powerful engines) with aft-tail configuration. One example of
the conventional aircraft is the ATR-72 aircraft. A comparison is drawn between this conventional
aircraft and our design, in table 1, to justify the emulation of this aircraft.
Table 1. Existing Turboprop Aircraft of the given kind
Requirements/Features Medium Commuter Aircraft
ATR-72 Series 500
Cruise Speed
459 kmh-1 economical cruise

speed at 95% MTOW
1223 m
7.62 km
68 pax + 3crew + 20 kg
baggage each
1200 km
Balanced Field Length

Service Ceiling
Payload
Range
Cabin Height
Seating
600 kmh-1 for best range, at an

altitude of 7 km at MTOW
1100 m
10 km
70 pax + 3 crew + 20 kg baggage
each
1200 km with max. Payload and IFR
reserve
1.75m
Economy class with galley and
lavatory
Economy class with galley and

lavatory
Other existing aircraft considered are twin turboprop aircraft, presented in table 2.
Table 2. Existing Turboprop Aircraft of the given kind
Turboprop Aircraft
ATR 72500
British Aerospace ATP
Ilyushin Il-114
IPTN N-250
YS-11A-200
Xian MA60
Saab 2000
Fokker 50
We (kg)
12,950
13,595
13,500
13,665
14,600
13,700
13,800
12,250
MTOW (kg)
22,500
22,930
23,500
22,000
23,500
23,500
22,800
20820
Passengers and Crew

68 + 2
4+64
64+2
50-70
64+2
60 + 2
58 + 2
58
The design features of the unconventional aircraft presented are summarized in Table 3 for reference.
Table 3. Design features of aircraft under study
Parameters
Range
Aspect ratio
Wing area
Cruise Speed
Unconventional (C2)
1387.25 km
15
63.94 m2
600 km/hr
L/D
Weight
Balanced Field Length
21.43
21988 kgf
965 metres
1.2 Salient Structural Design Features of Existing Aircraft

1.2.1 ATR 72[Ref.1]
Wings
Two-spar, fail-safe wings.
Materials: Mainly of aluminium alloy, with leading- edges of Kevlar/Nomex sandwich. The
outer wing-box structure is made of composite materials including carbon monolithic
structure, carbon/Nomex sandwich and Kevlar/Nomex sandwich. The wing top skin panels aft
of rear spar are of Kevlar/Nomex with carbon reinforcement. The flaps and ailerons have
aluminium ribs and spars, with skins of carbonfibre/Nomex and carbon/epoxy respectively.
Fuselage
Semi-monocoque fail-safe fuselage: Uses a substructure to which the airplanes skin is
attached. The substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various sizes and
stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage.
Materials: Fail-safe stressed skin, mainly of light alloy except for Kevlar/Nomex sandwich.
The engine cowlings are of CFRP/Nomex and Kevlar/Nomex sandwich, reinforced with
CFRP in nose and underside. The propeller blades have metal spars and GFRP/polyurethane
skins. The structure of the ATR-72 is generally as for ATR 42, but new wings outboard of
engine nacelles have CFRP front and rear spars. The self-stiffening CFRP skin panels and
light alloy rib result in a weight saving of 120 kg (265 lb).
Tail
The horizontal stabilizer is made stronger using co-cured multispars and the vertical fin is
strengthened using panels and co-bonded stringers.
Materials: The vertical tail and horizontal tail are made mainly of aluminium alloy. There are
CFRP/Nomex sandwich rudder and elevators.
Figure 1. Two spar wing structure of ATR
Figure 2. Structural features of the fuselage of ATR-72
Advantages of Composites
The Q400 has bigger (and consequently heavier) engines, and uses little or no composites in its
aircraft structure, unlike the ATR72 which extensively uses proven lightweight composites in the
wing, and tail plane. Composite materials make up 19% of the total weight of the structure. ATR 72s
secondary structures are extensively made of composite material, which are not subject to corrosion.
In addition, the ATR 72 innovates by the use of carbon fiber for its outer wings and tail, thus reducing
weight further.
Figure 3. Material decomposition of the parts of the ATR-72 aircraft
The in-service advantages of composites are numerous, like

Immunity to corrosion and fatigue
Reduction of inspection
Payload gain and fuel savings.
1.2.2 British Aerospace ATP [Ref. 2]
Cantilever low-wing monoplane.
The all-metal fuselage is circular in cross section and is of semi-monocoque fail safe design.
The airframe is exceptionally strong and with durability and maintainability in high cycle,
short sector operations.
Materials: The primary load-bearing structure is constructed from advanced alloys.
Lightweight composites are used selectively on non-critical secondary structures.
1.2.3 Ilyushin Il-114 [Ref. 3]
Conventional low-wing monoplane
Two-spar wings with a removable leading-edge on outer panels.
Circular-section, semi-monocoque fuselage is built as five sub-assemblies.
Materials: Approximately 10 per cent of the airframe by weight is made of composites. It uses
The fuselage is made of aluminium alloy The tail unit is metallic in nature.
1.2.4 SAAB 2000
Two-spar wings, fin and tailplane.
Materials: Wing and fuselage primary structures are made of metal/metal bonded aluminium
alloy, with honeycomb sandwich fin. They use composites for ailerons (CFRP/Nomex), flaps
(CFRP skins), wing/body fairings (Kevlar/Nomex), nosecone (GFRP/Nomex), rudder and
elevators (GFRP leading-edges and CFRP skins), propeller blades, and cabin floor (carbon
fibre sandwich).
Chapter 2: V-n Diagram and Span-wise Lift Distribution

A study of the v-n diagram and span-wise lift distribution at the critical loads obtained from the v-n
diagram has been presented. The results are for a medium commuter, 5-turboprop engine aircraft, with
an unconventional canard configuration. All calculations are for the clean configuration.
2.1 V-n Diagram

