TEWS Overview Sep11

Strengthening Tsunami Warning
and Emergency Responses:

Training Workshop on the development
of End-to-End Tsunami Standard Operating Procedures
Organized by the UNESCO IOC - NOAA
International Tsunami Information Center
for Member States of the
Pacific Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System
United Nations
Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization
Intergovernmental
Oceanographic
Commission
The International
Tsunami Information
Center
National Oceanic
and Atmospheric
Administration
Course Manual 2008 - 2011
Tsunami Early Warning System Overview
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September 201

UNESCO-IOC
Strengthening Tsunami Warning and Emergency Responses:
Training Workshops on the Development of End-to-End Tsunami Standard
Operating Procedures (SOPs)

COURSE MANUAL PACIFIC OCEAN
DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS

Tsunami Early Warning Systems
(Electronic files in Tsunami Support Docs)

1. Tsunami Early Warning System: Overview
a. End-to-End Tsunami Warning An Overview
b. Tsunami Science and Modelling Essentials
c. A Global Tsunami Reduction Strategy: Building Effective Tsunami Warning and
Mitigation Systems (Nov 2007)
d. Guarding against tsunamis: What does it mean to be ready? (Geotimes, Nov 2006)
e. End to End Tsunami Warning - Stakeholders, Roles and Responsibilities, Standard
Operating Procedures, and their Linkage
f. Tsunami Warning Centres An Overview
g. Global Tsunami Warning and Advisory Message Products
h. 10 Steps to Enable a Successful Tsunami Emergency Response; Glossary Disaster
Management Organisations
i. Concept of Operations for End-to-End Tsunami Response and Standard Operating
Procedures for Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System
j. Types of documentation to support Global Tsunami Warning Systems and/or
National Tsunami Warning Centre and Tsunami Emergency Operations Centre
operations
k. Developing Early Warning Systems: A Checklist (ISDR, EWC III, 2006)
l. End-to-end Tsunami Warning Considerations: Public Alert Systems
m. Tsunami Education and Awareness

END-TO-END TSUNAMI WARNING AN OVERVIEW
September 2008 (updated 2011)

UNESCO IOC Tsunami Unit (Paris, Hawaii (ITIC))

The overview summarizes end-to-end tsunami warning. In event time, it covers activities for event
monitoring, detection, threat evaluation and warning, alert dissemination, emergency response, and
public action. An effective tsunami warning system is achieved when all people in vulnerable coastal
communities are prepared to respond appropriately and in a timely manner upon recognizing that a
potential destructive tsunami may be approaching. Meeting this challenge requires round the-clock
monitoring with real-time data streams and rapid alerting, as well as prepared communities, a strong
emergency management system, and close and effective cooperation and coordination between all
stakeholders.

To warn without preparing, and further, to warn without providing a public safety message that is
understandable to every person about what to do and where to go, is clearly useless. While alerts are
the technical trigger for warning, any system will ultimately be judged by its ability to save lives, and
by whether people move out of harms way before a big tsunami hits. Towards these ends, education
and awareness are clearly essential activities for successful early warning.

End-to-end tsunami warning involves a number of stakeholders who must be able to work in
coordination and with good understanding of each others roles, responsibilities, authorities, and
action during a tsunami event. Planning and preparedness, and practicing in advance of the real
event, helps to familiarize agencies and their staff with the steps and decision-making that need to be
carried out without hesitation in a real emergency. Tsunami resilience is built upon a communitys
preparedness in tsunami knowledge, planning, warning, and awareness.

All responding stakeholders should have a basic understanding of earthquake and tsunami science,
and be familiar with warning concepts, detection, threat evaluation, and alerting methods, and
emergency response and evacuation operations. The key components, requirements, and operations
to enable an effective and timely warning and evacuation are covered in the following topics of end-
to-end tsunami warning:
Tsunami Science and Hazard Assessment
Tsunami Disaster Reduction Strategy, and community-based disaster risk management
Stakeholders, Roles & Responsibilities, and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) and
their Linkages
End-to-end Tsunami Response and SOPs
Tsunami Warning Centre (TWC) operations
Tsunami Emergency Response (TER) operations
Public Alerting
The Role of Media
Evacuation and Signage
Use of Exercises to Build Preparedness
Awareness and Education

To ensure the long-term sustainability of a tsunami warning system, it should be noted that:
Tsunamis should be part of an all-hazards (natural and man-made) strategy.
System redundancy is required to ensure reliability. Redundancy needs to be built in.
Clearly understood TWC and TER public safety messages are essential. Media
partnerships for warning, as well as preparedness, are important.
Awareness must be continuous forever. Tsunamis are low frequency, high impact natural
disasters that are also unpredictable.
National, provincial, and local Tsunami Coordination Committees ensure stakeholder
coordination and implementation of the end-to-end tsunami warning.

For specific details and algorithms and for actual descriptions of tsunami warning and emergency
response operations, including data networks and data collection, methods of evaluation and criteria
for action, products issued and methods of communication of alerts, and evacuation, original source
references or plans should be consulted. These are the high-level system descriptions or concepts of
operation, agency operations manuals, and users guides of each regional and national system.
Basic references providing a comprehensive summary on tsunami warning centre and emergency
response operations considerations are:
IOC Manual on Tsunami Warning Centre Standard Operating Procedures (Guidance
and Samples), version 2010 (distributed as part of SOP capacity building).
IOC Manual on Tsunami Emergency Response Standard Operating Procedures (Guidance
and Samples), version 2010 (distributed as part of SOP capacity building)

For a description of the Pacific, Indian Ocean, and Caribbean systems, as provided by the J apan
Meteorological Agency, Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, and/or the West Coast / Alaska Tsunami
Warning Center), consult the system IOC Technical Series documents. These are:
PTWS Operational Users Guide (version August 2011), IOC Tech Series 87
IOTWS Users Guide for the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System
Interim Tsunami Advisory Information Service (version April 2007), IOC Tech Series 72
Communication Plan for the Interim Tsunami Advisory Information Service to the
Caribbean Sea and Adjacent Regions (version July 2006)

General information of the IOC global tsunami warning systems and on tsunami mitigation and
preparedness can be accessed at:
IOC: http://www.ioc-tsunami.org
IOC ITIC: http://itic.ioc-unesco.org or http://www.tsunamiwave.org

Training Resources:
In order to assist countries in strengthening their warning systems, the IOC has compiled and
developed a Training Manual containing reference, best practice, decision support tools, and
guidance materials summarizing key components, requirements, and operations to enable an effective
and timely warning and evacuation against tsunamis. The materials were developed under the lead of
the ITIC and in close partnership with experienced practitioners in tsunami warning and emergency
response, and have been used in numerous training courses since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
The Manual includes session plans, lectures (in Powerpoint), exercises, and multi-media materials.
Together, they represent part of the IOCs collaborative contribution to national capacity building
and training on end-to-end tsunami warning and tsunami standard operating procedures to countries
of the Indian Ocean, Pacific, Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean.
For more information, please contact Laura Kong, Director, ITIC (l.kong@unesco.org), Tony Elliott,
IOTWS Secretariat (t.elliot@unesco.org), Bernardo Aliaga (b.aliaga@unesco.org).

TSUNAMI SCIENCE
(modified from Annex I, PTWS Operational Users Guide, version 2010)

I.1 TERMINOLOGY
"Tsunami" is the J apanese term meaning harbor wave. As such it is most descriptive of the observed
phenomenon sometimes referred to as tidal wave or seismic sea wave. In South America, the term
"maremoto", or moving sea, is frequently used. However the word "tsunami" is most commonly
accepted by scientists and by most of the lay public in Pacific basin countries.
Tsunamis can be categorized as local, regional, or ocean-wide, with those terms being used to
describe the extent of potential destruction relative to the tsunami source area. Local tsunamis are
those with destruction generally limited to within about 100 km, or within one hour tsunami travel
time from their source. They can be generated by earthquakes but are often associated with
submarine or subaerial landslides or volcanic explosions. An extreme example of a local tsunami is
the one that occurred on J uly 9, 1958, at Lituya Bay, Alaska. Wave run-up exceeded 485 meters but
the destruction was confined to a very limited area. Destructive local tsunamis with runups of no
more than a few tens of meters are more common.
Regional tsunamis are those with destruction generally limited to within 1000 km, or 1-3 hours
tsunami travel time from their source. Destruction may be limited in areal extent either because the
energy released was not sufficient to generate a destructive ocean-wide tsunami, or because the source
was within a confined sea.
Ocean-wide destructive tsunamis are much less frequent, but still occur a few times each century.
Such tsunamis can have disastrous consequences because their source area is large, initial wave
heights are great, and even distant coastal areas are subject to impact. The Pacific-wide tsunami of
May 22, 1960, spread death and destruction across the Pacific from Chile to Hawaii, J apan, and the
Philippines. The Indian Ocean-wide tsunami of December 26, 2004 killed nearly 230,000 people
stretching from northern Sumatra, Indonesia near the source across to Africa.
I.2 TSUNAMI GENERATION
A tsunami is a series of very long ocean waves usually formed as a result of a large-scale vertical
displacement of the sea over a short duration in time. Gravity returns the sea to equilibrium through a
series of oscillations or waves that propagate outward from the source region. Most tsunamis are
caused by vertical displacements of the seafloor associated with the occurrence of great earthquakes.
However, tsunamis can also be generated by submarine volcanic eruptions, by the movement of
submarine sediments, by coastal landslides, and even by meteor impacts.
Earthquakes are the most common cause of tsunamis. While tsunamis threaten lives and property in
coastal regions around the world, they are most commonly a hazard near subduction zones,
particularly along the Pacific Rim. As one plate dives beneath the other in a subduction zone, strain is
generated at the interface of the two plates. That strain is eventually released during an earthquake
and the offset forces the overlying water to swell and generate a wave. Large (M >7.5) and shallow
(at or near the seafloor, <50 km) earthquakes can displace enough water to produce tsunami waves.
Every major earthquake generates seismic waves or vibrations that can be detected and measured by
seismic stations throughout the world. However, not all major coastal or near-coastal earthquakes
produce tsunamis. At present, there is no operational method to determine from the seismic data alone
if a tsunami has been generated. The seismic data only indicates a level of tsunamigenic potential and
it is necessary to detect the arrival and measure the amplitude and other characteristics of the tsunami
waves with a network of coastal or deep ocean sea level stations.

Tsunami-producing landslides can occur on and offshore, but are less common than the earthquake
generated tsunamis. A subaerial rockslide in Lituya Bay, Alaska in 1958 generated a 525 m local
tsunami. Submarine slope failures are documented and cracks along the outer shelf detected in
bathymetric surveys hint of future large-scale failures.

Volcanic eruptions can also cause tsunami even though they are infrequent. Violent eruptions induce
failure along the flanks of a volcano or collapse of the magma chamber. These displace a great
volume of water and generate extremely destructive tsunami in source area.

