Biostatics and Computer Application 22.02.2014 Let Pr be a probability measure on an event space . Let A,B.

Then: Pr(AB)=Pr(A)+Pr(B)Pr(AB) That is, the probability of either event occurring equals the sum of their individual probabilities less the probability of them both occurring. This is known as the addition law of probability. Regression is frequently abused in soil research. Its proper use is for statistical prediction. It may also be used to calculate equations for calibration. A regression equation may be used to express a functional relation between two soil variables that are thought to be related by some simple mathematieal law but only where one of the variables is known exactly. In most other circumstances regression is inappropriate. Where departures from a functional relation are due to errors of measurement and sampling fluctuation it should be replaced by a structural analysis to find the best equation. Where the underlying relation is truly bivariate it should be described as such. Probability is the chance that something will happen - how likely it is that some event will happen. Sometimes you can measure a probability with a number: "10% chance of rain", or you can use words such as impossible, unlikely, possible, even chance, likely and certain. Example: "It is unlikely to rain tomorrow". Definition: A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN. Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernetcables, network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist. Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area network. For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows provide a software package called Internet Connection Sharing (ICS)that supports controlled access to LAN resources. Examples: The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest home LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers. Many LANs are divided into logical groups called subnets. An Internet

Protocol (IP) "Class A" LAN can in theory accommodate more than 16 million devices organized into subnets. Operating System: the low-level software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks and controlling peripherals. Laws of Probability Multiplicative Law of Probability: Theorem 2.5: The probability of the intersection of two events A and B is P(A \ B) = P(A)P(BjA) = P(B)P(AjB) If A and B are independent, the P(A\B) = P(A)P(B). The Multiplicative Law of Probability is often used to determine the probability of an event which involves a sequence of random occurances. n probability theory and statistics, variance measures how far a set of numbers is spread out. (A variance of zero indicates that all the values are identical.) Variance is always non-negative: A small variance indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean (expected value) and hence to each other, while a high variance indicates that the data points are very spread out from the mean and from each other. chi-square test . a statistical method assessing the goodness of fit between a set of observed values and those expected theoretically. biostatistics The science of statistics applied to the analysis of biological or medical data. Scope and training programs[edit] Almost all educational programmes in biostatistics are at postgraduate level. They are most often found in schools of public health, affiliated with schools of medicine, forestry, or agriculture, or as a focus of application in departments of statistics.

In the United States, where several universities have dedicated biostatistics departments, many other top-tier universities integrate biostatistics faculty into statistics or other departments, such as epidemiology. Thus, departments carrying the name "biostatistics" may exist under quite different structures. For instance, relatively new biostatistics departments have been founded with a focus on bioinformatics and computational biology, whereas older departments, typically affiliated with schools of public health, will have more traditional lines of research involving epidemiological studies and clinical trials as well as bioinformatics. In larger universities where both a statistics and a biostatistics department exist, the degree of integration between the two departments may range from the bare minimum to very close collaboration. In general, the difference between a statistics program and a biostatistics program is twofold: (i) statistics departments will often host theoretical/methodological research which are less common in biostatistics programs and (ii) statistics departments have lines of research that may include biomedical applications but also other areas such as industry (quality control), business and economics and biological areas other than medicine. Applications of biostatistics[edit]

Public health, including epidemiology, health services research, nutrition, environmental health and healthcare policy & management. Design and analysis of clinical trials in medicine Population genetics, and statistical genetics in order to link variation in genotype with a variation in phenotype. This has been used in agriculture to improve crops and farm animals (animal breeding). In biomedical research, this work can assist in finding candidates for gene alleles that can cause or influence predisposition to disease in human genetics Analysis of genomics data, for example from microarray or proteomics experiments.[3][4] Often concerning diseases or disease stages.[5] Ecology, ecological forecasting Biological sequence analysis[6] Systems biology for gene network inference or pathways analysis.[7]

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.

Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased. Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file. Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums. Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample. Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population. Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling. Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower

search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population. Measures of dispersion - Range, Variance -Standard deviation co-efficient of variation - computation of the above statistics for raw and grouped data

Measures of Dispersion The averages are representatives of a frequency distribution. But they fail to give a complete picture of the distribution. They do not tell anything about the scatterness of observations within the distribution. Suppose that we have the distribution of the yields (kg per plot) of two paddy varieties from 5 plots each. The distribution may be as follows

Variety I 45 42 42 41 40 Variety II 54 48 42 33 30

It can be seen that the mean yield for both varieties is 42 kg but cannot say that the performances of the two varieties are same. There is greater uniformity of yields in the first variety whereas there is more variability in the yields of the second variety. The first variety may be preferred since it is more consistent in yield performance. Form the above example it is obvious that a measure of central tendency alone is not sufficient to describe a frequency distribution. In addition to it we should have a measure of scatterness of observations. The scatterness or variation of observations from their average are called the dispersion. There are different measures of dispersion like the range, the quartile deviation, the mean deviation and the standard deviation.