The basic strength and flight performance limits are specified in the form of a v-n diagram. Aircraft
load factor (n) is the quantity estimated which expresses the maneuvering of the aircraft as a multiple
of the standard acceleration due to gravity. The air speed is indicative of the dynamic pressure. The
limit load factor is a function of airspeed. The variation is shown using V v/s n diagram for both
the values of n and for all values of V till the maximum attainable velocity (flight envelope).
Procedure and Calculations
The normal aerodynamic force coefficient, CZa, is evaluated as a function of angle of attack in
Table 1.1.
The limit load factors- (n+ and n-) are observed from literature and the stall speeds for
maximum and minimum CZa are calculated.
Drag divergence speed is observed from previous report, Ref. 4.
Gust load factors at drag divergence speed are evaluated
The following is the relation used to compute n
The smallest speed (VA) corresponding to the positive limit load factor is computed. The graph is
constant for all speeds further till the maximum speed corresponding to which the aircraft experiences
the maximum dynamic pressure (q) i.e. at the drag divergence speed (V C) . The point representing
maximum q and maximum load factor is clearly important for structural design.
Similar calculations are done for the negative limit load factor and again the smallest speed is
computed (VB). It is evident from the above equations that CZa calculation is necessary. The data used
to obtain the V-n diagram is procured as follows as per the procedure explained above.
Formulae:
The given are the angles of attack obtained from existing literature on the NLF-0414 airfoil, which
we have used for our wing. The 2-D lift, drag and moment coefficients were also available from
Ref.[4] from which the wing aerodynamic coefficients had been calculated in Ref. [5], i.e. the
previous report, and have been tabulated as shown below.
Table 4. Calculation of maximum and minimum Cza
CL
CD
Cz = CLcos + CDsin
CMa
CMa *CW /Lt Cza
-9.25
-0.844
0.031
-0.838
-0.058
-0.023
-0.861
15
1.309
0.052
1.278
-0.029
-0.011
1.267
Table 5. Variation of the Cza with the angle of attack
Cl
Cd
Cm
CL
CD
-9.25
-9
-8.75
-8.5
-8.25
-8
-7.75
-7.5
-7.25
-7
-6.75
-6.5
-6.25
-6
-5.75
-5.5
-5.25
-5
-4.75
-4.5
-4.25
-4
-3.75
-3.5
-3.25
-3
-2.75
-2.5
-2.25
-2
-1.75
-1.5
-1.25
-1
-0.75
-0.5
-0.25
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
1.75
2
-0.6567
-0.6404
-0.6225
-0.6031
-0.5816
-0.5587
-0.5347
-0.5102
-0.4853
-0.46
-0.4342
-0.4076
-0.3809
-0.3545
-0.3279
-0.301
-0.2738
-0.2478
-0.2211
-0.193
-0.1646
-0.136
-0.1078
-0.0791
-0.0504
-0.0219
0.0061
0.0332
0.0595
0.0854
0.1152
0.1445
0.1739
0.2017
0.2285
0.2572
0.287
0.3157
0.3443
0.3724
0.4012
0.4306
0.4602
0.4904
0.521
0.5517
0.03161
0.02947
0.02734
0.02525
0.02342
0.02177
0.02032
0.01903
0.01794
0.01708
0.01645
0.01602
0.01558
0.01511
0.01467
0.0143
0.01403
0.01359
0.01348
0.01324
0.013
0.01278
0.01251
0.01236
0.01217
0.01195
0.01162
0.01103
0.00997
0.00922
0.0095
0.00984
0.01009
0.01064
0.01093
0.0111
0.0112
0.0111
0.01107
0.01117
0.01121
0.01114
0.01102
0.0107
0.01018
0.00966
-0.0661
-0.0657
-0.0654
-0.0652
-0.065
-0.0649
-0.0649
-0.0648
-0.0648
-0.0647
-0.0648
-0.065
-0.0652
-0.0653
-0.0655
-0.0657
-0.0659
-0.066
-0.0662
-0.0667
-0.0671
-0.0676
-0.068
-0.0685
-0.069
-0.0695
-0.0701
-0.0708
-0.0718
-0.0721
-0.0725
-0.0727
-0.0729
-0.0724
-0.0718
-0.0718
-0.0723
-0.0726
-0.0728
-0.0729
-0.0733
-0.0737
-0.0742
-0.0745
-0.0747
-0.075
-0.844
-0.821
-0.798
-0.775
-0.752
-0.729
-0.706
-0.682
-0.659
-0.636
-0.613
-0.590
-0.567
-0.544
-0.521
-0.498
-0.475
-0.452
-0.430
-0.407
-0.384
-0.361
-0.338
-0.316
-0.293
-0.270
-0.247
-0.225
-0.202
-0.180
-0.157
-0.135
-0.112
-0.090
-0.067
-0.045
-0.022
0.000
0.022
0.045
0.067
0.089
0.111
0.134
0.156
0.178
0.031
0.030
0.029
0.028
0.028
0.027
0.026
0.025
0.025
0.024
0.024
0.023
0.022
0.022
0.021
0.021
0.020
0.020
0.020
0.019
0.019
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.017
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
0.016
CZ =
CLcos + CD sin
-0.838
-0.816
-0.793
-0.771
-0.748
-0.725
-0.703
-0.680
-0.657
-0.634
-0.612
-0.589
-0.566
-0.543
-0.521
-0.498
-0.475
-0.452
-0.430
-0.407
-0.384
-0.361
-0.339
-0.316
-0.293
-0.271
-0.248
-0.225
-0.203
-0.180
-0.158
-0.135
-0.112
-0.090
-0.067
-0.045