A tsunami-producing meteorite impact has never been recorded, but there is still a chance, though
very unlikely. Most meteorites burn as enter Earths atmosphere.
I.3 EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY
When a major earthquake occurs, the resultant seismic energy released into the earth will propagate
with a wide range of frequencies and velocities. Although earth movements discernible to a person
may be confined to a region near the earthquake epicenter, the various seismic waves propagating
throughout the earth create small, but measurable, ground motions which can be detected by a
seismometer. Such signals can be recorded in digital form for analysis on a computer.
For tsunami warning purposes, probably the most important earthquake signal is the P-wave. It is a
compressional or pressure wave that travels through the earths interior at a velocity that varies from
approximately 8.0 km/second near the crust-mantle boundary to about 13.5 km/second at the mantle-
core boundary. It is the first seismic phase to be recorded at each seismic station and it provides the
earliest indication that a distant earthquake has occurred. P-wave travel times in the earth as a
function of distance from and depth of the earthquake hypocenter are known. Thus, the location and
depth of the earthquake can be determined by finding the hypocenter that best fits the pattern of P-
wave arrival times from many stations. The earthquake moment magnitude, Mw, can also be quickly
estimated from the long-period component of the P-waves recorded by broad-band seismometers.
This type of measurement of Mw is called Mwp.
Another kind of seismic energy is trapped within the upper layers of the earth primarily the mantle.
These surface waves are the basis for measuring an earthquake's mantle magnitude, Mm, using
vibrations with periods (the time of one wave cycle) between 50 and 400 seconds. There is a simple
direct relation between the mantle magnitude and the moment magnitude. For earthquakes with
magnitudes greater than 8.0 as well as for slow-rupturing earthquakes, the moment magnitude
computed using the mantle magnitude is more accurate than Mwp. However, because the surface
waves travel more slowly than the P-waves, Mw based on Mm is typically not available for tens of
minutes after the initial earthquake evaluation based on Mwp.
I.4 TSUNAMI PROPAGATION
Tsunami waves travel outward in all directions from the generating area, with the direction of the
main energy propagation generally being 90 to the line of the earthquake rupture. A key
characteristic that makes tsunami waves differ from other ocean waves such as wind waves or tides is
their period -- the time of one wave cycle. Tsunami wave periods range from 5 minutes to as much as
60 minutes. Wind waves have periods of just a few seconds for and tides have periods of many hours.
In the deep ocean tsunamis travel more than 1000 km/h and slow to 30-50 km/h near shore.
The speed of propagation of tsunami waves and their height depends on the depth of water.
Consequently, the speed and direction of the tsunami waves change as they pass through the ocean
because of its varying depth. In the deep ocean, waves travel at a velocity controlled by the water
depth (velocity =square-root of the multiplication of water depth multiplied and acceleration due to
gravity). Here, tsunamis typically travel at speeds of 500 to 1,000 kilometers per hour (300 to 600
miles per hour), and the distance between successive wave crests can be as much as 500 to 650
kilometers (300 to 400 miles). However, in the deep ocean, the height of potentially destructive
tsunami waves may be no more than a few centimeters (1 to 3 inches), and is usually no more than a
meter. Variations in the strength of propagating tsunami waves are due to the shape and size of the
source region, absorptions and reflections at coasts, and to focusing or defocusing by the bathymetric
features of the seafloor. The tsunami wave motions extend through the entire water column from sea
surface to the ocean bottom, even in mid ocean. It is this characteristic that accounts for the great
amount of energy transmitted by a tsunami.
Waves of a tsunami in the deep sea have such great length and so little height they are not visually
recognizable from a surface vessel or from an airplane. The passing of each wave produces only a
gentle rise and fall of the sea surface over a long time usually tens of minutes. During the April
1946 tsunami in Hawaii, ships standing off the coast observed tremendous waves striking the shore
but did not undergo any perceptible change in sea level at their offshore locations.
I.5 TSUNAMI IMPACT
Upon reaching shallow water, the speed of an advancing tsunami wave diminishes to the speed of
more ordinary wind-driven swell, its wave length decreases, and its height may increase greatly,
owing to a compression of its energy and a piling up of the water. The height of a tsunami wave in the
deep ocean is a few cm to 1 m while near the shore it can stand more than 30 m. People cannot out-
dive or out-run these waves. Tsunamis reach to the seafloor and steepen in shallow water. Generally
they are not steep enough to break, so they flow over land like a wall of water. Sometimes the first
wave in a tsunami series may be a receding wave and foreshadows the incoming of the destructive
wave.
The configuration of the coastline, shape of the ocean floor, and character of the advancing waves
play an important role in the destruction wrought by tsunamis along any coast, whether near the
generating area or thousands of kilometers away. Consequently, there can be a great variation in the
level of destruction along a single coast, with one area being hard-hit while an adjacent area is not
affected.
Detection of tsunamis is usually made by sea level stations at the shore where the shoaling effect can
be observed. The first visible indication of an approaching tsunami can be a recession of water caused
by the trough preceding an advancing wave. Any withdrawal of the sea, therefore, should be
considered a natural warning of an approaching tsunami wave. However, a rise in water level also
may be the first event.
A network of sea bottom pressure sensors has been deployed to detect tsunamis in the deep ocean.
This is essential since a vast amount of the Pacific does not have islands or other land masses where
coastal sea level gauges can be deployed, and importantly, these data provide a reading of the tsunami
that has not been affected by near-shore bathymetry and morphology. Furthermore, these data are
showing great potential for providing good wave forecasts that the PTWC, WC/ATWC and other
warning centres can use to give threat evaluations before hit vulnerable coasts.
The force and destructive effects of tsunamis should not be underestimated. At some places, an
advancing turbulent front is the most destructive part of the wave. Where the sea level rise is slow and
relatively benign, the outflow of water to the sea between crests may be rapid and destructive,
sweeping all before it and undermining roads, buildings, and other works of man with its swift
currents. Debris picked up and carried by the strong and persistent currents can cause great damage.
Most people killed by tsunamis are crushed, not drowned. Ships, unless moved away from the shore
to deep water, can be thrown against breakwaters, wharves, and other craft, or washed ashore and left
grounded during withdrawals of the sea.
In the shallow water of bays and harbors, a tsunami frequently will initiate seiching an almost
frictionless slow oscillation of the body of water back and forth. If the tsunami period is related
closely to that of the bay, the seiche is amplified by synchronous forcing from succeeding tsunami
waves. Under these circumstances, maximum wave activity can be observed much later than the
arrival of the first wave.
A tsunami is not one wave, but a series of waves. The time that elapses between passage of successive
wave crests at a given point can range from 5 to 60 minutes. Oscillations of destructive proportions
may continue for several hours, and even several days may pass before the sea returns to its normal
state.
During the 101-year period from 1900 to 2001, 796 tsunamis were observed or recorded in the Pacific
Ocean according to the Tsunami Laboratory in Novosibirsk. 117 caused casualties and damage near
the source only while at least nine caused widespread destruction in the Pacific. The greatest number
of tsunamis during any one year was 19 in 1938, but all were minor and caused no damage. There was
no single year of the period that was free of tsunamis.
Seventeen percent of the tsunamis in that period were generated in or near J apan. The distribution of
tsunami generation in other areas is as follows: South America, 15 percent: New Guinea and the
Solomon Islands, 13 percent; Indonesia, 11 percent: the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, 10 percent;
Mexico and Central America, 10 percent; the Philippines, 9 percent; New Zealand and Tonga, 7
percent; Alaska and the West Coast of Canada and the United States, 7 percent; and Hawaii, 3
percent.
I.6 REFERENCES
Bolt, B. A.; Horn, W. L.; Macdonald, G. A.; and Scott, R., Geological Hazards, Springer-Verlag,
1975.

Murty, T.S., Seismic Sea Waves, Tsunamis, Department of Fisheries and the Environment, Ottawa,
Canada, Bulletin 198, 1977.

Neumann, F., Principles Underlying the Interpretation of Seismograms, Department of Commerce
Special Publication No. 254, U. S. Government printing Office, 1966.

UNESCO-IOC International Tsunami Information Centre. Tsunami: The Great Waves. IOC Brochure
2006-2. Paris, UNESCO, 2005. Earlier versions in Spanish and French; 2005 version being
translated into Spanish, French. 2005 version available in Chinese.

UNESCO-IOC International Tsunami Information Centre. Tsunami Glossary. IOC Information
document No. 1221. Paris, UNESCO, 2006. Earlier versions in Spanish and French; 2006 version
currently in translation.

TSUNAMI NUMERICAL MODELLING

Numerical models use mathematical equations to describe physical processes. For the purposes of
tsunami warnings, numerical models estimate the expected tsunami wave height, run-up, and
inundation based on the description of the tsunami source and modeling technique. To get the best
results, the model needs to have specific descriptions of the initial source location and the actual
physical situation. Also, all models need to be validated against observed or historical data to ensure
that the model will calculate reasonable values for future events.

A tsunami can be broken into 3 components, the source that generated the tsunami, the process in
which the waves propagate across the ocean, and the process of inundation as the wave impact coasts
and floods inland (run-up) or retreats seaward (recession).

In order to mathematically describe the earthquake tsunami source, seismologists specify the
mechanical, geometrical, and dynamic characteristics of the fault movement. Tsunamis can also be
caused by volcanic eruptions or subaerial or submarine landslides that cause a sudden displacement of
water.

Tsunami characteristics change as they propagate from their source. For tsunamis propagating in the
deep ocean over long distances, numerical modeling can utilize linear equations for long-wavelength
waves to enable simpler and faster computations. In areas of bathymetric change refraction and
shoaling (shortening of the wavelength and increasing of amplitude) can occur.

Inundation modeling requires high-resolution bathymetry and near-shore topography in order to
mimic variations in coastal and shallow seafloor morphology that drastically affect a tsunami waves
height and energy.

Techniques for modeling tsunamis include Finite Difference and Finite Element Methods. Finite
Difference Methods use nested regular grids to calculate wave effects when tsunami waves approach
and hit the shore. Finite Element Methods apply triangular grids to model the wave propagation;
however, as the wave enters shallow water, computation time increases significantly to the point
where it becomes inefficient. Today, scientists mainly use Finite Difference Methods.

Numerical modeling is an important contributor to mitigating the impact of tsunamis. Government
agencies need to assess the tsunami risks of their coastlines by considering tsunami scenarios and
conducting numerical simulation studies that calculate tsunami heights, velocities, wave forces, and
inundation areas. These results can be used to estimate potential damage. Geographical information
systems (GIS) are useful tools that allow a visual understanding of the affected area.

November 2007, Page 1 of 8
Proceedings, 4
th
International Workshop on Coastal Disaster Prevention,
Future Disaster Management of Tsunami and Storm Surge in Asia, 1-2 December 2007, Yokohama, Japan
A GLOBAL TSUNAMI REDUCTION STRATEGY: BUILDING
EFFECTIVE TSUNAMI WARNING AND MITIGATION SYSTEMS

Laura S. L. KONG

International Tsunami Information Centre, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 737 Bishop St., Ste. 2200, Honolulu,
Hawaii 96813 USA, l.kong@unesco.org

Abstract

Early Warning Systems will save lives. An effective tsunami early warning system is achieved
when all persons in vulnerable coastal communities are prepared and respond in a timely
manner upon recognition that a potential destructive tsunami may be approaching. For this,
tsunami hazards and risks must be known, and preparedness activities must be carried out
beforehand so that when a warning is issued, it will motivate ordinary citizens to quickly move
out of harms way before the tsunami attacks. While implementation of the Indian Ocean
tsunami warning and mitigation system is being pursued with highest urgency, the tsunami
hazard exists in all oceans where tsunamis can attack in minutes as local tsunamis or take up to
24 hours to traverse an ocean basin as a distant tsunami. Because of this, international
cooperation and data sharing are essential. Early detection by monitoring network will trigger
early warnings that must immediately trigger appropriate emergency responses. At the same
time, awareness and preparedness activities that educate and inform citizens about tsunamis and
what to do when warnings are issued have to take place. Planning activities creating evacuation
maps, drills and exercises, and hard and soft countermeasures are pre-disaster mitigations to
reduce tsunami impact. Indigenous knowledge, gender, and social science perspectives on
warning response have to be factored in. Teaching natural hazards and disaster preparedness
subjects in schools will carry awareness to the next generations. Stakeholder coordination, with
clear designation of the responsible authorities to minimize confusion during emergencies, is
essential for carrying out rapid and effective warning and response. For this, disaster
management organizations can play a key leadership role in natural hazard disaster risk
reduction. Finally, high-level advocacy is critical to ensure a sustained commitment to prepare
for infrequent, high-fatality natural disasters such as tsunami.

Keywords: tsunami; early warning; disaster risk reduction, mitigation

1. Introduction

Tsunami early warning systems must provide timely, understandable warnings within minutes that
will then motivate ordinary citizens to quickly move out of harms way. While implementation of the
Indian Ocean tsunami warning and mitigation system is being pursued with highest urgency, we must
acknowledge that the tsunami hazard exists in all oceans (Figure 1). Every ocean basin and sea can be
impacted by tsunamis, which can occur at any time without a precursor signal. In fact, some
countries may be impacted by tsunamis from two or more basins.

Until 2005, no tsunami early warning systems existed outside the Pacific. The Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(IOC of UNESCO) is currently leading the coordinating efforts to establish comprehensive tsunami
warning and mitigation programmes globally. Altogether, four Intergovernmental Coordination
Groups (ICG) have been established under the governance system of the IOC of UNESCO to oversee
the implementations of internationally-coordinated tsunami warning and mitigation systems globally.
In addition to the 40-year old Pacific Ocean system, new systems are being built in the Indian Ocean,
Proceedings, 4
th
Caribbean, and the North Atlantic and Mediterranean. In the Pacific, sub-regional systems that can
respond faster and specifically address sub-regional needs exist for the Northwest Pacific and are
being planned for the Southwest and Southeast Pacific, Southeast Asia and Central America Pacific
Coast. The ICGs meet regularly to discuss the tsunami technical monitoring and warning
disseminations requirements and improvements, coordinate tsunami risk assessment and preparedness
activities, and to share national experiences in building tsunami awareness through education and
outreach in their countries

Figure 1. Global tsunami source zones. Courtesy LDG-France

2. Building a global system to guard against tsunamis

The United Nations has been engaged for more than 15 years in a process of creating awareness and
promoting the development of policies to diminish the loss of life and property from natural and man-
made disasters. The World Conference on Disaster Reduction held in Kobe, Japan, in 2005 adopted
the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, a document that commits governments and the
international community to achieving a set of concrete goals, among them the commitment to halve
the loss of life caused by disasters, to make all schools and hospitals disaster-proof, and to establish
national natural disaster platforms in each country.

The Hyogo Declaration states that [W]e are far from powerless to prepare for and mitigate the
impact of disasters. We can and must alleviate the suffering from hazards by reducing the
vulnerability of societies. We can and must further build the resilience of nations and communities to
disasters through people-centered early warning systems, risks assessments, education and other
proactive, integrated, multi-hazard, and multi-sectoral approaches and activities in the context of the
disaster reduction cycle, which consists of prevention, preparedness, and emergency response, as well
as recovery and rehabilitation.

Proceedings, 4
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The risk of tsunamis exists, to different degrees, in all oceans and coastal seas, and as such, a global
coordinated system is desirable. We have learned, however, that early warning and mitigation
systems can only be built with strong and sustained commitment by the national governments and that
these systems can only operate if countries agree to collaborate in a regional framework by sharing
data and by jointly bearing the cost for the regional elements of the network. In addition, some
nations are threatened by tsunamis generated in more than one ocean basin, increasing the importance
for regional and international coordination.

In general, we must be able to respond to both local tsunamis, (i.e. those generated by a small
earthquake or an underwater landslide that only affect areas less than 200 km away) and to a huge
earthquake, like the one in Sumatra on 26 December 2004, which generates a destructive ocean-wide
tsunami that travels thousands of kilometers across the ocean before hitting the coastline. In 1960, the
Pacific experienced a tsunami generated by a magnitude 9.5 earthquake in Chile. The tsunami caused
deaths in Hawaii and in Japan, 14 hours and 22 hours, respectively, after the earthquake. Because of
the existence of tsunamis from far distant sources, a single country cannot adequately protect itself
from tsunami risks without a regional network of observation stations.

3. Tsunami early warning and mitigation systems (TEWS)

To issue a warning without having prepared and exercised how the population should respond to the
warning is useless. The IOCs approach requires progress in three mutually dependent components
that are active at the international or regional, national, and local levels:

o First, assessing the tsunami hazard and risk especially at the local level to identify vulnerable
communities;
o Second, preparing the population so they know what action to take in case of a tsunami
warning; and
o Third, building an international, national, and local technological framework that warns us of
an advancing tsunami wave.