Characteristics of a good measure of dispersion

An ideal measure of dispersion is expected to possess the following properties 1. It should be rigidly defined 2. It should be based on all the items. 3. It should not be unduly affected by extreme items. 4. It should lend itself for algebraic manipulation. 5. It should be simple to understand and easy to calculate Biochemical oxygen demand or B.O.D is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic biological organisms in a body of water to break down organic material present in a given water sample at certain temperature over a specific time period. The term also refers to a chemical procedure for determining this amount. This is not a precise quantitative test, although it is widely used as an indication of the organic quality of water.[1] The BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 C and is often used as a robust surrogate of the degree of organic pollution of water. BOD can be used as a gauge of the effectiveness of wastewater treatment plants. It is listed as a conventional pollutant in the U.S. Clean Water Act. Bioremediation is a waste management technique that involves the use of organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a contaminated site.[1] According to the EPA, bioremediation is a treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances. Technol ogies can be generally classified as in situ or ex situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are phytoremediation, bioventing,bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor, composting, bioa ugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation. Bioremediation may occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic bioremediation) or may only effectively occur through the addition of fertilizers, oxygen, etc., that help encourage the growth of the pollution-eating microbes within the medium (biostimulation). Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most widely used and intensively studied silkworm. According to Confucian texts, the discovery of silk production B. mori dates to about 2700 BCE, although archaeological records point to silk cultivation as early as the Yangshao period (5000 3000 BCE).[1] By about the first half of the 1st century CE it had reached ancient Khotan,[2] and by CE 140 the practice had been established in India. [3] Later it was introduced to Europe, the Mediterranean and other Asiatic countries. Sericulture has become one of the most important cottage industries in a number of countries like China, Japan, India, Korea, Brazil, Russia, Italy and France. Today, China and India are

the two main producers, together manufacturing more than 60% of the world production each year. Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally bylightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcaniceruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel,corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and erosion of stone statues. Total Dissolved Solids (often abbreviated TDS) is a measure of the combined content of allinorganic and organic substances contained in a liquid in molecular, ionized or micro-granular (colloidal sol) suspended form. Generally the operational definition is that the solids must be small enough to survive filtration through a filter with two-micrometer (nominal size, or smaller) pores. Total dissolved solids are normally discussed only for freshwater systems, as salinity comprises some of the ions constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of TDS is in the study of water quality for streams, rivers and lakes, although TDS is not generally considered a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated with health effects) it is used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an aggregate indicator of the presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants. In environmental chemistry, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is commonly used to indirectly measure the amount oforganic compounds in water. Most applications of COD determine the amount of organic pollutants found in surface water (e.g.lakes and rivers) or wastewater, making COD a useful measure of water quality. It is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) also referred to as ppm (parts per million), which indicates the mass of oxygen consumed per liter of solution. Biomineralization is the process by which living organisms produce minerals, often to harden or stiffen existing tissues. Such tissues are called mineralized tissues. It is an extremely widespread phenomenon; all six taxonomic kingdoms contain members that are able to form minerals, and over 60 different minerals have been identified in organisms.[2][3][4] Examples include silicates in algae and diatoms, carbonates ininvertebrates, and calcium phosphates and carbonates in vertebrates. These minerals often form structural features such as sea shells and the bone in mammals and birds.Organisms have been producing mineralised skeletons for the past 550 million years. Other examples include copper, iron and gold deposits involving bacteria. Biologically-formed minerals often have special uses such as magnetic sensors in magnetotactic bacteria (Fe3O4), gravity sensing devices (CaCO3, CaSO4, BaSO4) and iron storage and mobilization (Fe2O3H2O in the protein ferritin).

Germplasm A germplasm is a collection of genetic resources for an organism. For plants, the germplasm may be stored as a seed collection or, for trees, in a nursery. What are intellectual property rights? Intellectual property rights are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds. They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period of time. bemoaning Use Bemoaning in a sentence bemoan [bih-mohn] Show IPA verb (used with object) 1. to express distress or grief over; lament: to bemoan one's fate. 2. to regard with regret or disapproval.