-0.022
0.000
0.022
0.045
0.067
0.089
0.112
0.134
0.156
0.178
CMa
CMaC/Lt Cza
-0.0583
-0.0580
-0.0577
-0.0575
-0.0573
-0.0573
-0.0573
-0.0572
-0.0572
-0.0571
-0.0572
-0.0573
-0.0575
-0.0576
-0.0578
-0.0580
-0.0581
-0.0582
-0.0584
-0.0588
-0.0592
-0.0596
-0.0600
-0.0604
-0.0609
-0.0613
-0.0618
-0.0625
-0.0633
-0.0636
-0.0640
-0.0641
-0.0643
-0.0639
-0.0633
-0.0633
-0.0638
-0.0641
-0.0642
-0.0643
-0.0647
-0.0650
-0.0655
-0.0657
-0.0659
-0.0662
-0.023
-0.023
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.024
-0.024
-0.024
-0.024
-0.024
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.025
-0.026
-0.026
-0.026
-0.026
-0.861
-0.838
-0.816
-0.793
-0.770
-0.748
-0.725
-0.702
-0.679
-0.657
-0.634
-0.611
-0.589
-0.566
-0.543
-0.520
-0.498
-0.475
-0.452
-0.430
-0.407
-0.385
-0.362
-0.340
-0.317
-0.295
-0.272
-0.250
-0.227
-0.205
-0.182
-0.160
-0.137
-0.115
-0.092
-0.070
-0.047
-0.025
-0.003
0.020
0.042
0.064
0.086
0.108
0.131
0.153
2.25
2.5
2.75
3
3.25
3.5
3.75
4
4.25
4.5
4.75
5
5.25
5.5
5.75
6
6.25
6.5
6.75
7
7.25
7.5
7.75
8
8.25
8.5
8.75
9
9.25
9.5
9.75
10
10.25
10.5
10.75
11
11.25
11.5
11.75
12
12.25
12.5
12.75
13
13.25
13.5
13.75
14
14.25
14.5
0.5819
0.6123
0.6431
0.6737
0.7034
0.7333
0.7632
0.789
0.8055
0.8198
0.8331
0.8468
0.8626
0.878
0.8965
0.9168
0.9363
0.9564
0.9766
0.9965
1.0175
1.0365
1.0578
1.0779
1.0956
1.1155
1.1353
1.1548
1.1731
1.1867
1.2059
1.2241
1.2417
1.2588
1.2757
1.2911
1.303
1.3128
1.3297
1.3451
1.3591
1.3724
1.3857
1.3988
1.4106
1.4217
1.4318
1.4389
1.4398
1.4472
0.00937
0.00905
0.00858
0.00819
0.00789
0.00764
0.00746
0.00747
0.00871
0.01
0.01116
0.01216
0.013
0.01363
0.01424
0.0148
0.01539
0.01593
0.01644
0.01697
0.01741
0.01799
0.0184
0.01889
0.01954
0.02004
0.02054
0.02106
0.02167
0.02258
0.02312
0.02372
0.02437
0.02503
0.02573
0.02653
0.02757
0.02878
0.02948
0.03029
0.03119
0.03215
0.03313
0.03413
0.03522
0.03639
0.03768
0.03924
0.04136
0.04297
-0.0753
-0.0759
-0.0763
-0.0767
-0.0773
-0.0778
-0.0783
-0.078
-0.0768
-0.0756
-0.0742
-0.0728
-0.0717
-0.0704
-0.0696
-0.069
-0.0683
-0.0677
-0.067
-0.0663
-0.0658
-0.0649
-0.0644
-0.0637
-0.0627
-0.062
-0.0613
-0.0606
-0.0597
-0.0582
-0.0575
-0.0566
-0.0557
-0.0548
-0.0538
-0.0527
-0.0512
-0.0495
-0.0487
-0.0477
-0.0465
-0.0454
-0.0442
-0.0431
-0.0419
-0.0407
-0.0395
-0.038
-0.036
-0.0346
0.200
0.222
0.244
0.266
0.288
0.310
0.332
0.354
0.376
0.39808
0.420
0.442
0.464
0.486
0.508
0.530
0.552
0.573
0.595
0.617
0.639
0.660
0.682
0.704
0.726
0.747
0.769
0.791
0.812
0.834
0.856
0.877
0.899
0.920
0.942
0.964
0.985
1.007
1.028
1.050
1.072
1.093
1.115
1.136
1.158
1.179
1.201
1.223
1.244
1.266
0.016 0.201
0.017 0.223
0.017 0.245
0.017 0.267
0.017 0.289
0.018 0.311
0.018 0.333
0.018 0.354
0.019 0.376
0.01896 0.39834
0.019 0.420
0.020 0.442
0.020 0.464
0.021 0.486
0.021 0.507
0.022 0.529
0.022 0.551
0.023 0.572
0.023 0.594
0.024 0.615
0.024 0.637
0.025 0.658
0.025 0.679
0.026 0.701
0.027 0.722
0.027 0.743
0.028 0.764
0.029 0.785
0.030 0.806
0.030 0.828
0.031 0.849
0.032 0.869
0.033 0.890
0.034 0.911
0.034 0.932
0.035 0.953
0.036 0.973
0.037 0.994
0.038 1.015
0.039 1.035
0.040 1.056
0.041 1.076
0.042 1.096
0.043 1.117
0.044 1.137
0.045 1.157
0.046 1.178
0.047 1.198
0.048 1.218
0.050 1.238
-0.0664
-0.0670
-0.0673
-0.0677
-0.0682
-0.0686
-0.0691
-0.0688
-0.0678
-0.0667
-0.0655
-0.0642
-0.0633
-0.0621
-0.0614
-0.0609
-0.0603
-0.0597
-0.0591
-0.0585
-0.0581
-0.0573
-0.0568
-0.0562
-0.0553
-0.0547
-0.0541
-0.0535
-0.0527
-0.0513
-0.0507
-0.0499
-0.0491
-0.0484
-0.0475
-0.0465
-0.0452
-0.0437
-0.0430
-0.0421
-0.0410
-0.0401
-0.0390
-0.0380
-0.0370
-0.0359
-0.0349
-0.0335
-0.0318
-0.0305
-0.026
-0.026
-0.026
-0.026
-0.027
-0.027
-0.027
-0.027
-0.026
-0.026
-0.026
-0.025
-0.025
-0.024
-0.024
-0.024
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.023
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.022
-0.021
-0.021
-0.021
-0.021
-0.020
-0.020
-0.019
-0.019
-0.019
-0.019
-0.018
-0.018
-0.017
-0.017
-0.016
-0.016
-0.016
-0.015
-0.015
-0.014
-0.014
-0.014
-0.013
-0.012
-0.012
0.175
0.197
0.218
0.240
0.262
0.284
0.306
0.328
0.350
0.372
0.395
0.417
0.439
0.461
0.483
0.505
0.527
0.549
0.571
0.592
0.614
0.636
0.657
0.679
0.700
0.722
0.743
0.765
0.786
0.808
0.829
0.850
0.871
0.892
0.913
0.935
0.956
0.977
0.998
1.019
1.040
1.060
1.081
1.102
1.123
1.143
1.164
1.185
1.206
1.226
14.75 1.4568
1.4656
15
0.0444 -0.0336 1.288