A tsunami warning system triggered by the continuous monitoring of large earthquakes and
confirmation of tsunami waves can exist only through international cooperation under the principle of
open, free, and unrestricted exchange of observational data, and the availability of an effective
National Tsunami Response Plan that is immediately activated when warnings are issued in order to
save lives and property (Figure 2). For responding quickly and efficiency, well-known and clear
standard operating procedures for both warning centres and emergency operations centres should be
in place and practiced so that stakeholders are familiar with and understand their roles and
responsibilities, and the timely actions that are must take place. These are important lessons learned
from past experience. Important as they are for triggering the early alert, the instrumental networks
required for early warning are just one element in the chain to mitigate the hazards from tsunamis.

Pre-disaster mitigation and tsunami preparedness programmes educate not only the general public,
including transient or special needs populations such as tourists staying at beachfront hotels, women,
children, and the elderly, but also government officials and other local community leaders so that
good government emergency action decisions will be made without delay. The programmes should
build capacity and awareness at the local community level by identifying the vulnerable communities
through risk assessments, placing the tsunami hazard and response in the local context and
empowering communities to collectively engage, plan, and implement an appropriate tsunami
response such as an evacuation to tsunami-safe zones.

Proceedings, 4
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Figure 2. Components of a successful early warning system. For the case of tsunamis, rapid
tsunamigenic potential evaluations of earthquakes are essential to be able to provide the fastest early
warning to emergency officials, who must then issue understandable messages that result in
immediate public response before the first destructive wave hits.

Equally important pre-disaster activities include structural countermeasures, such as sea walls, water
gates and vegetative barriers, and the design and construction of seismic- and tsunami-resistant
buildings and shelters, and critical lifeline infrastructure, to reduce the impact of tsunamis on life and
property. These measures are just part of government disaster risk management, which should
evaluate risk, and adopt coastal zone management and land use (or non-use) policies that provide
reasonable public safety from all natural hazards. Social science plays a crucial role in understanding
how humans perceive and respond to natural disasters and disaster warnings. These perceptions and
subsequent actions must be taken into account to ensure that the tsunami risk is communicated in an
understandable and practicable manner to the public. Finally, the fact that the some populations
survived the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, while many others did not, highlights the importance of
incorporating traditional, indigenous knowledge as part of preparedness.

4. Key elements of the end-to-end TEWS

Early Warning Systems can save lives. In particular, a number of elements are critical for an effective
system to operate. These can be summarized as follows:

1. Proper instruments that enable the early detection of potentially harmful earthquakes
and tsunamis. The data obtained by these instruments must be readily available to all nations
continuously and in real-time to be effective.

2. Warning systems that reliably inform the vulnerable populations immediately and in
an understandable and culturally appropriate way. The Warning Centre must be able to
Proceedings, 4
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analyze and forecast the impact of tsunamis on coasts in advance of the waves arrival, and
the local, regional, and/or national Disaster Management Organizations (DMOs) must be able
to immediately disseminate information on the threat and to enable evacuation of all
vulnerable communities. The communications methods must be reliable, robust, and
redundant, and work closely with the mass media and telecommunications providers to
accomplish this broadcast.

3. Awareness activities that enable ordinary citizens to recognize a tsunami so that they
know what to do. Citizens should recognize a tsunamis natural warning signs and respond
immediately. This is especially true for the case of a local tsunami, which may hit within
minutes and before an official tsunami warning can reach their communities. Recognition and
use of indigenous knowledge is important.

4. Preparedness activities which educate and inform a wide populace, including
government responders and those providing lifeline and critical infrastructure services, on the
procedures and activities that must be taken to ensure public safety. Drills and exercises
before an actual event, and proactive outreach and awareness activities are essential for
reducing tsunami impact. Natural hazards science and disaster preparedness subjects that are
part of the required curriculum taught to school children will prepare and carry awareness to
the next generations. Gender-related issues in preparedness and family responses in
emergencies need to be factored in.

5. Planning activities that identify and create the public safety procedures and products
and build capacity for organizations to respond faster. It is necessary to create and widely
disseminate tsunami evacuation or flooding maps, and instructions on when to go, where to
go, and how to go. Evacuation shelters and evacuation routes need to be clearly identified,
and widely known by all segments of the coastal population.

6. Strong buildings, safe structures, and prudent land-use policies to save lives and
reduce property damage that are implemented as pre-disaster mitigations. Tall, reinforce
concrete buildings may be adequate places to which people can vertically evacuate if there is
no time to reach higher ground inland. Long-term planning to avoid placing critical
infrastructure and lifeline support facilities in inundation zones will reduce the time needed
for services to be restored.

7. Stakeholder coordination as the essential mechanism that facilitates effective actions in
warning and emergency response (Figure 3). Clear designation of the national or local
authority from which the public will receive emergency information is critical to avoid public
confusion, which would compromise public safety.

8. High-level advocacy that ensures a sustained commitment to prepare for infrequent,
high-fatality natural disasters such as tsunami.

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Figure 3. A Tsunami Coordinating Committee engages all stakeholders to develop and participate in
comprehensively reducing the risk from tsunamis. Key contributors are the scientists and engineers
who assess and evaluate the risk, the tsunami warning centre which is responsible for rapid alerts,
and government emergency services which must move every person out of harms way before the
tsunami arrives.

5. What does it mean to be effective? Stakeholders need to work together.
An effective tsunami early warning system is achieved when all persons in vulnerable coastal
communities are prepared and respond in a timely manner upon recognition that a potential
destructive tsunami may be approaching. While timely tsunami warnings issued by an officially-
recognized regional tsunami warning centre using real-time seismic, sea level, and other geophysical
data streams from throughout the monitoring region are an essential component of the system, it is
absolutely critical that these scientifically-based warning messages are communicated to the public in
an understandable manner that clearly and simply instructs ordinary citizens on the actions they
should take to ensure their safety.

National and Local Tsunami Coordination Committees (TCCs) are valuable mechanisms to build
effective tsunami responses that will minimize loss of life and damage from this quick-impacting
natural hazard. A TCC should be comprised of all stakeholders involved in the identification of the
risk, the warning guidance, and the pre- and post-disaster mitigation activities, and should meet
regularly to collectively inform, decide, and share information.

Coordinated actions include the evacuation of people situated in areas of potential flooding to safe
zones or shelters, along with instructions on who should evacuate, where and how they should go,
when to go, what to bring, and how they will know when it is safe to return. Consideration and
planning should also to be given to special needs populations, such as the elderly, physically-
handicapped, and groups of people who cannot read, hear, or understand conventional warning
methods. In this regard, pre-disaster tsunami awareness and preparedness activities are essential for
educating and familiarizing the public in advance of the actual emergency.

The success of any warning system lies in its ability to reach people, e.g., that the people with
important specialized knowledge of the impending hazard are able to quickly and efficiently pass on
usable information to all the people who are at risk. Although technology is essential for information
Proceedings, 4
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analysis and delivery, successful early warning ultimately relies on the abilities of people to reach
people if we able to communicate the situation clearly, a prepared population will be able to act
responsibly.

6. The Last Mile. The Roles of Disaster Management and Civil-Military Organizations in
coordination, tsunami preparedness and emergency response

Coordination is essential, and in many countries, as part of the civil defence organizations of
governments, the Disaster Management Organization (DMO) should play an essential role in the
efficient and immediate actions to ensure public safety prior, during, and the after the event, and,
additionally, in leading efforts to increase government and community preparedness. The DMO
should work in especially close collaboration with the Warning Centre so as to achieve a seamless
end-to-end delivery of a tsunami warning during an actual emergency. To build stakeholder
commitment for efficient response, each national DMO should consider sponsoring a Tsunami
Coordination Committee to serve as the coordinating and implementing body for building a
comprehensive and sustainable tsunami mitigation programme.

Specifically, the DMO can play a very important leadership role in:

o Preparing the public for all hazards, including tsunamis, through education and awareness,
communication of risk to communities and involvement of communities in hazard mitigation
activities through pre-disaster mitigation projects. It should act as the translator of science
and technology to ordinary citizen-understandable concepts/language;

o Identifying the hazards and vulnerable communities (i.e. conducting risk evaluation),
through cooperation with technical and science institutions locally and internationally, and
then making the information known to the public in an understandable manner;

o Ensuring information flow from warning centres to the public for safety through
coordination and timely dissemination of understandable and practicable information before
and during the disaster, and afterward, informing the public when it is safe to return and
commencing immediately search-and-rescue efforts and disaster recovery processes;

o Building:
o All-stakeholder coordination (local and national) for effective emergency response;
o Community-level linkages to implement people-centred early warning and
mitigation; and
o High-level advocacy to sustain tsunami preparedness for future generations.

7. Conclusions

Ensuring that an effective national tsunami warning and mitigation system is implemented in every
nation with a tsunami threat is a considerable task. This is especially true for Small Island
Developing States where populations may be scattered over a vast regions and islands, and where
establishing reliable communications will be the critical need for early receiving and transmitting
early warnings.

To be effective, every nation and island will have to know when a tsunami is approaching and be
prepared to respond. In fact, there is heavy responsibility on national technical agencies and national
and local disaster management organizations to provide leadership in alerting its populations and
preparing them beforehand. Tsunami Warning Centre and Emergency Operations Centre need to be
ready 24-hours-a-day every day of the year. Additionally, the DMO must also provide the leadership
in responding after the event to commence search and rescue, and disaster recovery for their people.
Proceedings, 4
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Meeting this challenge will require a strong disaster risk reduction platform, a well-designed and
sustainable strategy, and close and effective cooperation and coordination between all stakeholders,
both government agencies and non-government organizations. Relevant legal and administrative
arrangements are required and the necessary human resources need to be put in place, in addition to
technical and scientific infrastructures. This is the implementation challenge we must succeed at in
order to say that we have an early warning system that will save lives.

References

International Coordination Group for the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific (ICG/ITSU), ITSU
Master Plan (2nd ed.), IOC/INF No. 1124, UNESCO / IOC, Paris, 1999.

Kong, L., Guarding against tsunamis: The challenge of building preparedness at the national and
local levels, The Liaison, 55-63, 2006

Kong, L., Guarding against tsunamis: What does it mean to be ready? Geotimes, 7, 2006.

UNESCO-IOC, Tsunami: The Great Waves, IOC Brochure 2006-2, UNESCO-IOC, Paris, 2006.

UNESCO-IOC, Tsunami Glossary (3rd ed.), IOC Information Document No. 1221, UNESCO-IOC,
Paris, 2006.

UNESCO-IOC, TsunamiTeacher, IOC Manuals and Guides 47, UNESCO-IOC, Paris, 2006.

UN/ISDR, United Nations World Conference on Disaster Reduction. Hyogo Framework for Action
2005-2015. Retrieved from http://www.unisdr.org/wcdr/, 2005.

UN/ISDR, Third International Conference on Early Warning, Developing Early Warning Systems: A
Checklist, 27-29 March 2006.

