CH.

11 CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
CONCRETE MATERIALS & PLACEMENT Composition of Concrete
Portland cement: binding agent in concrete made from lime, silica, iron oxide and alumina which chemically interacts with water to form paste that binds other aggregate particles together Cement is supplied in bulk or in 94lbm bags containing 1ft3 Type I: standard cement or normal cement: used for general construction Type II modified cement: where modest amount of sulfate resistance is needed and where heat of hydration needs to be controlled Dams & massive structures Type III High early strength cement: where quick set is needed Higher heat of hydration so suitable for cold weather Used in slip forms Type IV low heat cement: very slow setting Use to avoid damage caused by heat (damn construction) Type V sulfate resisting cement: exposed too water or soil with high alkaline content Hydration: chemical hardening of concrete Abrams law: compressive strength of concrete is inversely proportional to ratio of water to cement Too much water decreases strength Excess water remains in paste and forms pores that cannot resist compressive forces Complete hydration to occur: Water equal to 25% weight of cement is required 10% - 15% is required to make workable Water must be potable to ensure free of foreign matter that could interfere with adhesion Min water/cement ratio is .35 to .40 by weight Based on weight of water this is 4gal to 4.5gal water per 94lbm sack of cement Water/cement ratio most critical factor in determining strength Laitance: to much water that results in chalky surface deposit of low strength concrete Aggregates: determined by size of form and spacing between bars Typical: no larger than 3/4x the smallest distance between bars or larger than 1/5th the smallest dimension of form or 1/3rd depth of slab Fine are those that pass thru No4 seive B/c cement is most expensive component, best mix is one that uses a combination of aggregate sizes that fill most of the volume with a min amount of cement Typ aggregates occupy 70% - 75% total volume Standard concrete weighs Stone concrete: 150lbm/ft3 Lightweight structural: 80 - 120lbm/ft3 Expanded clays, slag and shales are used for lightweight structural concrete Non-structural insulating: 50 80lbm/ft3 Pumice or cinders used for insulating concrete Design strength (fc): strength of final mix is specified by compressive strength of concrete after cured and hardened for 28 days Typical strengths are 2,000psi, 3,000psi (most common) and 4,000psi Higher strengths: up to 12,000psi Proportioning: define ratio of cement to sand to gravel by weight using three numbers (1:2:4) is one part cement, two parts sand and four parts gravel Water: specify weight of material including water as per 94lbm bag Another useful way of determining ratio for large batches is to define weight of materials needed to make up one cubic yard of concrete

Admixtures
Chemical or other materials added to speed hydration, retard hardening, improve workability, add color, improve durability Air entraining agents: tiny, dispersed bubbles that increase workability and durability and improve its resistance to freeze/thaw cycles Help reduce segregation during placement Accelerators: speed up hydration off cement so achieve strength faster reduces time needed for protection in cold weather Plasticizers: reduce amount of water needed while maintaining necessary consistency for correct placement and compaction By reducing water makes it possible to mix higher strength concrete Used in self consolidating concrete Retarders: slow down setting time to reduce heat of hydration Used in Type IV Waterproofing: agents decrease the permeability of concrete Fly ash: waste material obtained from coal fired power plants that increase strength, decrease permeability, reduce temperature rise, increase sulfate resistance and improve workability Surfactants: reduce surface tension f mixing water facilitating wetting & penetrating action of water or aiding in emulsifying & dispersion of additives in mix

Reinforcing Steel
Three forms of reinforcing steel Bars for standard cast in place concrete Wire or strands for prestressing and post tensioning Welded wire fabric for slab reinforcement Rebar: 3/8 2 1/4 in 1/8 increments up to 1 3/8 and then two special large sizes of 1 3/4 & 2 1/4 B/c reinforcing steel and concrete must be bonded together to provide max strength, rebars are deformed to provide a mechanical interlocking of the two materials Additional bonding is provided by chemical adhesion of concrete to steel and by normal roughness of the steel Common grades: grade 40 and grade 60 Also available in 50 and 75 Numbers in grade refer to yield strength I kips per square inch Grade 60 is most common Rebars classified as axle, rail and billet (most common) Min clearance between steel & exposed face of concrete to protect reinforcing If exposed to corrosive environments such as chlorides in seawater or deicing salts, bar coated w/ epoxy compound or galvanized Min Concrete Protection for Reinforcement (distance from edge of rebar to f.o. concrete) Location Distance Surfaces not exposed directly to weather or ground: Slabs and walls 3/4 Beams and columns 1 1/2 Surfaces exposed to weather or In contact with ground No5 bar and smaller Larger than No5 Concrete poured directly on the ground