0.04594 -0.0327 1.309
0.051
0.052
1.258
1.278
-0.0296
-0.0289
-0.012
-0.011
1.247
1.267
Speeds for critical loads:

The positive and negative limit load factors- (n+, n-) have been taken as +4 and -2 respectively (Ref.
3,4).
For = 15o, CZa = 1.267, n = +4
This gives the value of VA = 117.94 m/s.

For = -9.25o , CZa = -0.861, n =
This gives the value of VB = 101.17 m/s

At drag divergence, VC = 222.22 m/s giving us the maximum speed for n+. This is the indicated
airspeed as evaluated from Ref. 4., i.e. the previous report.
This is the same as the dive speed, VD, since it is a commuter aircraft. Hence VD = VC = 222.22 m/s.
At cruise, the speed as per our aircraft requisites is VE = 166.66 m/s.
Table 6. : Coordinates for parabolas OA and OB (V-n diagram)
V (m/s)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
101.17
117.94
Gust loads:
Upper Parabola (n+)

0
0.0288
0.1152
0.2592
0.4608
0.72
1.0368
1.4112
1.8432
2.3328
2.88
3.4848
2.947786243
4.006034957
Lower Parabola (n-)

0
-0.0195
-0.078
-0.1755
-0.312
-0.4875
-0.702
-0.9555
-1.248
-1.5795
-1.95
-2.3595
-1.995896936
where;
a=
0.0877 per degree = 5.0279 per radian
where;
7.098 ft; g = 32.2 ft/s2, = 0.002378 slug/ft3;
The gust velocity is taken to be + 50 ft/s as explained in Ref. 1.
Table 7. Gust load Factors
U (ft/s) KU (effective gust velocity)

39.9
50
Final V-n diagram
Figure 4. v-n diagram
V (knots)
VD = 431.96
ng
3.47, -1.47
2.2 Distribution of Aerodynamic Loads on the Wing

Introduction
The span-wise wing loading is extremely essential to be determined for the bending moment and structural
analysis of the wing. The aircraft design requires detailed inertia and aerodynamic load distribution to
allow one to perform detailed sizing for various structural elements and their geometric locations.
Schrenks approximation method has been used to obtain the wing loading. Results have been presented for
a wing without twist, as was done in the previous course. In this method, the load distribution is determined
both using the elliptical assumption of wing as well as trapezoidal assumption. The actual loading is thus,
approximately the average of the two loadings.
Procedure and Calculation
For the four critical load conditions of the set (VA, n+), (VB, n-), (VC, n+), (VE, n-), obtain the CZa.
From CZa, we can obtain the lift coefficient of the wing for each case as in Table 8.
Calculate the average chord from the Schrenks approximation for sectional lift.
Obtain the spanwise lift, drag and moment coefficients from the relations mentioned in class.
Obtain the spanwise lift, drag and moment distribution from the above aerodynamic coefficients.
The following relations are used to obtain the average chord:
where;
For a 3-D wing, with the approximation of an elliptic load distribution, we have the following relations:
Ours is an untwisted wing, so the effects of twist on the local lift coefficient are ignored. Hence:
The local drag coefficient is calculated using the following relation.
Table 8. Calculation of lift coefficient and lift for different load factors and critical speeds
Velocity (m/s)
VA = 117.94
VB = 101.17
Vc = 222.22
VE = 166.66
4
-2
4
-2
1.267
-0.861
0.446
0.398
CL
15
-9.25
5.2
4.5
1.309
-0.844
0.462
0.398
11152.39
5291.17
13973.79
6770.99
Graphs and Variations

The spanwise variation for the lift distribution and drag distribution has been presented in Figure 2.1
and Figure 2.2 respectively. It must be noted that although the load factors are the same for two sets of
v-n. The angles of attack and hence the coefficient of lift for each will be different leading to
difference in the spanwise loading. The Schrenks approximation has been used to evaluate the lift
coefficient as a function of the spanwise location.
40000.0
30000.0
L(y)
[N/m]
20000.0
10000.0
L(y), VA, 4
L(y), VB, -2
0.0
-10000.0
10
15
20
L(y), VC, 4
L(y), VE, -2
-20000.0
-30000.0
-40000.0
(m)
Figure 5. Spanwise distribution of lift for different load factors and critical speeds
3500
3000
D(y)
[N/m]
2500
2000
D(y), VA, 4
1500
D(y), VB, -2
D(y), VC, 4
1000
D(y), VE, -2
500
0
0
10
y
15
(m)
20
Figure 6.Spanwise distribution of drag for different load factors and critical speeds
Table 9. Calculation of the moment coefficient from local angle of attack of untwisted wing
Velocity (m/s)
CLw
CMa
VA = 117.94
VB = 101.17
VC = 222.22
VE = 166.66
1.309
-0.844
0.446
- 0.398
- 2.1
1.37
-0.72
0.65
-0.0635
-0.0656
-0.0633
-0.0645
0
0
10
15
20
M(y)
[Nm/m]
-2000
-4000
M(y), VA, +4
-6000
M(y), VB, -2
-8000
M(y), VC, +4
-10000
M(y), VE, -2
-12000
-14000
(m)
Figure 7. Spanwise distribution of pitching moment for different load factors and critical speeds
2.3 Summary
The v-n diagram for a medium commuter, unconventional commuter aircraft with canard
configuration has been presented. Four sets of V and n, corresponding to different angles of attack,
have been plotted in part I. Gust loads have been taken into account for V C, and the gust velocity is
assumed 50ft/s as mentioned in class. In part II, the spanwise lift, drag and moment distribution have
been plotted, starting from the CZa variation with angle of attack. The procedures for each of the parts
have been explained.
Chapter 3: Distribution of shear forces and moments

Having calculating the aerodynamics loads with the span-wise position, the next task is to determine
the shear force, bending moment and torsional moment as a function of the span. These would be used
to calculate the shear flow and the stresses in the wing.
3.1 Wing Discretization

To calculate these as a function of span, we start from the boundary condition at the wing tip, where
all the forces and moments are zero, and march towards the root. We discretize the wing, for
numerical purposes, into many span-wise sections. The said forces and moments are calculated for
each section.
To account for the greater variation near the tip, the sections are smaller and hence more frequent near
the tip as compared to the root. We used an AP series discretization to achieve this.
Figure 8. Schmatic of Section Spacing
A total of 60 stations were taken.

Our span length is 30.969m. Thus, L = 0.008461m.
The coordinate axis chosen:
X along the chord (LE to TE)
Y upward
Z along the span
3.2 Center of gravity & Aerodynamic Centre locations.