www.geotimes.org November 2006
Geotimes 7
Laura S. L. Kong
T
sunamis are among the worlds
most destructive and fatal
coastal hazards. Triggered by
the Dec. 26, 2004, undersea
earthquake off Sumatra, the greatest tsuna-
mi in memory caused the tragic death of an
estimated 230,000 people in the Indian
Ocean region. The tragedy demonstrated
the urgent need for early warning systems
not only for regions near the Indian Ocean,
but also globally as the tsunami hazard
exists in all oceans and seas.
Following the 2004 tsunami, the U.N.
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organizations Intergovernmental Ocean-
ographic Commission (UNESCO IOC) led
immediate efforts to establish an Indian
Ocean warning system, and an interim sys-
tem has been in place in the region since
April 2005, as well as in the South China
Sea and the Caribbean since this year.
Permanent coverage for the Gulf Coast of
Mexico and East Coast of North America
began at the end of last year. These systems
extend the alert system beyond the Pacific,
where an international tsunami warning
system has been operating since 1965.
Despite this progress, however, much work
is ahead before the coastal communities of
the world can be truly prepared.
Tsunamis are low frequency, high
impact natural disasters that are also
unpredictable: We may not see another
destructive tsunami in 100 years or we may
see another one tomorrow. These charac-
teristics pose a unique set of challenges for
hazards mitigation, including, first and
foremost, preparation.
An effective tsunami early warning sys-
tem is achieved when all people in vulner-
able coastal communities are prepared to
respond appropriately and in a timely
manner upon recognizing that a potential
destructive tsunami may be approaching.
Facing this challenge will require round-
the-clock monitoring with real-time data
streams and rapid alert dissemination, as
well as prepared communities, a strong
national disaster management system, and
close and effective cooperation and coordi-
nation between all stakeholders.
At the core of the early warning system is
the National Tsunami Warning Center
(NTWC), which is the 24/7 focal point for
receiving timely reports from international
centers worldwide. Additionally, for coun-
tries with a local tsunami threat, such as
Japan, Indonesia, Chile and parts of the
eastern Mediterranean, the NTWC must
have a local warning system with denser
instrument networks so that they can eval-
uate and provide a warning within minutes
of an earthquake. These centers must be
fully interlinked with the national disaster
management organization, which will
receive the NTWC warnings and then take
immediate action to warn communities of
imminent danger.
To warn without preparing, and further,
to warn without providing a public safety
message that is understandable to every
person about what to do and where to go,
is clearly useless. While alerts are the tech-
nical trigger for early warning, any system
will ultimately be judged by its ability to
save lives, and by whether people move out
of harms way before a big tsunami hits.
That lesson hit home on July 17, when a
local tsunami struck Indonesia 21 minutes
after an earthquake, resulting in more than
400 deaths on the island of Java. Although the
Indonesia earthquake monitoring center had
information indicating a potential tsunami
threat, the mechanisms for alerting coastal
authorities along with enacting the com-
munitys plans and procedures for tsunami
emergency response and evacuation were
not in place. Thus, we learned again that for
local tsunamis where a wave can strike in min-
utes, technical warning systems are not
enough, and that public education and aware-
ness at the community level are most urgent
and essential.
In the aftermath of the July tsunami,
much has happened. Indonesias tsunami
alert communications systems have been
enabled through the police and media, and
many districts and provinces are develop-
ing emergency plans and conducting
tsunami drills to prepare themselves for the
next local tsunami.
To date, 26 of the 29 countries around the
Indian Ocean have designated official
receiving points for advisory alerts. Upon
receiving the alerts, each country is then
responsible for evaluating the regional threat
and providing the relevant public safety
advice to their people and any vulnerable
coastlines. As we know, a tsunamis impact
upon a particular coastline is dependent on
local seafloor conditions and the character of
the coastline, and therefore is best evaluated
and acted upon by national and local
authorities.
Between April 2005 and August 2006,
these alerts have been issued 13 times, on
average between 16 and 21 minutes after
the earthquakes, using regional real-time
seismic data primarily from the Global
Seismic Network, which is managed by the
Incorporated Research Institution for
Seismology and the U.S. Geological
Survey. For the earliest of tsunami warn-
ings, we rely on the monitoring of earth-
quakes because more than 70 percent of
tsunamis are caused directly by tectonic
earthquakes, and another 20 percent by
landslides or volcano processes for which
seismic monitoring can provide early
detection. This, together with the known
fact that seismic waves travel more than 40
times faster than tsunami waves, allows
warning and emergency operations centers
to issue alerts and evacuations before a
tsunami wave arrives.
Over the past year, IOC has led an effort,
supported by contributions from a number
of sources, to upgrade sea-level monitoring
stations of the Global Sea Level Observing
System to transmit more frequently, to pro-
vide faster confirmation on whether a
tsunami has been generated. By this month,
25 sea-level stations will report every 15
minutes by satellite, whereas in 2004, 11
were reporting only hourly, and none trans-
mitted to the tsunami warning centers.
The next step is for countries to work
together to focus on national and local
tsunami emergency response and prepara-
tions, so that every citizen, whether young
or old, knows what a tsunami is, how to
recognize one and what to do to save their
lives. It is not an easy effort, and it will take
time, but each small step forward will
hopefully build the preparedness for our
future generations.
Kong is director of the International Tsunami
Information Centre, Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission based in Honolulu, Hawaii,
which is part of the U.N. Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization. E-mail: l.kong@
unesco.org.
Guarding Against Tsunamis: What Does It Mean To Be Ready?
COMMENT
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End-to-end Tsunami Warning: Stakeholders, Roles and Responsibilities, Standard
Operating Procedures, and their Linkage
May 2008

David Coetzee, New Zealand Civil Defense and Emergency Management
Laura Kong and Brian Yanagi, International Tsunami Information Centre

End-to-End Tsunami Warning involves a number of stakeholders who must be able to work in
coordination and with good understanding of each others roles, responsibilities, authorities, and
action during a tsunami event. Planning and preparedness, and practicing in advance of the real
event, helps to familiarize agencies and their staff with the steps and decision-making that need to
be carried out without hesitation in a real emergency.

For End-to-End Tsunami Warning, the Stakeholders involved are:
- Regional Tsunami Warning Centres (RTWC)
- National Tsunami Warning Centres (NTWC)
- Disaster Management Offices (DMO)/Local Authorities
- Emergency Services
- Media
- Public

Successful (timely and effective) Tsunami Warnings require End-to-End SOPs.
The Tsunami Warning SOPs need to be coherent and work seamlessly from stakeholder to
stakeholder

2

STAKEHOLDERS: The following are characteristics of the Stakeholders:

Regional Tsunami Warning Centres (RTWC)
Regional Monitoring & Detection (24/7)
International collation/sharing of data
Issue Regional Alerts to National Warning Centres
Cancel Regional Alerts

National Tsunami Warning Centres (NTWC)
Local (Country specific) Monitoring & Detection (24/7)
Receive RTWC Alerts
Assessment of information-determine local threat
Issue National Warnings to DMOs, media & agencies
Cancel National Warnings
Research & Public Education

Disaster Management Offices (DMO)/Local Authorities
Receive National Warnings from NTWC
Activate local public alert systems as appropriate
Decide & Manage Evacuations
Communicate All Clear (safe for public to return to coastline)
Signage
Public Education

Emergency Services (Education of these responders is critical)
Support DMO/Local Authorities with
Public alerting
Evacuation
Law & Order
Response after tsunami has struck

Media (Radio and Television)
Convey Official Warnings (National & Local)
But also:
Convey Unofficial Warnings
Therefore:
Can cause or counter public response

Public
End receiver of warnings
Convey Official and Unofficial Warnings
Therefore must understand:
Official Warnings (how will they be warned)
Natural Warnings (what to look out for)
Evacuation zones, routes & Safe zones
How to respond where evacuation zones are not defined

3
WARNINGS: There are three types of Warning: Official, Natural, and Informal.

Official Warnings are :
Disseminated by Regional Tsunami Warning Centres to National Tsunami Warning Centres (NTWC)
Disseminated by NTWCs to:
Media
Local Authorities
Govt Agencies
Disseminated by Disaster Management Offices (DMO) to:
Local media
Local Communities/Public

Natural Warnings are Natural Occurrences felt/observed/hear by public:
Strong earthquake shaking
Unusual sea behaviour
Sudden recession
Sudden rise
Noise/roar

Natural Warnings are especially critical when Official Warnings have not been issued.
This may occur when:
local source tsunami where an Official Warning cannot be issued quickly enough
an Official Warning did or could not reach, such as in isolated areas

Informal Warnings (or Unofficial Warnings) are :
Media Coverage
Following a warning/bulletin issued by a RTWC or other country
Following public reports
People
Friends & family passing the information on
Friends & family perceiving a threat
Informal Warnings may or may not be correct

Tsunami Resilience is built upon preparedness in tsunami knowledge, planning, warning, and
awareness.

Tsunami Warning Centres An Overview
Laura Kong (ITIC), Charles McCreery (PTWC), Masahiro Yamamoto (IOC)
April 2008, September 2010

When a major undersea earthquake occurs near the coast and at a shallow depth, there is a
possibility that a destructive tsunami can be generated that will impact near-by coasts within
minutes and that can also traverse across entire ocean basins to wreak havoc 1000s of
kilometers away and up to 24 hours later. To alert far-away coasts, internationally-coordinated
tsunami early warning systems have been established to provide alerts to countries on regional-
to-distant tsunamis. For local tsunamis, pre-event education is absolutely critical; citizens must
recognize the tsunami natural warning signs and be prepared to immediately self-evacuate since
national tsunami warning centers and emergency agencies may not be able to provide timely
warnings to all.

The mission of a Tsunami Warning Centre (TWC) is to provide early tsunami warnings on
potentially destructive tsunamis. It provides this information to emergency officials, and as
appropriate, directly to the public. In order to carry out its mission, the TWC uses local and
global seismographic networks transmitting seismograms in real-time to continuously monitor
seismicity in order to locate and size potentially tsunamigenic earthquakes. Earthquakes are the
primary generators of tsunamis. Alternatively, the national TWC can receive international
tsunami advisories issued by the international tsunami warning centres (such as the PTWC,
WC/ATWC, and J MA), and upon receiving, evaluate the threat to their country and further
disseminate the relevant information to emergency authorities. TWC also use sea level
networks reporting data in real and near real-time to verify the generation and evaluate the
severity of a tsunami. TWC then disseminate tsunami advisory and warning messages to
designated national or local authorities for their subsequent action. TWC must respond fast, be
as accurate as possible, and be reliable in order to be effective.

The requirement for the amount of time it takes a TWC to respond with an alert message
following a potentially tsunamigenic earthquake depends upon how quickly the tsunami would
strike the coast, how long it would take persons at risk to move to a safe location, and what is
scientifically and technically reasonable to achieve. These factors may vary between TWCs, the
coasts they are responsible for, and the potential tsunami source zones. Sample response times
that have been achieved by existing TWCs are shown below.

Tsunami Type
Typical
Time to Impact
TWC Response Time
Local 0-1 hr 2-5 min
Regional 1-3 hr 5-10 min
Distant >3 hr 10-20 min

TWCs acquire data and disseminate advisory messages through multiple communications paths
and should have redundant and backup methods and services in case of primary service failures.
Routine communications tests are carried out to ensure that telecommunications lines are
working. TWC should provide a Users Guide for customers who will receive, and have to
interpret and take action based on the TWC advisories.

When a large earthquake occurs, Tsunami Warning Centre personnel determine the earthquake's
hypocentre, the initial rupture point of the earthquake, and its magnitude. If the hypocentre is
under or near the ocean and not too deep within the earth, and if the magnitude is sufficiently
large, then tsunami generation is possible. On the basis of this seismic evidence, the Centre
issues a local tsunami warning or advisory to areas located near the epicentre. A regional or
distant tsunami watch or advisory is also issued to areas located further from the epicentre if the
magnitude is so large there is the possibility of a long-range destructive tsunami. All remaining
areas may also be notified that an event has occurred. The initial bulletin tells participants that
an earthquake has occurred, where and when it occurred, and that a destructive tsunami is
possible. For a local tsunami warning, the advisory may suggest immediate evacuation inland
and to higher ground, or to clear the beach, since waves are imminent.

Confirmation of a tsunami usually comes from sea level stations located nearest the earthquake.
In the case of local tsunamis, it is best to have a dense network of sea level instruments so that
close-by stations can confirm a tsunami within minutes of its generation. At the regional or
distant scale, confirmation can rely on a sparser network of gauges and take up to 1 or 2 hours.
Fortunately, most large earthquakes with tsunamigenic potential do not generate long-range
destructive tsunamis and the warning or watch will be cancelled. But if a potentially
destructive, long-range tsunami is measured, a regional TWC will issue an ocean-wide tsunami
warning to advise designated national authorities. This message alerts all warning system
participants to the approach of potentially destructive tsunami waves and provides estimated
tsunami arrival times for key locations. Because tsunamis move through the water in accordance
with known physical laws, estimated arrival times can be quickly computed. Tsunami wave
forecasts, or estimated wave heights may also be included if there is enough data and the model
results are judged by TWC staff to be reasonable. Typically, during a tsunami event, bulletins
containing updated information are issued at least hourly, until the tsunami has crossed the
entire ocean or additional evidence is received to indicate there is no further tsunami threat.
Tsunami warnings are cancelled when the TWC judges that there are no longer destructive
tsunami waves being generated this does not mean that is it safe for the public to return to the
evacuated coastlines.

Messages are disseminated in accordance with procedures outlined in the Operational Users
Guide for the Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System area of coverage (such as the Caribbean,
Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and North Atlantic, and Pacific). Emergency authorities, such as
the National Disaster Management Office (NDMO), civil defense, or emergency operations
centres, have the responsibility for immediately interpreting the science-based alerts issued by
the TWC (international, regional, national, and/or local), and quickly disseminating safety
information to the public on what to do. They are also responsible for informing the public
when it is safe for them to return to the evacuated coastlines; due to structural damage, debris,
and other life safety concerns, the All-Clear to return may not be issued by the local authority
for hours or even weeks after the event. The NDMO/Civil Defense can also have the ongoing
responsibility for educating the public concerning the dangers of tsunamis and for developing
safety measures to be taken to avoid the loss of life and reduce property damage.

Current operational weaknesses of tsunami warning centres include an inability to detect
landslide and volcanic sources, and an inability to provide early-enough warnings for local
tsunamis except in a few areas. Additionally, to ensure public safety and provide the fastest
early warning, TWC initially issue watches and warnings based only on earthquake information.
Most often these watches and warnings are later cancelled when sea level information confirms
non-destructive waves. This practice (being conservative so as to err on the side of safety) may
reduce the credibility of the TWC for issuing accurate warnings and cause the public to
erroneously presume that all such alerts are false alarms. To mitigate, TWC need to manage
expectations by continually educating the public, media, and decision-makers on tsunamis and
the services that TWC will provide, including TWC limitations.
GLOBAL TSUNAMI WARNING AND ADVISORY MESSAGE PRODUCTS

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6lobol Telecommunicotions System unJer tbe followinq WH0 EeoJers, os well os tbrouqb otber metboJs.
Tbese messoqes serve os oJvice to countries. 0nly notionol onJ locol qovernments bove tbe outbority to
moke Jecisions reqorJinq tbe officiol stote of olert in tbeir country onJ ony octions to be token in response.
Tsunami Product Codes - WMU Headers {Auqust 2007)
N0AA Pacific Tsunami Waining Centei (PTWC, station PBEB)
N0AA West Coast Alaska Tsunami Waining Centei (WCATWC, station PAAQ)
}apan Neteoiological Agency (}NA, station R}TB)

1

10 Steps to Enable a Successful Tsunami Emergency Response

UNESCO/IOC-NOAA ITIC
May 2008

1) Know and understand a country's tsunami risk.

2) Develop an "end to end" Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System (TEWS)
implementation strategy. Identify lead agencies at all levels of government.

3) Set up stakeholder (multi-hazard and/or tsunami specific) coordination committees at all
levels of government.

4) Develop multi-hazard disaster response plans including tsunami specific emergency
response plans and SOPs at national/provincial/city/local levels. Integrate emergency
policies and mobilize all government agencies, in coordination with NGOs and the
private sector.

5) Enable a country to receive 24x7 Tsunami Warning Center messages through
international/regional and/or national tsunami warning systems developed via the
UNESCO - IOC/ICG coordination process for international alerts.