1 1/2 2 3

Welded Wire Fabric Temperature reinforcement in slabs and consists of cold-drawn steel wires at right angles & welded at intersections Square pattern with spacing of 4 or 6 Size is in inches and gage is given in cross sectional area in hundredths of a square inch Example: 6x6-W1.4x1.4 Grid is 6 x 6 & size of wire is 1.4hundreths of a square inch or .014in2 Letter preceding the gage W: smooth D: deformed Pretensioning Stranded cable draped in forms according to required stress pattern and a tensile force is applied Concrete is then poured and allowed cure Once cures, cables are cut and resulting compressive force is transferred to the concrete thru the bond between cable and concrete Post-Tensioning Hollow sleeves or conduits are place in forms on site and concrete is poured around them Within the sleeves are high strength steel tendons which are stressed with hydraulic jacks after concrete has cured Accessories Intersecting reinforcing bars are wired and held in place with spacers in walls and chairs in slab Chairs: metal wire devices place on form to hold bar above bottom of form a proper distance

Placing & Curing

Concrete hardens and gains strength by curing thru chemical reaction between water and cement rather than thru drying Critical that proper conditions of moisture and temperature be maintained for at least seven days and up to two weeks fr critical work If dries too fast it can loose up to 30% of strength With high early strength concrete, curing time can be reduced b/c gains 70% of its strength during first week of curing Final 28-day design strength depends on initial curing conditions Must be kept from freezing (can reduce strength by half) Heat of hydration: heat produced by the chemical reaction between the water and cement Must be placed to avoid segregation: separation of aggregates, water and sand from each other Segregation is caused by dropping from high distances or excessive lateral movement Max 5 drop After placement concrete must be compacted to so material has flowed into all forms and around bar & in complete contact with bar Honeycombing: formation of air pockets within concrete & next to forms Small jobs can be hand compacted but larger use vibrators Concrete hardens and gains strength by curing thru chemical reaction between water and cementnot by drying Critical that proper conditions of moisture and temp be maintained for at least seven days and up to two weeks for critical work If dries to fast, loose strength up to 30% Concrete gins 70% of strength during first week and final at 28 Final design strength depends on initial curing conditions Must be kept from freezing while curing or will lose strength, as much as 50% Heat of hydration: heat produced while curing Sufficient to cover fresh material with insulated plastic sheets for a few days

Testing Concrete
Slump test: measures consistency of concrete Cone 12 high w/ 8dia base & 4dia top Mold removed & slump from original is measured Too much indicates excessive water Very little indicates mix will be difficult to place 1 slump = good 6 slump = bad Cylinder test: measures compressive strength Molds 6dia x 12 tall Lab tested for compressive strength in psis and compared to fc values used in design Tested at 7 day intervals 7 days = 60% - 70% Core cylinder test: portion of structure is in place & needs to be tested for compressive strength Cylinder is drilled & lab tested for compressive strength Kelly ball test or ball penetration test: hemispheric mass of steel with calibrated stem is dropped onto slab of fresh laid concrete to measure consistency Amount of penetration into concrete is measure and compared to one-half the values of the slump test Impact hammer: spring loaded plunger is snapped against concrete surface and rebound is measured K-slump test: a 3/4 tube that contains a floating scale (fish scale) to measure consistency Tube placed on wet concrete and pushed into mix and released Scale floats out & is read directly and is a measure of consistency of concrete Comparable to slump

SAFETY FACTORS
Basic alternate load and strength reduction factors U = 1.4D + 1.7L U = .75(1.4D + 1.7L) + 1.6W or 1.0E U = .9D + 1.6W or 1.9E These formulas accounts for concept that dead loads can be calculated with more accuracy than live loads so dead loads needs to be increased less Strength reduction factor : Accounts for the accuracy with which actual strengths can be calculated in different kinds of structural members Quality control achievable with concrete Importance of various kinds of structural members Example: columns more important than beams to prevent catastrophic collapse Type of loading Flexure and axial tension Shear and torsion Bearing on concrete Spirally reinforced columns Tied columns Flexure in plain concrete Strength reduction factor, .90 .85 .70 .75 .70 .65