Before proceeding to the shear forces and the moment calculations, we first need to calculate xcg and
ycg (the location of the center of gravity with span-wise position). This is done using CAD, for a
station of unit chord and then scaled for different span wise positions using a scaling factor c.
Xcg = 0.265443*c
Ycg = -0.002445*c
The aerodynamic centres were taken to have an offset of 0.25c from the leading edge, along the Xdirection.
3.3 Formulation
For the actual calculations, the alternate formulation given in the notebook was used. Since the wing
does not have any twist, no further corrections were necessary. The set of equations used are
mentioned below-
Where,
.
;
is the mass of the discrete element and n is the load factor.
and
3.4 Graphs and Variations

The figures 9-13 present the variations of the shear forces and moments for different load factors and
critical speeds against the spanwise locations. An obvious observation is that the loads and moments
are maximum at the root and decrease along the span towards the tip where the loads and moments
are zero, it being a free end. The maximum loads are observed to be for the combination of n = 4 and
v = 222.22, which is maximum load factor along with drag divergence speed. This was as anticipated.
Figure 9. Plot of Vx against spanwise station from root
Figure 10. . Plot of Vy against spanwise station from root
Figure 11. . Plot of Mx against spanwise station from root
Figure 12. . Plot of My against spanwise station from root
Figure 13. . Plot of Mt against spanwise station from root
Chapter 4: Idealization of Wing Section

4.1 Material selection and properties
Table 10. Material properties of structural elements
Structure
Material
Shear
Modulus
-G (GPa)
26.9
Density
(g/cc)
7075-T6 Al
Youngs
Modulus
E (GPa)
71.7
Spar
webs
Skin
Longitudi
nal
Utimate
strength
(GPa)
0.572
Poissons
ratio ()
2.81
Yield
strength
(GPa)
0.503
7075-T6 Al
7075-T6 Al
71.7
71.7
26.9
26.9
2.81
2.81
0.503
0.503
0.572
0.572
0.33
0.33
0.33
4.2 Actual Structure of Wing section

Table 11. Wing design attributes
Airfoil
AR
NLF-0414
15
Root chord
(Cr)
2.8477 m
Taper ratio ()
0.45
Quarter chord
sweep (c/4)
0o
Number of stations
30
The root section of the wing with properties as mentioned in Table xyz, is modelled in CATIA. The
actual structure comprises two wing spars and six longitudinal. The dimensions of each of these have
been marked in Figure xyz. Since majority of the trailing edge is used for flaps (appx. 20%), no
stiffeners have been used for the same.
Spars- These are I shaped and two in number. They are placed at 30% chord from the LE and 70%
chord from the LE respectively, as mentioned in Ref. Xyz.
Longitudinal- These are six in number and have a rectangular cross section.
4.3 Idealized wing section properties

Procedure and Calculation
1. Construct a CAD model schematic of the wing section with airfoil skin, spars and
longitudinal.
2. Design the idealized wing section by substituting the webs with two booms each, longitudinal
with individual booms and by modelling the skin with panels in turn replaced by booms.
3. Fit a coordinate system in the plane of the section, with x axis along the geometric chord and
origin at quarter chord (since
).
4. Calculate
for each of these sections
5. Calculate total area and coordinates of the centroid for each section and plot them as a
function of span-wise location
Formulae
Sample Calculation for root section

Table 12. Area moment of inertia for root section per longeron
Area
x(m)
y(m)
0.0012566
0.00166
0.0012566
0.00378
0.005533333
0.001809
0.001809
0.00166
0.003026333
0.003026333
0.00166
0.001809
0.001809
0.00166
0.001134
0.0012566
0.00166
0.0012566
-0.53
-0.292
-0.04
0.142
0.382
0.545
0.885
1.041
1.281
1.281
1.041
0.885
0.545
0.382
0.142
-0.04
-0.292
-0.53
0.105
0.188
0.232
0.169
0.262
0.267
0.263
0.25
0.152
-0.023
-0.181
-0.13
-0.137
-0.135
-0.05
-0.123
-0.104
-0.057
i_xx (x 10-4
kgm2)
0.1385
0.5867
0.6764
1.0796
3.7983
1.2896
1.2513
1.0375
0.6992
0.016
0.5438
0.3057
0.3395
0.3025
0.0284
0.1901
0.1795
0.0408
i_xy (x 10-4
kgm2 )
-0.6992
-0.911
-0.1164
0.9076
5.5391
2.6327
4.2109
4.3205
5.893
-0.8917
-3.128
-2.0814
-1.3509
-0.8562
-0.0806
0.0617
0.504
0.3796
i_yy (x 10-4
kgm2 )
3.5288
1.4147
0.02
0.763
8.0776
5.3747
14.1709
17.9917
49.6668
49.6668
17.9917
14.1709
5.3747
2.4233
0.2289
0.02
1.4147
3.5288
Summing up the entries in the fourth, fifth and sixth columns respectively, we obtain Table 13.
Table 13. Area moment of inertia at the root section
Root Section Ixx (x 10-4 m4)

12.5036
Root section Ixy (x 10-4 m4)

14.3335
Root Section Iyy (x 10-4 m4)

195.8279

Mom. of Inertia (x 1E-04 kg sq m.)
250
200
150
ixx
100
ixy
iyy
50
0
0
10
Spanwise location from the root
Figure 14. Spanwise variation of area moment of inertia
15
20
Figure 14 describes the variation of the areal moment of inertia with the span-wise distance from the
root chord, for half the wing. The data points represent the stations. As expected, the areal moment of
inertia about the y axis is larger for all the stations as compared to that about the x axis.
Area moment of inertia ( x 1E-04 kg metre

sq.)
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
Ixx
4000
Ixy
3000
Iyy
2000
1000
0
-1000
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 15. Area moment of inertia inclusive of ribs along the span
Figure 15 describes the variation of the same, but inclusive of the ribs. Wherever there is a sudden
jump in the physical quantity, be it area moment of inertia or centre of gravity or area of the wing
section, there are ribs inserted. The ribs help in picking up additional load, hence reducing the stress
of the longerons at the different stations. These ribs help increase the factor of safety. The density of
the ribs is higher towards the root section. Figures 16 and 17 present the latter two quantities.
Position of c.g. for each station (m) [ribs

inclusive]
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
cgx
cgy
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Spanwise location from root
Figure 16. Position of the centre of gravity, inclusive of ribs, against spanwise location from root
35
0.60000
Area (sq metre) [ribs inclusive]
0.50000
0.40000
0.30000
0.20000
0.10000
0.00000
0
10
-0.10000
15
20
25
30
35
Spanwise location from root
Figure 17. Area of section [inclusive of ribs] along span
Chapter 5: Determination of Axial and Shear Stresses