6) Develop a rapid 24 x 7 communications dissemination infrastructure "down to the last
kilometer." Involve and partner with the mass media for alert dissemination, building
preparedness, and increasing awareness.

7) Emphasize sustainable local community education, preparedness, and mitigation
programs (i.e .tsunami evacuation maps, routes, signage, sirens)

8) Conduct annual tsunami exercises and drills at various levels of government, and in
particular, with coastal schools.

9) Obtain commitment from public authorities to enact multi-hazard and/or tsunami
specific disaster risk reduction policies at all levels of government.

10) Develop emergency management policies and legislation that address multi-hazards
including tsunami specific events.

2
GLOSSARY - Disaster Management Organisations

Source: UNISDR; italics added by UNDP (S. Jegillos) for elaboration

Capacity (Capability)-A combination of all the resources and knowledge available within a
community, society or organisation that can reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster.
Capacity may include physical, institutional, intellectual, political, social, economic, and
technological means as well as individual or collective attributes such as leadership, co-ordination
and management.

Coping capacity-The level of resources and the manner in which people or organisations use these
resources and abilities to face adverse consequences of a disaster. In general, this involves managing
resources, both in normal times, as well as during adverse conditions. The strengthening of coping
capacities usually builds resilience to withstand the effects of natural and other hazards.

Disaster-A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society causing widespread
human, material, economic and/or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected
community or society to cope using its own level of resources. Although disasters are generally
categorised as natural or manmade, recent understanding of these events show that most natural
disasters are also caused by human interactions with environment and nature, thus they are not
purely natural. The term natural disasters however are commonly used to refer to events that are
triggered by natural hazards. A disaster is a function of risk process resulting from the combination of
hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential
negative consequences of risk.
Disaster (risk) reduction-The conceptual framework of elements considered able to minimise or
reduce disaster risks within a community or society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and
preparedness) and to manage (emergency response) and recover from the adverse impacts of natural
and manmade hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development. For simplicity, UNISDR
uses the phrase disaster reduction.

Disaster risk management-The systematic management of administrative decisions, organisation,
operational skills and abilities to implement policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society
and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related potential environmental hazards.
This comprises all forms of activities, including structural and non-structural measures to avoid
(prevention), to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects of hazards and/or to manage
(emergency response) and recover from the consequences of the event.

Disaster risk reduction: Actions that reduce the impact of a disaster before its occurrence.

Disaster risk reduction policies: Plans and practices related to reducing the impact of a disaster
before its occurrence.

Early warning-The provision of timely and effective information, through identified formal and
informal institutions and communication network, that allow individuals exposed to a hazard, to take
action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response. The objective of people-centred
early warning systems is to empower individuals and communities threatened by hazards with
knowledge to act in sufficient time and in an appropriate manner to reduce the possibility of personal
injury, loss of life and damage to property and the environment. An end to end TEWS is a series of
chronological events related to tsunami risk knowledge, monitoring and warning, communication
dissemination, and response capability to protect lives and property.

Emergency: A situation that is the result of any happening, whether natural or otherwise, which
causes or may cause loss of life or injury or illness or distress or in anyway endangers the safety of
the public or property.
3

Reference: The Guide to the National Civil Defence Emergency Management Plan. New Zealand
Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management. June 2006.

Emergency Management -The organisation and management of resources and responsibilities for
dealing with all aspects of emergencies, particularly preparedness, response and recovery. Emergency
management involves plans, structures and arrangements established to engage the normal
endeavours of government, voluntary, private agencies and local communities in a comprehensive
and co-ordinated way to respond to the whole spectrum of emergency needs. Emergency management
is also known as disaster management.

Emergency Management Policies and Legislation: Laws, plans and practices related to emergency
management.

Emergency Response Plan: Mechanisms and networks are established and maintained to respond
quickly to disasters and address emergency needs at the community level.

Reference: How Resilient is Your Coastal Community? U.S. IOTWS Document No. 27-IOTWS-
07CCR. 2007.

End to End Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System (TEWS): The objective of
people-centred early warning systems is to empower individuals and communities threatened by
hazards with knowledge to act in sufficient time and in an appropriate manner to reduce the
possibility of personal injury, loss of life and damage to property and the environment. An end to
end TEWS is a series of chronological events related to tsunami risk knowledge, monitoring and
warning, communication dissemination, and response capability to protect lives and property.

Reference: Developing Early Warning Systems: A Checklist. UN ISDR. March 2006.

Hazard-A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon and/or human activity, which may
cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social, economic disruption and environmental
degradation. Hazards can include potential conditions that may represent future threats and can have
different origins: natural (geological, hydro-meteorological and biological) and/or induced by human
processes (environmental degradation and technological hazards). Hazards can be single, sequential
or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is characterised by its location, intensity,
frequency, probability and its likely effects/impacts.

Mitigation-Structural (physical) and non-structural (non-physical) measures undertaken to protect
and/or strengthen vulnerable elements to minimise the adverse impact of natural hazards,
environmental degradation and technological hazards. Elements of important consideration include
population, livelihood, settlements, and basic social, economic and institutional services at the
primary level and development investments and environment at the secondary level.

Multi-Hazard Disaster Response Plans: Courses of actions undertaken in the event of a natural or
technological hazards.

Policy: A plan or course of action.
Reference: Websters Dictionary

Preparedness-Activities and measures taken in advance by people and organisations to ensure
effective mobilisation of response to the potential impact of hazards, including the issuance of timely
and effective early warnings, the temporary removal of people and property from a threatened
location and the support to indigenous coping capacity of the population at risk.

4
Prevention-Activities and/or physical measures to provide outright avoidance of the adverse impact
of hazards or the means to control the hazards at their source whenever possible. Due to
unpredictability and magnitude of most natural hazards, prevention is either costly or impossible.
However, most human induced hazards and other types with elements of human interaction with
nature are oftentimes preventable.

Recovery- Traditionally, actions taken after a disaster with a view to restoring the living conditions
of the stricken community and society to its normal and/or pre-disaster conditions. However, recovery
(rehabilitation and reconstruction) is an opportunity to develop and apply disaster risk reduction
measures by encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments, based on lessons learned and better
planning and practices to reduce disaster risk.

Relief / response- The provision of assistance or intervention during or immediately after a disaster to
meet the life preservation and basic subsistence needs of those people affected. It can be of an
immediate, short-term, or protracted duration. In the relief stage, change in peoples perception and
skills development leading to acceptance of and practice of disaster reduction can be achieved,
through participation in assessment, planning and implementation.

Risk-The probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries, property,
livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environment damaged) resulting from interactions
between natural and/or human induced hazards and vulnerable conditions. Conventionally, risk is
expressed by the notation Risk =Hazards x Vulnerability/Capacity. It is important to consider the
social contexts in which risks occur and that people therefore do not necessarily share the same
perceptions of risk and their underlying causes.

Stakeholder Coordination Committees: Composed of a team of members from various sectors of
society involved in the conduct of disaster planning.

Sustainable local community education, preparedness, and mitigation: Community education
programs designed to empower individuals and communities threatened by hazards with knowledge
to act in sufficient time and in an appropriate manner to reduce loss of life and property damage. The
programs also include activities to reduce the impact of a hazard before its occurrence. These
community based programs are perpetuated through institutional and/or educational curriculum
activities.

Tsunami Risk: Means the likelihood and consequences of a tsunami hazard.

Vulnerability-A set of conditions and processes resulting from physical, social, cultural, political,
economic, and environmental factors, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the impact
of hazards.

p. 1, End-to-End Tsunami Response, June 2007
CONCEPT OF OPERATIONS FOR END-TO-END TSUNAMI RESPONSE
AND STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR TSUNAMI EARLY WARNING AND
MITIGATION SYSTEM

UNESCO IOC Tsunami Co-ordination Unit
Laura Kong (ITIC), Masahiro Yamamoto, Brian Yanagi (ITIC)
USA NOAA Pacific Tsunami Warning Center Charles McCreery
Japan Meteorological Agency
June 2007

For an effective Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System (TEWS) National or Sub-National
Tsunami Warning Centres (TWC) need to quickly disseminate consistent and reliable tsunami threat
information in an understandable and concise manner. Disaster Management Organizations (DMO),
or their Emergency Operations Centres, that are responsible for public safety during natural or man-
made disasters, then need to assess the threat to their local populations based on all available
information including local knowledge, and when appropriate disseminate safety information and
instructions, and initiate public coastal evacuations. These actions comprise an End-to-End TEWS
response (monitoring and warning, alert dissemination, emergency response, public action).

A Tsunami Early Warning and Mitigation System (TEWS) Concept of Operations describes how the
system should work. It should include high-level authority descriptions of who should be involved,
their roles and responsibilities, their actions in monitoring the hazard, and their responses to provide
for public safety.

An efficient and effective End-to-End Tsunami Response should provide operational detail to TEWS
Concepts of Operations and be developed according to the following principles:

In order to implement a successful TEWS, Tsunami Warning Centres and Disaster
Management Organizations at all levels of government (national, provincial, district and local
levels) require pre-event development of protocol and procedures documents describing their
roles, responsibilities, responses, and actions. These responses and actions should be well
coordinated and practiced within their organizations, in conjunction with external agencies.

The documents include Tsunami Event Alarm Response Plans (Standard Operating
Procedures (SOPs) by the TWC), and Tsunami Emergency Response Plans (SOPs by
Emergency Operations Centres after receiving the TWC alert) that are followed to enable
quick processing and action to be taken on a 24x7 basis. The Response Plans are comprised
of Standard Operating Procedures, Flow Charts describing multiple and simultaneous actions,
and Response Checklists. For the TWC, this may mean procedures followed when a tsunami
alert is received from international TWCs, or how a National TWC monitors earthquakes and
evaluates their tsunamigenic potential. The goal of the TWC is to then issue an urgent local /
regional / and/or distant tsunami warning to its DMO and/or its citizens. For the DMO, this
would mean the immediate alerting of communities and households, and as required, the
evacuation of people out of the pre-designated tsunami evacuation zone. For a local tsunami
warning and evacuation order, these decisions and actions may have to take place
immediately, within minutes after earthquake ground shaking.

National, and if applicable sub-national TWCs and DMOs must create and customize written
Tsunami Emergency Response Plans (TERP) to meet their specific needs. The documents
form the basis on which to conduct routine drills to ensure response procedures can be
effectively enacted by a 24x7 duty staff. These can range from stakeholder familiarization
workshops, agency and multi-agency drills, tabletop scenario exercises, and functional
communications tests, to full-scale response agency field deployment exercises, which may or
may not include public evacuations. Documents and drills also ensure the consistency of
actions as duty staff may turn over several times between actual tsunami events. Together,
these are the minimum requirements for establishing functioning, efficient end-to-end TEWS.
p. 2, End-to-End Tsunami Response, June 2007

TWC and DMO Emergency Response Plans, and their accompanying Standard Operating Procedures
(SOP) and Checklists are used to describe procedures, protocols, and expected actions for tsunami
emergencies. Responses must be carried out by a 24x7 duty staff. DMO SOPs coordinate and
execute rapid and massive public coastal evacuations in response to a Tsunami Warning Centers
notification of an approaching tsunami on a 24x7 basis.

A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP):

Is a set of written instructions describing a routine, or repetitive activity followed by an
organization. The instructions are stakeholder agreed-upon steps that will be used in
coordinating the Who, What, When, Where, and How aspects of the TERP.

Is a mechanism for operating effective and reliable warning systems and disaster management
systems. The TWC SOPs must be linked at all levels from international to national to local
warning institutions, and must be simultaneously connected to the corresponding DMO SOPs,
and vice versa.

Should cover a number of Concept-of-Operations activities to enable an End-to-End response
process. SOPs can range from data processing, analysis and warning communication
procedures to action checklists for conducting public coastal evacuations, coordinating
stakeholders organizations, and establishing the roles and jurisdictions for government, non-
government, and the private sector agencies.

Should facilitate good decision-making by describing in detail the actions taken by an agency
to carry out its responsibilities, as defined in the systems Concept of Operations document.
The existence and use of SOPs are especially essential for rapid, efficient tsunami response
since tsunamis are rapid-onset disasters for which there is little time to prepare. Because of
this, all responses need to be pre-planned, well practiced, and automatically enacted to
minimize loss of life through quick public notification.

To ensure long term sustainability and development of the TEWS, it should be noted that:

Tsunamis should be included as part of a nations multiple hazard (natural and man-made)
emergency response plans.

System redundancy is required to ensure reliability. To ensure this, National or Sub-National,
Tsunami Warning Centres should transmit Tsunami Messages via multiple communication
pathways to established 24x7 government national, provincial, district, and/or local level
emergency offices or operations centres.

Clearly understood TWC messages are essential. DMO must know what TWC messages
mean and appropriate actions to automatically implement. The public, in turn, must
understand what DMO messages mean so that they can react immediately. Additionally, if
TWC messages are simultaneously transmitted to the media (and through them, also to the
general public), media also need to know what TWC and DMO messages mean. For this,
education and training of the stakeholders should be conducted. These preparedness and
training activities need to be sustained and conducted on a regular basis indefinitely.

Stakeholder Coordination through Tsunami Coordination Committees at all levels of
government is an extremely useful mechanism for ensuring coordination and implementation
of an end-to-end TEWS. Minimum stakeholders include TWCs providing the warnings,
DMOs and first responders who provide public safety, and the scientific community who can
provide advice on and research to improve all aspects of the end-to-end system. Inclusion of
public affairs and media/education/outreach stakeholders encourages building of partnerships
for efficient, consistent, and accurate delivery of alert and public response information.
p. 1, Recommended TWC/TER Documents, orig. Sep 2006, rev Sep 2010
TYPES OF DOCUMENTATION TO SUPPORT
GLOBAL TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEMS (TWS) AND/OR
NATIONAL TSUNAMI WARNING CENTRE (TWC) AND
TSUNAMI EMERGENCY OPERATIONS CENTRE (EOC) OPERATIONS
September 2006 (updated 2010)

UNESCO IOC Tsunami Co-ordination Unit -
Laura Kong (ITIC), Masahiro Yamamoto, Brian Yanagi (ITIC)
USA NOAA Pacific Tsunami Warning Center - Charles McCreery
J apan Meteorological Agency

This following document describes documentation that are considered critical for the building of
sustainable and clearly assigned responsibilities. Country and responsible organization should
consider developing these fundamental documents.

These cover the early warning process monitoring and warning, dissemination and
communication, and emergency response before and during the tsunami event. Risk knowledge,
education, and preparedness are essential components of successful early warning that are not
covered below, but should be covered elsewhere.

TWC/TWS Concept of Operations - Global, Basin, Country. High level for decision-makers to
describe the tsunami warning and mitigation system. An important component of the system is the
end-to-end tsunami warning process and how it functions in general terms, e.g., (monitoring and
warning, dissemination and communication, emergency response, or hazard detection, warning
formulation, warning dissemination, preparedness). It should identify who is involved and clearly
define their roles and responsibilities. Maintained by the IOC or country.
Examples are PTWS Operational Users Guide, Section 2, Administrative Procedures (Sep 2010);
US Tsunami Warning Center Reference Guide, Chapter 2, Overview of a Tsunami Warning
Centers Operational and Organizational Requirements (2007); J MA Manual on Operations and
Systems for Tsunami Warning Service, Ch 1, Outline of J MA Service (2007).

TWC or EOC Operations Manual - Details of how a particular TWC or EOC works to carry out
its roles and responsibilities. To be used by the duty people at that Centre. Includes information
on tsunami warning centre operations and emergency management plans and standard operating
procedures, such as criteria for action, data streams, communications links, analysis software,
messaging software, notification and dissemination methods, and general troubleshooting.
Troubleshooting Manual provides details on what actions to take when a system has failed. This
can be computer hardware failure, communications link failure, software problem etc. Maintained
by the TWC or EOC.
TWC examples are PTWC and WC/ATWC Operations Manual (2010); USGS NEIC Earthquake
Response Plan (2006); J MA Manual on Operations and Systems for Tsunami Warning Service
(2007). USGS NEIC Earthquake Analysts Manual (Draft 2006) has a troubleshooting section on
how to practically evaluate earthquakes.
EOC examples are The Guide to the National Civil Defence Emergency Management Plan - New
Zealand (2006); The British Columbia (Canada) Tsunami Warning and Alerting Plan (2001);
California (USA) Local Planning Guidance on Tsunami Response (Second Edition, 2006);
Wakayama Prefecture (J apan) Plan of Mobilization and Transmittal of Tsunami Forecast (2007);
and Kushimoto City (J apan) Municipal Local Tsunami Response Procedures (2007).

TWS/TWC Operational Users Guide - General information for countries on tsunamis and the
p. 2, Recommended TWC/TER Documents, orig. Sep 2006, rev Sep 2010
tsunami threat, on TWC Procedures and their Criteria for Action, along with sample messages.
Includes General description of system -- seismic data, sea level data, warning centre, message
dissemination, public safety actions and responses, including evacuation. Guidance on what the
User can expect from the TWS (TWC), including how to interpret messages and suggestions for
taking action and definitions / lexicon of terms used by the TWS (TWC). The Users Guide can be
divided into two parts (Regional, National), with each part published separately. For Regional
(ocean-basin) System, it is maintained as an IOC document. For National System, the TWC should
maintain the National Users Guide. Local response Users Guides would build and supplement from
National Guides.
Examples are PTWS Operational Users Guide (Sep 2010); WC/ATWC Operations Plan (Users
Guide, 2010), Users Guide for the IOTWS (April 2007).

Stakeholder Contacts for TWC/TWS Generally comprised of contacts responsible for overall
tsunami mitigation, for tsunami warning operations, and for tsunami emergency response
operations. For Regional TWS, these are Tsunami Warning Focal Points (TWFP) for 24 x 7 action
on tsunami emergencies and National stakeholders or ICG Tsunami National Contacts (TNC)
responsible for tsunami mitigation. Document maintained by IOC for cover global system. TWFP
are emergency contact numbers that, in general, should not be shared with the public; TNC are
national representatives that should be known and reachable by the public. For TWFP, an efficient
means for rapid secure access is desirable, such as through a password-protected, secure web site.
For National TWS, the types of contacts are similar but involve also emergency response officials.
These can constitute a Tsunami Coordination Committee comprised of tsunami mitigation
stakeholders (assessment, warning and emergency response operations, planning, public affairs,
assessment (science and research). At the international level, the stakeholder group is the
Intergovernmental Co-ordination Group (ICG). Documents maintained by TWC national
responsible organization(s); and EOC national, provincial, district, local levels of government
(TWC or EOC for operations).
Examples are the TWFP and TNC lists of the IOC, and national TWC emergency contact lists.

TWC / EOC Legal Authority documents Official, authoritative documents covering national or
local procedures and responsibilities. Descriptions are in more detail than Concept of Operations,
but less detail than Operations Manuals. Legal Authority documents state authority, coordination,
roles, and responsibilities of services and organizations involved. Maintained by each country, or
local authority that carries out procedures.
Examples are J apan Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act (1961, updated 1997), NOAA NWS
Tsunami Directives (2010)
http://www.weather.gov/directives/010/010.htm NDS 10-7 Tsunami Warning Services
27-29 March 2006
Bonn, Germany
Third International Conference
on Early Warning
From concept to action
A Checklist
Developing
Early Warning Systems:
FOREWORD

Early warning is a major element of disaster risk
reduction. It prevents loss of life and reduces
the economic and material impact of disasters.
To be effective, early warning systems need to
actively involve the communities at risk,
facilitate public education and awareness of
risks, effectively disseminate messages and
warnings and ensure there is constant state of
preparedness.

In January 2005, the World Conference on
Disaster Reduction adopted the Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters. This included clear references to the
importance of early warning, and encouraged
the development of early warning systems that
are people centred, in particular systems whose
warnings are timely and understandable to
those at risk () including guidance on how to
act upon warnings () (para. 17, ii.d.9).

The Third International Conference on Early
Warning (EWC III) held in Bonn, Germany from
27-29 March 2006 provided the opportunity to
present new and innovative early warning
projects and to discuss natural hazards and
risks around the world and how their impacts
can be minimised through the implementation of
people-centred early warning. The present
document Developing Early Warning Systems:
A Checklist was developed as a conference
outcome, to both inform and draw upon the
discussions and practical examples raised
during the conference, and to support the
implementation of the early warning
components of the Hyogo Framework for
Action.

The Checklist, which is structured around the
four key elements of effective early warning
systems, aims to be a simple list of the main
elements and actions that national governments
or community organizations can refer to when
developing or evaluating early warning systems,
or simply checking that crucial procedures are
in place. It is not intended to be a
comprehensive design manual, but instead a
practical, non-technical reference tool to ensure
that the major elements of a good early warning
system are in place.
Acknowledgements
The Checklist was initiated by the secretariat of
the Third International Conference on Early
Warning with the financial support of the
Government of Germany. The project was
undertaken by consultant Alison Wiltshire,
based at the ISDR Platform for the Promotion of
Early Warning (PPEW) in Bonn. In addition to
information gathered during the two and a half
days of the conference, significant substantive
input was received from organizations and
individuals involved in early warning and
disaster risk reduction, in the United Nations
international system and beyond.

Appreciation and thanks are extended to all
contributors to this collective exercise, including
the participants and project presenters of the
Third International Conference on Early
Warning who openly shared their views,
concerns and practical experiences on how we
can achieve effective early warning systems
which place people at their core.

Countries that develop policy legislative
and institutional frameworks for disaster
risk reduction and that are able to
develop and track progress through
specific and measurable indicators have
greater capacity to manage risks and to
achieve widespread consensus for,
engagement in, and compliance with
disaster risk reduction measures across
all sectors of society.

Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015:
Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters, Paragraph 16.

1
WHATS INSIDE

This document aims to present a short, simple
checklist of basic elements, actions and good
practices associated with effective early
warning systems. It is intended to be a non-
technical reference tool rather than an
extensive how to list for the design of early
warning systems.

How to Use the Checklist
The document is broken into two inter-related
parts that should be read in order. The first
section provides useful background information
and overarching issues important to early
warning. The second part is a series of
practical checklists of actions and initiatives
that should be considered when developing or
evaluating early warning systems.

1. Key elements of early warning, cross-
cutting issues and actors involved in
early warning
A brief section on the four elements of early
warning: risk knowledge; technical monitoring
and warning service; communication and
dissemination of warnings; and community
response capability is included to emphasize
the major components that comprise an
effective people-centred early warning system,
and why each is important.

In addition to the four elements, a number of
crosscutting issues that are critical to the
development and sustainability of effective
early warning systems have been outlined.
These include effective governance and
institutional arrangements, a multi-hazard
approach to early warning, involvement of local
communities and consideration of gender
perspective and cultural diversity.

An explanation of the main actors involved in
early warning activities, and their roles and
responsibilities, is included to provide some
context and further background to the list of
key actors presented at the beginning of each
of the checklists.

2. A checklist of practical actions to assist
in developing, evaluating or refining an
early warning system
For ease of use and practicality, an individual
checklist has been developed for each of the
four elements of early warning. An additional
checklist has also been prepared on the cross-
cutting issue of governance and institutional
arrangements due to the importance of this
issue to the sustainability and cohesiveness of
effective early warning systems.

Each of the checklists is grouped under a
series of major themes and includes a simple
list of actions or steps that, if followed, will
provide a solid basis upon which to build or
assess an early warning system.

Much has been learnt from the creative
disaster prevention efforts of poor
communities in developing countries.
Prevention policy is too important to be
left to governments and international
agencies alone. To succeed, it must also
engage civil society, the private sector
and the media.

Kofi Annan
UN Secretary-General
International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR) Programme Forum
Geneva, July 1999

2
Four Elements of People-centred Early Warning
Systems
Source: UN/ISDR Platform for the Promotion of Early Warning
PEOPLE-CENTRED EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS

1. The Key Elements
The objective of people-centred early warning
systems is to empower individuals and
communities threatened by hazards to act in
sufficient time and in an appropriate manner to
reduce the possibility of personal injury, loss of
life and damage to property and the
environment.

A complete and effective early warning system
comprises four inter-related elements, spanning
knowledge of hazards and vulnerabilities
through to preparedness and capacity to
respond. Best practice early warning systems
also have strong inter-linkages and effective
communication channels between all of the
elements.

Risk Knowledge
Risks arise from the combination of hazards
and vulnerabilities at a particular location.
Assessments of risk require systematic
collection and analysis of data and should
consider the dynamic nature of hazards and
vulnerabilities that arise from processes such as
urbanization, rural land-use change,
environmental degradation and climate change.
Risk assessments and maps help to motivate
people, prioritise early warning system needs
and guide preparations for disaster prevention
and responses.

Monitoring and Warning Service
Warning services lie at the core of the system.
There must be a sound scientific basis for
predicting and forecasting hazards and a
reliable forecasting and warning system that
operates 24 hours a day. Continuous monitoring
of hazard parameters and precursors is
essential to generate accurate warnings in a
timely fashion. Warning services for different
hazards should be coordinated where possible
to gain the benefit of shared institutional,
procedural and communication
networks.

Dissemination and Communication
Warnings must reach those at risk. Clear
messages containing simple, useful information
are critical to enable proper responses that will
help safeguard lives and livelihoods. Regional,
national and community level communication
systems must be pre-identified and appropriate
authoritative voices established. The use of
multiple communication channels is necessary
to ensure as many people as possible are
warned, to avoid failure of any one channel, and
to reinforce the warning message.

Response Capability
It is essential that communities understand their
risks; respect the warning service and know
how to react. Education and preparedness
programmes play a key role. It is also essential
that disaster management plans are in place,
well practiced and tested. The community
should be well informed on options for safe
behaviour, available escape routes, and how
best to avoid damage and loss to property.

3

2. Cross-cutting Issues
There are a range of overarching issues that
should be taken into account when designing
and maintaining effective early warning
systems.

Effective Governance and Institutional
Arrangements
Well-developed governance and institutional
arrangements support the successful
development and sustainability of sound early
warning systems. They are the foundations
upon which the previously outlined four
elements of early warning are built,
strengthened and maintained.

Good governance is encouraged by robust legal
and regulatory frameworks and supported by
long-term political commitment and effective
institutional arrangements. Effective
governance arrangements should encourage
local decision-making and participation which
are supported by broader administrative and
resource capabilities at the national or regional
level.

Vertical and horizontal communication and
coordination between early warning
stakeholders should also be established.

A Multi-Hazard Approach
Where possible, early warning systems should
link all hazard-based systems. Economies of
scale, sustainability and efficiency can be
enhanced if systems and operational activities
are established and maintained within a multi-
purpose framework that considers all hazards
and end user needs.

Multi-hazard early warning systems will also be
activated more often than a single-hazard
warning system, and therefore should provide
better functionality and reliability for dangerous
high intensity events, such as tsunamis, that
occur infrequently. Multi-hazard systems also
help the public better understand the range of
risks they face and reinforce desired
preparedness actions and warning response
behaviours.

Involvement of Local Communities
People-centred early warning systems rely on
the direct participation of those most likely to be
exposed to hazards. Without the involvement of
local authorities and communities at risk,
government and institutional interventions and
responses to hazard events are likely to be
inadequate.