5.1 Bending Moments and Stresses
Procedure and Calculations:
1. For a wing section of isotropic material, the axial stress or bending stress can be calculated.
2. These are calculated using the coordinates of the booms as obtained by an idealization of the
wing section.
3. The bending stress is plotted against the span-wise location for the boom with maximum
stress in figure 18.
Formula:

10000
Axial Load (kPa)
0
-10000
10
20
30
40
-20000
sigma_zz (cruise)
-30000
-40000
-50000
-60000
Figure 18. Variation of the bending normal stress with spanwise location from the root for cruise conditions
50000
Axial Load (kPa)
0
-50000
10
20
30
40
-100000
sigma_zz ( v = 222, n = 4)
-150000
-200000
-250000
-300000
Figure 19. Variation of the bending normal stress with spanwise location from the root for given critical condition
5.2 Shear Stress in Beams

5.2.1 Shear Stress arising from Shear Forces Vx, Vy
1. The shear flow is first resolved by treating each section as an open section. The increment in
shear flow across a boom is calculated using the formula.
2. The equilibrium condition on moments and shear flows is applied.
3. The next set of equations is obtained by equating the rates of twist for both the sections.
4. Torsional equations are solved and the shear flow from torsion is also added.
5. The shear stress (x,s) is obtained from the shear flow
6. x,s is componentized into xz and yz and the maximum value of each of these is plotted
against the span-wise stations in figures 20, 21.
Formulae:
The change in shear flow across a boom is given by
where Ar is the area of the rth boom.

The equilibrium conditions are used as follows
The rate of twist for the Rth section is given as
Where q0,R is the constant shear flow in the Rth section, if the section were closed and AR is the swept
area by the line joining a boom to the centroid along the segment joining two consecutive booms.
5.2.2 Shear Stress arising from Torsion

1. qI and qII are assumed to be the constant shear flow in the Ith and IIth sections respectively.
2. Calculate the lengths of each individual segment of each section.
3. Obtain the rate of twist for each section using the formula. These will give two sets of
coupled equations.
4. Equate the rates of twist. This gives one equation in qI and qII.
5. The second equation is obtained by twisting-moment balance.
Formulae:
The rate of twist for the Rth section at a station is given by
The moment balance equation is as follows
Shear stress (kPa)

0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
-0.01 0
-0.02
tau_xz
10
15
20
25
30
35
30
35
Figure 20. Variation of tau_xz with spanwise station
0.05
Shear stress (kPa)
0
0
10
15
20
25
-0.05
-0.1
tau_yz
-0.15
-0.2
-0.25
Figure 21. Variation of tau_yz with spanwise station
5.3 Principal Stresses

Procedure and Calculations
The principal stresses are calculated from the Eigen values of the following stress tensor.
Hence we need the solutions to the following equation.
This gives
The roots of this equation are given by 3 = 0 and
The Eigen values are the three principal stresses. These are tabulated in table 14.
Pricncipal Stress (x 1E+05 kPa)
0.5
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
-0.5
-1
lambda_1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
Figure 22. Variation of the larger principal stress with spanwise location
Table 14. Non-trivial solutions of the Eigen Value problem, variation with span-wise location
Station
30
29
28
27
26
1 (x 1E+05 kPa)
-0.0313554
-0.027778866
-0.024508662
-0.021817311
-0.020143046
2 (x 1E+05 kPa)
0.0313554
0.027747603
0.024206075
0.020552966
0.016531549
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-0.020265835
-0.023712937
-0.011590698
-0.049538624
-0.074618777
-0.008656527
-0.153114841
-0.009456617
-0.276129348
-0.013253209
-0.452113839
-0.019763626
-0.687645377
-0.02880346
-0.041438925
-1.151243946
-0.043207493
-0.045983185
-0.048933896
-0.052064571
-0.055374391
-0.058853101
-2.618018852
-0.076908415
-0.081081441
0.012000762
0.007377906
0.01037117
0.001764196
0.000819957
0.004263867
0.000196682
0.001619444
5.22986E-05
0.000439956
9.81793E-06
9.41048E-05
1.16094E-08
8.94932E-06
1.67707E-05
7.04208E-06
2.13077E-05
5.04088E-05
9.21353E-05
0.000143759
0.000199086
0.000249041
0.000181137
0.000315634
0.000300167
5.4 Factor of Safety

Formulae
The Von-Mises criterion for yield failure is used. The Von-Mises yield stress is given by-
Calculation
From table .... the set of largest principal stresses are taken to evaluate the failure stress. Hence we
have 1 = -2.618018852 x 105 kPa, 2 = 0.000181137 x 105 kPa and 3 = 0 kPa.
Hence factor of safety using the material properties of the alloy is found to be 1.92. The design is fail
safe and at first sight may seem like it is over designed. The factor of safety is higher than the general
value of 1.5 for most aircraft.
Chapter 6: Aero-elastic Parameters

6.1 Shear Centre and Elastic Axis
Formula
The position of the shear centre is given by
The locus of the shear centre is the elastic axis. The distance between the shear centre and the
aerodynamic centre is given by e = EA AC = ex a.c. = ex, since aerodynamic centre is taken as the
origin. The results are plotted in Figure 23.
Position along the chordline (m) with AC = (0,0)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
ex (m)
cgx(m)
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Spanwise stations from the root
Figure 23. Position of shear centre along the chordline, variation with spanwise location
If the c.g. is ahead of the e.a. then the aircraft remains free of flutter at all times. If the e.a. lies
between the c.g. and the a.c. then there is a possibility of flutter. This is an interesting case. If we take
the locus of the shear centres of only the stations without ribs, we find that the c.g. is ahead of the
shear centre at all times. This can be observed in Figure 23. At the position where there are ribs, the
elastic axis is just ahead of it. This means that there is a possibility of flutter.
6.2 Critical Divergence Speed

Procedure
1. The elastic axis is obtained by taking the locus of the shear centres at each station.
2. The areal moment of inertia at each station can be obtained either from the CAD drawing or
by calculating the angular deflection of each cell at every station and using the formula given.
3. The stiffness constant- k is obtained from the formula for each station and the average value
over the span is taken to be the final value used for calculating divergence speed.
Formula
Where k = GJ/L and J = Mt/G