A local, bottom-up approach to early warning,
with the active participation of local
communities, enables a multi-dimensional
response to problems and needs. In this way,
local communities, civic groups and traditional
structures can contribute to the reduction of
vulnerability and to the strengthening of local
capacities.

Consideration of Gender Perspectives and
Cultural Diversity
In developing early warning systems it is
essential to recognize that different groups have
different vulnerabilities according to culture,
gender or other characteristics that influence
their capacity to effectively prepare for, prevent
and respond to disasters. Women and men
often play different roles in society and have
different access to information in disaster
situations. In addition, the elderly, disabled and
socio-economically disadvantaged are often
more vulnerable.

Information, institutional arrangements and
warning communication systems should be
tailored to meet the needs of every group in
every vulnerable community.

4

3. Key Actors
Developing and implementing an effective early
warning system requires the contribution and
coordination of a diverse range of individuals
and groups. The following list provides a brief
explanation of the types of organizations and
groups that should be involved in early warning
systems and their functions and responsibilities.

Communities, particularly those most
vulnerable, are fundamental to people-centred
early warning systems. They should be actively
involved in all aspects of the establishment and
operation of early warning systems; be aware of
the hazards and potential impacts to which they
are exposed; and be able to take actions to
minimize the threat of loss or damage.

Local governments, like communities and
individuals, are at the centre of effective early
warning systems. They should be empowered
by national governments, have considerable
knowledge of the hazards to which their
communities are exposed and be actively
involved in the design and maintenance of early
warning systems. They must understand
advisory information received and be able to
advise, instruct and engage the local population
in a manner that increases public safety and
reduces the possible loss of resources on which
the community depends.

National governments are responsible for
high-level policies and frameworks that facilitate
early warning and for the technical systems that
predict and issue national hazard warnings.
National governments should interact with
regional and international governments and
agencies to strengthen early warning capacities
and ensure that warnings and related
responses are directed towards the most
vulnerable populations. The provision of support
to local communities and governments to
develop operational capabilities is also an
essential function.

Regional institutions and organizations play
a role in providing specialized knowledge and
advice which supports national efforts to
develop and sustain early warning capabilities
in countries that share a common geographical
environment. In addition, they encourage
linkages with international organizations and
facilitate effective early warning practices
among adjacent countries.

International bodies can provide international
coordination, standardization, and support for
national early warning activities and foster the
exchange of data and knowledge between
individual countries and regions. Support may
include the provision of advisory information,
technical assistance, and policy and
organizational support necessary to aid the
development and operational capabilities of
national authorities or agencies.

Non-governmental organisations play a role
in raising awareness among individuals,
communities and organizations involved in early
warning, particularly at the community level.
They can also assist with implementing early
warning systems and in preparing communities
for natural disasters. In addition, they can play
an important advocacy role to help ensure that
early warning stays on the agenda of
government policy makers.

The private sector has a diverse role to play in
early warning, including developing early
warning capabilities in their own organizations.
The media plays a vital role in improving the
disaster consciousness of the general
population and disseminating early warnings.
The private sector also has a large untapped
potential to help provide skilled services in form
of technical manpower, know-how or donations
(in-kind and cash) of goods or services.

The science and academic community has a
critical role in providing specialized scientific
and technical input to assist governments and
communities in developing early warning
systems. Their expertise is central to analysing
natural hazard risks facing communities,
supporting the design of scientific and
systematic monitoring and warning services,
supporting data exchange, translating scientific
or technical information into comprehensible
messages, and to the dissemination of
understandable warnings to those at risk.

5
Key Element 1: RISK KNOWLEDGE
Aim: Establish a systematic, standardized process to collect, assess and share data, maps and trends
on hazards and vulnerabilities.
Key Actors
International, national and local disaster management agencies; meteorological and hydrological
organizations; geophysical experts; social scientists; engineers; land use and urban planners;
researchers and academics; organizations and community representatives involved in disaster
management; international and UN agencies such as WMO, UN/ISDR, UNEP, UNU-EHS, UNOSAT,
UNDP, FAO, UNESCO.
Checklist

1. Organizational Arrangements Established
Key national government agencies involved in
hazard and vulnerability assessments
identified and roles clarified (e.g. agencies
responsible for economic data, demographic
data, land use planning, social data etc).
Responsibility for coordinating hazard
identification, vulnerability and risk
assessment assigned to one national
organization.
Legislation or government policy mandating
the preparation of hazard and vulnerability
maps for all communities in place.
National standards for the systematic
collection, sharing and assessment of hazard
and vulnerability data developed, and
standardized with neighbouring or regional
countries, where appropriate.
Process for scientific and technical experts to
assess and review the accuracy of risk data
and information developed.
Strategy to actively engage communities in
local hazard and vulnerability analyses
developed.
Process to review and update risk data each
year, and include information on any new or
emerging vulnerabilities and hazards
established.
2. Natural Hazards Identified
Characteristics of key natural hazards (e.g.
intensity, frequency and probability) analysed
and historical data evaluated.
Hazard maps developed to identify the
geographical areas and communities that
could be affected by natural hazards.
An integrated hazard map developed (where
possible) to assess the interaction of multiple
natural hazards.

3. Community Vulnerability Analysed
Community vulnerability assessments
conducted for all relevant natural hazards.
Historical data sources and potential future
hazard events considered in vulnerability
assessments.
Factors such as gender, disability, access to
infrastructure, economic diversity and
environmental sensitivities considered.
Vulnerabilities documented and mapped (e.g.
people or communities along coastlines
identified and mapped).
4. Risks Assessed
Interaction of hazards and vulnerabilities
assessed to determine the risks faced by
each region or community.
Community and industry consultation
conducted to ensure risk information is
comprehensive and includes historical and
indigenous knowledge, and local information
and national level data.
Activities that increase risks identified and
evaluated.
Results of risks assessment integrated into
local risk management plans and warning
messages.
5. Information Stored and Accessible
Central library or GIS database established
to store all disaster and natural hazard risk
information.
Hazard and vulnerability data available to
government, the public and the international
community (where appropriate).
Maintenance plan developed to keep data
current and updated.

6
Key Element 2: MONITORING AND WARNING SERVICE
Aim: Establish an effective hazard monitoring and warning service with a sound scientific and
technological basis.
Key Actors
National meteorological and hydrological services; specialised observatory and warning centres (e.g.
for water, volcano); universities and research institutes; private sector equipment suppliers;
telecommunications authorities; quality management experts; regional technical centres; UN agencies
such as UN/ISDR, WMO, FAO, UNESCO, UNEP, UNOSAT, OCHA, ITU.
Checklist

1. Institutional Mechanisms Established
Standardized process, and roles and
responsibilities of all organizations generating
and issuing warnings established and
mandated by law.
Agreements and interagency protocols
established to ensure consistency of warning
language and communication channels where
different hazards are handled by different
agencies.
An all-hazard plan to obtain mutual
efficiencies and effectiveness among different
warning systems established.
Warning system partners, including local
authorities, aware of which organizations are
responsible for warnings.
Protocols in place to define communication
responsibilities and channels for technical
warning services.
Communication arrangements with
international and regional organizations
agreed and operational.
Regional agreements, coordination
mechanisms and specialized centres in place
for regional concerns such as tropical
cyclones, floods in shared basins, data
exchange, and technical capacity building.
Warning system subjected to system-wide
tests and exercises at least once each year.
A national all-hazards committee on technical
warning systems in place and linked to
national disaster management and reduction
authorities, including the national platform for
disaster risk reduction.
System established to verify that warnings
have reached the intended recipients.
Warning centres staffed at all times (24 hours
per day, seven days per week).

2. Monitoring Systems Developed
Measurement parameters and specifications
documented for each relevant hazard.
Plans and documents for monitoring networks
available and agreed with experts and
relevant authorities.
Technical equipment, suited to local
conditions and circumstances, in place and
personnel trained in its use and maintenance.
Applicable data and analysis from regional
networks, adjacent territories and
international sources accessible.
Data received, processed and available in
meaningful formats in real time, or near-real
time.
Strategy in place for obtaining, reviewing and
disseminating data on vulnerabilities
associated with relevant hazards.
Data routinely archived and accessible for
verification and research purposes.
3. Forecasting and Warning Systems
Established
Data analysis, prediction and warning
generation based on accepted scientific and
technical methodologies.
Data and warning products issued within
international standards and protocols.
Warning analysts trained to appropriate
international standards.
Warning centres equipped with appropriate
equipment needed to handle data and run
prediction models.
Fail-safe systems in place, such as power
back-up, equipment redundancy and on-call
personnel systems.
Warnings generated and disseminated in an
efficient and timely manner and in a format
suited to user needs.
Plan implemented to routinely monitor and
evaluate operational processes, including
data quality and warning performance.

7
Key Element 3: DISSEMINATION AND COMMUNICATION
Aim: Develop communication and dissemination systems to ensure people and communities are
warned in advance of impending natural hazard events and facilitate national and regional
coordination and information exchange.
Key Actors
International, national and local disaster management agencies; national meteorological and
hydrological services; military and civil authorities; media organizations (print, television, radio and on-
line); businesses in vulnerable sectors (e.g. tourism, aged care facilities, marine vessels); community-
based and grassroots organizations; international and UN agencies such as UN/ISDR, IFRC, UNDP,
UNESCO, UNEP, WMO, OCHA.
Checklist

1. Organizational and Decision-making
Processes Institutionalised
Warning dissemination chain enforced
through government policy or legislation (e.g.
message passed from government to
emergency managers and communities etc).
Recognized authorities empowered to
disseminate warning messages (e.g.
meteorological authorities to provide weather
messages, health authorities to provide
health warnings).
Functions, roles and responsibilities of each
actor in the warning dissemination process
specified in legislation or government policy
(e.g. national meteorological and hydrological
services, media, NGOs).
Roles and responsibilities of regional or cross
border early warning centres defined,
including the dissemination of warnings to
neighbouring countries.
Volunteer network trained and empowered to
receive and widely disseminate hazard
warnings to remote households and
communities.
2. Effective Communication Systems and
Equipment Installed
Communication and dissemination systems
tailored to the needs of individual
communities (e.g. radio or television for those
with access; and sirens, warning flags or
messenger runners for remote communities).
Warning communication technology reaches
the entire population, including seasonal
populations and remote locations.
International organizations or experts
consulted to assist with identification and
procurement of appropriate equipment.
Multiple communication mediums used for
warning dissemination (e.g. mass media and
informal communication).

Agreements developed to utilise private
sector resources where appropriate (e.g.
amateur radios, safety shelters).
Consistent warning dissemination and
communication systems used for all hazards.
Communication system is two-way and
interactive to allow for verification that
warnings have been received.
Equipment maintenance and upgrade
programme implemented and redundancies
enforced so back-up systems are in place in
the event of a failure.
3. Warning Messages Recognised and
Understood
Warning alerts and messages tailored to the
specific needs of those at risk (e.g. for diverse
cultural, social, gender, linguistic and
educational backgrounds).
Warning alerts and messages are
geographically-specific to ensure warnings
are targeted to those at risk only.
Messages incorporate the understanding of
the values, concerns and interests of those
who will need to take action (e.g. instructions
for safeguarding livestock and pets).
Warning alerts clearly recognisable and
consistent over time and include follow-up
actions when required.
Warnings specific about the nature of the
threat and its impacts.
Mechanisms in place to inform the community
when the threat has ended.
Study into how people access and interpret
early warning messages undertaken and
lessons learnt incorporated into message
formats and dissemination processes.

8
Key Element 4: RESPONSE CAPABILITY
Aim: Strengthen the ability of communities to respond to natural disasters through enhanced
education of natural hazard risks, community participation and disaster preparedness.
Key Actors
Community-based and grassroots organizations; schools; universities; informal education sector;
media (print, radio, television, on-line); technical agencies with specialised knowledge of hazards;
international; national and local disaster management agencies; regional disaster management
agencies; international and UN agencies such as OCHA, UNDP, UNEP, FAO, UNESCO, UN/ISDR,
IFRC, WMO.
Checklist

1. Warnings Respected
Warnings generated and distributed to those
at risk by credible sources (e.g. government,
spiritual leaders, respected community
organizations).
Public perception of natural hazard risks and
the warning service analysed to predict
community responses.
Strategies to build credibility and trust in
warnings developed (e.g. understanding
difference between forecasts and warnings).
False alarms minimised and improvements
communicated to maintain trust in the
warning system.
2. Disaster Preparedness and Response
Plans Established
Disaster preparedness and response plans
empowered by law.
Disaster preparedness and response plans
targeted to the individual needs of vulnerable
communities.
Hazard and vulnerability maps utilized to
develop emergency preparedness and
response plans.
Up-to-date emergency preparedness and
response plans developed, disseminated to
the community, and practiced.
Previous disaster events and responses
analysed, and lessons learnt incorporated
into disaster management plans.
Strategies implemented to maintain
preparedness for recurrent hazard events.
Regular tests and drills undertaken to test the
effectiveness of the early warning
dissemination processes and responses.

3. Community Response Capacity Assessed
and Strengthened
Community ability to respond effectively to
early warnings assessed.
Response to previous disasters analysed and
lessons learnt incorporated into future
capacity building strategies.
Community-focused organizations engaged
to assist with capacity building.
Community and volunteer education and
training programmes developed and
implemented.
4. Public Awareness and Education
Enhanced
Simple information on hazards,
vulnerabilities, risks, and how to reduce
disaster impacts disseminated to vulnerable
communities and decision-makers.
Community educated on how warnings will be
disseminated and which sources are reliable
and how to respond to different types of
hazards after an early warning message is
received.
Community trained to recognise simple
hydro-meteorological and geophysical hazard
signals to allow immediate response.
On-going public awareness and education
built in to school curricula from primary
schools to university.
Mass media and folk or alternative media
utilized to improve public awareness.
Public awareness and education campaigns
tailored to the specific need of each audience
(e.g. children, emergency managers, media).
Public awareness strategies and programmes
evaluated at least once per year and updated
where required.

9
Cross-Cutting Issue: GOVERNANCE AND INSTITUTIONAL
ARRANGEMENTS
Aim: Develop institutional, legislative and policy frameworks that support the implementation and
maintenance of effective early warning systems.
Key Actors
Political leaders; policy makers (e.g. environment, development and planning departments);
international, national and local disaster management agencies; meteorological and hydrological
organizations; researchers and academics; non-government organizations; international and UN
agencies such as UNDP, UNEP, FAO, UNESCO, UN/ISDR, WMO, World Bank and regional
development banks, IFRC.
Checklist

1. Early Warning Secured as a Long Term
National and Local Priority
Economic benefits of early warning
highlighted to senior government and political
leaders using practical methods such as a
cost-benefit analysis of previous disasters.
Examples and case studies of successful
early warning systems disseminated to senior
government and political leaders.
Early warning role models or champions
engaged to advocate early warning and
promote its benefits.
The priority natural hazard risk requiring an
early warning system identified, and
operational arrangements within a multi-
hazard framework established.
Early warning integrated into national
economic planning.
2. Legal and Policy Frameworks to Support
Early Warning Established
National legislation or policies developed to
provide an institutional and legal basis for
implementing early warning systems.
Clear roles and responsibilities defined for all
organizations (government and non-
government) involved in early warning.
Overall responsibility and authority for
coordination of early warning assigned to one
national agency.
One political leader or senior government
official empowered by law as the national
decision maker.

Policies developed to decentralise disaster
management and encourage community
participation.
Local decision making and implementation of
early warning systems placed within broader
administrative and resource capabilities at the
national or regional level.
Regional and cross-border agreements
established to ensure early warning systems
are integrated where possible.
Relationships and partnerships between all
organizations involved in early warning
institutionalised and coordination
mechanisms mandated.
Early warning integrated into disaster
reduction and development policies.
Monitoring and enforcement regime in place
to support policies and legislation.
3. Institutional Capacities Assessed and
Enhanced
Capacities of all organizations and institutions
involved assessed and capacity building
plans and training programmes developed
and resourced.
Non-governmental sector engaged and
encouraged to contribute to capacity building.
4. Financial Resources Secured
Government funding mechanism for early
warning and disaster preparedness
developed and institutionalised.
Access to funding at the international or
regional level explored.
Public/private partnerships utilised to assist
with early warning system development.

10
ACRONYMS LIST

EWC III Third International Conference on Early Warning
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
ITU International Telecommunication Union
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat
PPEW Platform for Promotion of Early Warning
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UN/ISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
UNOSAT United Nations initiative to provide the humanitarian community with access to satellite
imagery and Geographic Information System services
UNU-EHS United Nations University Institute for Environment and Human Security
WMO World Meteorological Organization

UN/ISDR Platform for the Promotion
of Early Warning (PPEW)
Hermann-Ehlers-Strasse 10
D - 53113 Bonn
Germany
isdr-ppew@un.org
www.unisdr-earlywarning.org
UN Secretariat of the International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR)
Palais des Nations
CH - 1211 Geneva 10
Switzerland
isdr@un.org
www.unisdr.org
Contact Information
This document is an outcome of the Third
International Conference on Early Warning (EWC
III) hosted by the Government of Germany under
the auspices of the United Nations, from 27 to 29
March 2006 in Bonn, Germany.

1
End-to-end Tsunami Warning Considerations: Public Alert Systems
August 2009

David Coetzee, New Zealand Civil Defense and Emergency Management (CDEM)
Laura Kong and Brian Yanagi, International Tsunami Information Centre

This Summary provides an overview of the characteristics and considerations for successfully
implementing and operating a Public Alert System against tsunamis and other hazards.

Effective Warning Systems should have the following characteristics. They should be:
Focused on people at risk
Ubiquitous (Present everywhere at the same time)
Capable of reaching people irrespective of what they are doing & where they are
Easy to access and use
Not create or add risk
Reliable
Provide appropriate lead time
Authenticated

Effective Warning Systems provide Effective Warning Messages. These messages should be:
Clear & understandable
Accurate
Frequent
Credible
Specific to the situation
Give specific advice

Effective Warnings should reach 95% of at-risk population (Mileti and Sorenson, 1990)
Warning =Informal (natural, family, friends, public, media, etc) +Official warnings
For every 2 official 1
st
warnings received, 1 informal first warning is received
(Mileti and Kuligowski, 2008)
Therefore, effective Official warning system, in theory, formally reaches >2/3 (~70%)
of at-risk population
Accepted up to 5% always unreachable. Reasons are: choice to isolate themselves from
information/ contact, or by circumstances, e.g. homelessness, disabilities make contact more
problematic)

Mileti, D.S. and Sorenson, J.H., Communication of Emergency Public Warnings: A social science
perspective and state-of-the-art assessment, 1990, Federal Emergency Management Agency. p.
104.
Mileti, D.S. and Kuligowski, E., Public Warnings and Response: Research Findings & Evidence-
based Applications for Practice. 2008, University of Colorado at Boulder START Center,
University of Maryland. p. 92.

Public Education is critical to assure an appropriate response. This education should inform on:
What communication systems/media will be used to issue warnings
Who will issue the warnings
How will the warnings be issued
When will the warnings be issued
What will the warning messages say
What actions to undertake upon receipt of warnings
When will the warning be cancelled

However, everyone does not respond in the same manner, and from many studies, there is no
consensus on how to guarantee an appropriate response by 100% of the people at risk.
2

Human Response to Warning Messages depend on:
Age
Ethnicity
Gender
Social status
Previous knowledge and experience of hazards
Proximity to hazard
Responses of others

Successful / Sustainable Alert Systems use existing, already-known organizational structures, such as:
Radio
Television
Disaster Management Organizations
Fire Service - Local sirens
Police - Loudspeakers, door to door notification
Coast Guard & Port Authorities
Beach Safety Staff, Lifesguards
Schools, hospitals, retirement homes
Satellite-based broadcasts of emergency information
Community and Non-Government Organizations

Successful / Sustainable Alerts use multi-use technologies and alert through multiple methods, such as:
Sound Alerts
Sirens
Ripple control (power line messaging)
Bells, horns, drums, or other manual noise generators
Voice Alert
Fixed loud-speakers
Mobile loud-speakers
Telephone auto dialer; telephone trees
Tone-activated alert radio
Cell Broadcast
Aircraft (Hailers)
Visual Alert
Email or other computer received text or graphical product
SMS text messaging
Aircraft (Banners)
Flags or other color-based manual signals

WHICH TECHNOLOGY TO USE?

To Assess which technology is best, consider:
Other technology already used - examples of best practice
Time to reach first & total pool of target
Suitable to the hazard
Availability, serviceability
Start-up cost, current cost, & on-going maintenance
Ability to implement quickly & easily
Start-up social/institutional effort required
On-going social/institutional effort required
Ease to understand and interpret
Ability to be applied consistently
Ability to target specific geographical audiences
Addressing social behaviour issues
3
Can withstand beach erosion, coastal instability
Can withstand weather, sea level rise, criminal acts, fire, computer systems failure

How to objectively access which technology is best? Limited research and data is available.

Determining target percentage
Assessing each technology against target %
Assessing against time taken to reach target %
The results comprise a Tools Basket that DMOs can select from to add up to target % effectiveness

Final Considerations:
Realistic effectiveness
Planning for system failure
Potential to reduce community resilience
Realistic ongoing costs and commitment, considering tsunami events infrequent

Useful References on Alert Technologies (in order of most recent to oldest).

New Zealand Civil Defense and Emergency Management, Public Alerting: Options Assessment,
Information for the CDEM Sector [IS 1009], May 2009
Provides a comparative assessment of different public alerting options, including natural,
independent/ self-maintained networks, mechanisms reliant on third party hardware and/or staff, and
mechanisms that require dedicated hardware (but controlled by the warning agency). NZ CDEM also
introduced a Public Alerting Options decision support tool (using Microsoft Excel) to help decision
makers evaluate and compare the cost vs. benefit of different public alerting mechanisms.

Radio-Internet (RANET) Project, Kelly Sponberg, Information and Communication Technology Crib,
Dec 2008
Provides cursory general overvlew of Lechnlcal opLlons for communlcaLlng lnformaLlon Lo Lhe lasL
mlle, lncludlng a general descrlpLlon of Lechnologles, cosLs, sLrengLhs, and weaknesses

Peter S. Anderson, Simon Fraser University, British Colombia (Canada) Tsunami Warning Methods
A Toolkit for Community Planning, July 2006.
Provides local authorities and communities with information on public notification methods and
options, including mass notification and addressable notification methods, their advantages and
disadvantages, implementation, and costs.

US National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program (prepared by Oregon Department of Geology and
Mineral Industries), Tsunami Warning System and Procedures Guidance for Local Officials, Special
Paper 35, 2001
Provides a summary of local notification systems, including sirens, NOAA Weather Radio,
Emergency Alert Systme, EMWIN, and other systems used by tsunami-prone western USA states,
their advantages and disadvantages, implementation, and costs.

May, Nov 2008; August 2011
Tsunami Education and Awareness
May 2008 (updated August 2011)

Laura Kong, International Tsunami Information Centre
Ardito Kodijat, J akarta Tsunami Information Centre

An effective tsunami early warning system is achieved when all persons, especially in vulnerable
costal communities are prepared and respond appropriately and in a timely manner upon recognition
that a potential destructive tsunami (local or regional) may be approaching.
This summary is not meant to be comprehensive, but rather provides a general overview on activities
that can be undertaken to address the last mile of a tsunami early warning system. It seeks to be
representative of how many countries are developing and carrying out awareness-building
programmes. There is no one best method or practice, and beyond some very basic key information
that can be conveyed in many ways, there is no one best awareness publication or educational
textbook.
Often, the key organizations involved in developing and disseminating these materials are the
stakeholders involved in the end-to-end tsunami warning process, namely the TWC and DMO
organizations. In most countries, the DMO serves as the lead agency for public awareness and
preparedness, but TWCs, as the organization responsible for the scientific evaluation of the tsunami
(and earthquake threat), often work closely or share the responsibility with the DMO.
The content of awareness and education materials general include the basic topics of:
Tsunami Science and Hazards
Historical tsunami events and their impacts
Tsunami Warning System -modes of dissemination, timing, and messages
Tsunami Emergency Response System safety actions carried out, timing, services available
Tsunami Safety Rules (for people, on evacuation, use of structures/infrastructure, in boats and
harbors, etc)

In developing an awareness and education plan, important strategies include:
Traditional knowledge. This can be a powerful tool in community preparedness. Although it
may be the most effective means in a more traditional / rural / remote community, in general,
traditional knowledge alone will not be enough to assure an effective response to early
warning systems that are developing in countries. Additional information on early warning
alerts, and education on response and safe evacuation and return are needed.

Community focus. Each country will have different priority issues related to education and
awareness so that in general, education and awareness products should be tailored to the
community-specific needs (hazards, geography, demographics, cultural/religious/social, etc).

Multi-faceted approach. To be effective, materials need to answer the questions of the target
audience simply and clearly. These can be achieved through a variety of formal and informal
education, awareness-building and preparedness activities, or programmes.

Coordination and collaboration. Working together and coordination between the
different agencies involved is essential. Involvement and commitment by all
stakeholders will help to ensure sustainability.

May, Nov 2008; August 2011
Sustainability through public policy. A tsunami education and awareness programme that is
able to sustain itself over generations can be highly effective, and may be perhaps the only
feasible (funded) mitigation for localities where tsunamis are infrequent.

Successful programmes take into account at least the following themes:
Culture -Sensitivity to develop understanding and approaches that are built and based on local
culture, beliefs, and practices

Locality -Where possible and resources available, use of local context and language
effectively to assure clear understanding and good communication

Diversity Knowledge on the structure of the community and society to take advantage of its
strengths.

Education and preparedness programmes should at least address the following objectives:
Increase peoples understanding of why tsunamis happen and its nature.
Raise awareness on the important role of communities in preparedness and mitigation
Build capacity in planning and preparing to minimize the tsunami impact.
Create empowerment and encourage communities to become more self-reliant.
Focus on collective action instead of individual action.

Some formats for education materials are: Books; Teaching Materials; Booklets leaflets, flyers;
News Letters; Comics; Toys & Games; Video, CD / DVD Rom; Posters, Stickers.
Some methods of educating are (outside classes that are part of school education) are:
Face-to-face teachings; Training for Trainers; Community Events and Awareness Days;
Memorials, Assemblies & Special Meetings; Drills and exercises; Focus events for special needs
communities (disabled, elderly, women and children); Youth Group activities.
Some formats building public awareness are: Booklets, leaflets, flyers; Posters; Stickers; Special
interest stories survivors, events; Roadside signboards; Public service announcements and Media;
Advertisements (such as in telephone books).
Some methods of conveying information to the public are: Community Meetings and
Workshops; Assemblies & Special Event Meetings; Toys & Games; Drills, Simulations, and
Exercises; Publications, Printed and electronic media; Exhibitions; Fairs, booths, and window
displays; Museums and videos to Commemorate Disaster
The IOC Tsunami Standard Operating Procedures Training Course Materials include many examples
that practitioners can emulate to customize their own materials, as well as basic overviews, which can
simply be photocopied and/or translated verbatim for direct distribution.

Over the last five years, mobile and electronic technologies have become a commonplace medium for
quickly and widely sharing information. Social media networks, such as Facebook and Twitter, and
video sharing through YouTube, are popular and accepted around the world. As such, governments
and practitioners need to develop ways to communicate through these mechanisms. In this case, vital
safety information should be short, concise, and actionable, and additionally visually interesting to
hold the publics attention.

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