Sample Calculation at the Tip
This calculation is presented for the tip since the critical divergence speed is lowest at the tip of the
wing. This is because the shear centre is closest to the aerodynamic centre at the tip.
From an average of all the local k at each station, the resultant value is k = 2.547 x 107 S.I. unit. The
other physical quantities used are tabulated in Table 15.
Table 15. Wing geometric and aerodynamic parameters
Parameter
Wing Area for reference (S)
CL
Location of shear centre at tip (e)
Value
63.94 m2
6.07 per radian
0.340 m from the A.C.
Hence we get
Conclusion
The critical divergence speed is the maximum at the root section and minimum at the tip. The
minimum value, i.e. the value at the tip is compared to the drag divergence speed and found to be
smaller. Hence, the critical divergence speed for flutter lies outside the flight envelope and is never
reached.
Chapter 7: Wing Weight Calculation and Comparison with Empirical

Estimate
The statistical estimate of the wing weight was done in Ref. The wing weight was then evaluated to be
Ww = 2207.194 kgf.
Assumptions
1. The longerons are not tapering all the span of the wing. They are of constant cross section.
This would help stiffening at the tips as well. The skin lengths are negotiated
correspondingly.
2. Thickness of the ribs = 3 cm (thicker ribs make them less susceptible to crushing)
3. Since idealization of the wing section conserves the area, the mass calculations are done using
the idealized sections.
Calculations
Table 16. Mass of each longeron
Longeron ID
Area (sq. m)
0.0012566
1
0.00166
2
0.0012566
3
0.00378
4
0.005533333
5
0.001809
6
0.001809
7
0.00166
8
0.003026333
9
0.003026333
10
0.00166
11
0.001809
12
0.001809
13
0.00166
14
0.001134
15
0.0012566
16
0.00166
17
0.0012566
18
Total Mass of Longitudinal Stringers
Mass (kg)
54.18390087
71.578287
54.18390087
162.991521
238.59429
78.00308505
78.00308505
71.578287
130.4938289
130.4938289
71.578287
78.00308505
78.00308505
71.578287
48.8974563
54.18390087
71.578287
54.18390087
1598.110304
Table 17. Mass of ribs
Section
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
Area of rib (sq. m)

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.11103
0
0
0.1302
0
0.147341
0
0.168552
0
0.194423
0
0.225625
0.243458
0
0.284094
0.307117
Mass of rib (kg)

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9.359829
0
0
10.97586
0
12.4208463
0
14.2089336
0
16.3898589
0
19.0201875
20.5235094
0
23.9491242
25.8899631
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0.332096
0.359155
0.388421
0.420025
0
0.490803
0.530276
Total mass of the ribs
27.9956928
30.2767665
32.7438903
35.4081075
0
41.3746929
44.7022668
365.2395288
Conclusion
Total Mass of the Wing = Mass of the longerons (idealized sections) + Mass of ribs
= 1598.110 + 365.239 = 1963.349 kg
Marginal Mass = 2207.194 1963.349 = 243.845 kg.
Chapter 8: Buckling and Crushing Loads

The ribs and spars are susceptible to crushing in the direction transverse to the span. The stringers are
susceptible to buckling in the direction along the span. It is important to take these into consideration
since it is possible that a structural member buckles before yielding.
8.1 Crushing Loads on Spars and Ribs

Procedure
1. Evaluate the stress top at the upper cap of the spars, for each of the stations and tabulate it.
2. The height of the spars is already known at each location. The equivalent thickness of the
spars is calculated.
3. The crushing force is calculated and plotted against the span-wise location in Figure 24.
4. Since the crushing load varies from front to rear, both the loads are plotted for comparison.
Formula
These loads are evaluated for wing spars using the following formula
Where te is the equivalent thickness of the top of the spar and h is the depth of the spar.
Table 18. Front and rear spar loads on ribs, variation with spanwise location
Station
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
Front Spar (N)

0
1.77502E-05
0.001647071
0.028412723
0.168481094
1.034299802
3.201444384
0.03472572
Rear Spar (N)

0
1.76884E-08
1.23505E-06
1.37937E-05
4.09885E-05
0.000132379
5.5303E-05
0.005831748
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
26.12236742
94.89577643
0.641410004
421.7361361
3.07591959
2190.279777
6.664945531
6149.217799
15.19136079
7675.752264
19.49580188
4.857560685
5411.921213
16.80921612
19.06458413
21.78299803
26.60798408
32.79341467
49.74289357
37406.39364
77.13475563
82.45884919
0.005853426
0.10952591
0.173363078
15.49031129
1.412741005
264.6699925
4.561289729
819.8993809
7.721833854
167.758745
6.14615573
1.142434779
44.72936641
4.30730888
5.277919972
6.594449587
9.418839732
14.12950108
35.30462457
3423.632932
65.45767228
76.16178469
Pcrush for each spar (newton)
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
Front Spar (N)
15000
Rear Spar (N)
10000
5000
0
-5000
10
15
20
25
Spanwise station from the root
30
35
Figure 24. Crushing loads for front and rear spar
The figure 24 shows the variation in Pcrush for both, the front and the rear spars. It is evident that the
crushing load varies from the front to the rear spar. These variations are without the ribs. The crushing
loads for the rib locations are presented in Table for reference. These are not plotted, since the ribs are
not really divided into two spars. Rather, the ribs can be thought of as simply supported between the
front and the rear spar. For this reason, Wfront and Wrear are plotted separately in figure 25 for the ribs.
The ribs are laterally unsupported and hence their crushing load is low.
Wrear and Wfront (newton)
90
80
70
60
50
40
Wfront (N)
30
Wrear (N)
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25

Figure 25. Front and rear spar loads on ribs, variation along spanwise location
8.2 Buckling of Columns and Plates

Formulae
The critical load for buckling of columns (longerons) in the first mode is given by-
The effective length is the one calculated from the case for one end fixed and the other end free for
half span of the wing.
Assumptions
The buckling loads have been calculated for the longerons of the idealized section. Hence, all analysis
is done using the equations for column buckling.
Table 19. Buckling force and stress on longerons of idealized section
Longeron
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Pcr1 (x 1E+05)
Pcr2 (x 1E+05)
P (x 1E+05)
Buckling Stress (GPa)
0.104115022
0.440921754
0.508289063
0.811340115
2.854480997
0.969167473
0.940346265
0.779696968
0.525462439
0.012031234
0.408698438
0.229753963
2.651939503
1.063134976
0.015053055
0.573409481
6.07046301
4.039139326
10.64967746
13.52103271
37.32532636
37.32532636
13.52103271
10.64967746
2.756054525
1.50405673
0.523342118
1.384749596
8.924944007
5.008306799
11.59002372
14.30072968
37.8507888
37.33735759
13.92973115
10.87943142
0.219326319
0.090605827
0.041647471
0.036633587
0.161294169
0.276854992
0.640686773
0.86148974
1.250714466
1.233749012
0.839140431
0.601405827
13
14
15
16
17
18
0.255162848
0.227359636
0.021305455
0.142871307
0.134931239
0.030682059
4.039139326
1.821138903
0.172022844
0.015053055
1.063134976
2.651939503
4.294302174
2.048498539
0.193328299
0.157924362
1.198066214
2.682621562
0.237385416
0.123403526
0.017048351
0.012567592
0.072172663
0.213482537
From figure 26 it can be observed that at longeron number 11, which endures the maximum axial
stress/ normal stress, the bucking stress is approximately 1 GPa, which is almost double the yield
stress of 0.503 GPa. Hence, it can be concluded that the longerons will prefer yielding to buckling.
Since it has already been proved that the structure is fail safe, there is no issue.
1.4
Buckling stress (GPa)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Longeron Number
Figure 26. Plot of buckling stress with the longeron number
Alternative approach
The portion of skin between the stiffeners may buckle as a plate simply supported on 4 sides.
Where tsk is the thickness of the skin and bsk is the width of the skin between two stiffeners. Since this
is the critical stress, the width of the least wide panel should be taken for the calculation.
Conclusions
The structural design features of a medium commuter aircraft of unconventional configuration have
been presented. All aerodynamic loads and moment are calculated for all critical speeds and load
factors and taken into account for structural safety.
The focus is mainly on wing design. It is a two-spar wing, just like its conventional counterpart, the
ATR-72. The material used is a very strong and durable alloy of aluminium. This alloys has a high
density and high yield strength of 0.503 GPa. The cross section of the wing is idealized using 18
longerons. Longeron 11 carries the largest stress. Each of the longerons are theoretically tested for
yielding and buckling. The wing design is fail safe and has a factor of safety of 1.9, which is above
the average value of 1.5. This was achieved by proper placement of ribs along the span, so as to
reduce the stresses taken by the longerons. The stringers and skin, hence, do not yield and area also
resistant to buckling. Buckling loads are higher than yield stresses. This ensures complete safety of
the wing structure. Aeroelastic forces are also taken into account and tackled.
The major trade-off of any design calculation is the limitation on weight. In this case, there is a
margin of weight between to weight estimated from empirical calculations and the weight calculated
from the structural elements. Hence, the wing design is quite competitive.
References
1. A. Amendola, G. Iannuzzo, P. Cerreta, R. Pinto, 2011, Future aero-structure for the next
generation green civil aircraft, Aerodays 2011, Alenia Aeronautica,
2. Jane's All the World's Aircraft, 1995-96, Page 155-158
3. Jane's All the World's Aircraft, 1988-1989
4. www.airfoiltools.com, NASA/LANGLEY NLF 0414F AIRFOIL (nlf414f-il) Xfoil prediction
polar at RE=1,000,000, last visited at 13th February, 2013
5. Desai A., Karia R., Final Report for Design of Medium Commuter (Unconventional) Aircraft,
2013, Department of Aerospace Engineering, IIT Kanpur.
6. Raymer D. P., Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach 4th Edition. AIAA, Reston, VA,
1999.

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Aircraft Design II Report

Graphs and Variations................................................................................................................... 24

Chapter 1: Statistical Study of Structural Design Features of Existing

Requirements/Features Medium Commuter Aircraft

ATR-72 Series 500

459 kmh-1 economical cruise

Balanced Field Length

600 kmh-1 for best range, at an

Economy class with galley and

Passengers and Crew

1.2 Salient Structural Design Features of Existing Aircraft

Figure 1. Two spar wing structure of ATR

Figure 2. Structural features of the fuselage of ATR-72

Figure 3. Material decomposition of the parts of the ATR-72 aircraft

The in-service advantages of composites are numerous, like

Chapter 2: V-n Diagram and Span-wise Lift Distribution

2.1 V-n Diagram

CMa *CW /Lt Cza

Table 5. Variation of the Cza with the angle of attack

0.0444 -0.0336 1.288

Speeds for critical loads:

This gives the value of VA = 117.94 m/s.

This gives the value of VB = 101.17 m/s

Upper Parabola (n+)

Lower Parabola (n-)

0.0877 per degree = 5.0279 per radian

The gust velocity is taken to be + 50 ft/s as explained in Ref. 1.

Table 7. Gust load Factors

U (ft/s) KU (effective gust velocity)

Final V-n diagram

Figure 4. v-n diagram

2.2 Distribution of Aerodynamic Loads on the Wing

The local drag coefficient is calculated using the following relation.

Graphs and Variations

Chapter 3: Distribution of shear forces and moments

3.1 Wing Discretization

Figure 8. Schmatic of Section Spacing

A total of 60 stations were taken.

3.2 Center of gravity & Aerodynamic Centre locations.

3.4 Graphs and Variations

Figure 9. Plot of Vx against spanwise station from root

Figure 10. . Plot of Vy against spanwise station from root

Figure 11. . Plot of Mx against spanwise station from root

Figure 12. . Plot of My against spanwise station from root

Figure 13. . Plot of Mt against spanwise station from root

Chapter 4: Idealization of Wing Section

4.2 Actual Structure of Wing section

4.3 Idealized wing section properties

Sample Calculation for root section

Root Section Ixx (x 10-4 m4)

Root section Ixy (x 10-4 m4)

Root Section Iyy (x 10-4 m4)

Graphs and Variations

Figure 14. Spanwise variation of area moment of inertia

Area moment of inertia ( x 1E-04 kg metre

Position of c.g. for each station (m) [ribs

Spanwise location from root

Area (sq metre) [ribs inclusive]

Spanwise location from root

Figure 17. Area of section [inclusive of ribs] along span

Chapter 5: Determination of Axial and Shear Stresses

Graphs and Variations

Axial Load (kPa)