CONCRETE BEAMS
Basic Concepts of Design No single structural solution but many combinations of design elements to support same loading conditions Neutral axis location changes as load is increased Assumed that concrete resists compressive forces and reinforcing steel resists the tension forces none of the concrete on the tension side (lower) below the centroid of the steel is assumed to have any structural value but only serves to protect the steel from moisture and fire the effective depth, d is distance from top of beam to centroid of steel

Cover: farthest exterior fiber of concrete to farthest bottom fiber of rebar, DIFFERENT than effective depth To resist bending moments, the internal compressive and tension forces form a couple with the resultant of the tension forces, T at the centroid of the steel and the resultant of the compressive forces, C at fraction of distance from top of beam to neutral axis, c Assumed distribution pattern that is used and although its resultant still acts at a distance from the top of the bean, its height is less than the distance to the neutral axis and is referred to as a & its width is the width of the beam or b Concrete beams compressive force is
-

C = .85fcab
.85 = stress intensity factor determined thru testing Tensile force T = strength of steel fy times area of the steel, A

T = Asfy Values of T and C give the forces in steel and concrete as the beam is about to fail & is part of theoretical approach to concrete design known as strength method To resist bending moment caused by a load, values of T and C will be equal but will act in opposite directions If a beam was designed with T and C equal, presumably concrete would fail (crush) at the same time the steel failed (yield) which is known as balanced design Desirable b/c concrete fails crushing w/o warning & explosively resulting in immediate collapse Steel fails more slowly giving warning with cracking on tension side and excessive deflection current thinking and code is steel should fail before concrete Amount of steel in a beam to support a given load must be determined ACI code requires actual maximum amount of steel that can be used to equal 3/4 of that Amount of steel is expressed in terms of percentage of the area of the concrete s = As/bd
-

Maximum amount of steel is max = .75pb

This results in a beam that is actually under-reinforced Formula for finding the percentage of steel for a balanced design is given by

s = .851(fc/fy)(87000/87000 + fy)

1 is a constant that is .85 for concrete equal too or less than 4000psi strength Limits however to the minimum amount of steel ACI code sets minimum at min = 200/fy 3fc/fy
-

Though steel may be designed to yield first, actual design cannot be based on assumption that resisting forces, T and C will be reached under the expected design load Factors of safety must be included such as load factors & strength reduction factor, Idea is to find out what the design of the beam must be at failure under increased loads which will likely never be reached and at a reduced strength which is probably less than what the designed member will actually provide

Design for Flexure

Moment carrying capacity of a beam is Mu = Asfy(d-a/2)
-

is .90 for flexure a is found with the formula a = Asfy/.85fcb

with substitutions and using the percentage of steel instead of the area, moment carrying capacity, Mu = Asfy(d-a/2) can be rewritten as Mu = fybd2[1 (.59)( fy/fc)]

Example 11.1: Design a reinforced concrete beam to support a live load of 3.4lkf and a dead load of 1.5klf. The beam is simply supported and 20 long. Concrete strength is fc = 4000psi, and steel strength is fy = 6000psi.
-

Step 1: determine the factored load U = 1.4D + 1.7L U = (1.4)(1.5) + (1.7)(3.4) U = 7.88klf

Step 2: determine the amount to be carried Mu = wl2/8 Mu = (7.88)(20)2 (12/8) [12 converts to in-kips] Mu = 4728in-kips

Step 3: At this point there are three unknowns. The beam width, depth and steel area Using the formula for .. assume a value for one or two unknowns and find the others Since there are minimum and maximum guidelines for finding the percentage of steel begin with that. Maximum percentage of steel allowed is .75b The balanced steel percentage is s = .851(fc/fy)(87000/87000 + fy) s = (.85)(.85)(4000/6000)(87000/87000 + 60000) s = .0285 max = .75pb max = .75(.0285) max = .0214

This percentage can be used to design an adequate beam but will result in a beam that is shallower than necessary since the steel is at its maximum If no needs for a shallow beam then reducing the steel percentage & increasing the beam depth results in a more economical design and may reduce deflection For economy of material concrete beam with a depth 2to 3 times the width is desirable The minimum steel percentage is min = 200/fy or .0033 As a starting point try a percentage of .018 which is a little less than max calculated above Step 4: find dimension of the beam using the assumed steel percentage and moment carrying capacity Mu = fybd2[1 (.59)( fy/fc)] Assume a beam width and solve for d the effective depth OR solve for the quantity bd2 to more easily try different width to depth proportions Reduce pounds per square inch to kips per square inch to keep units consistent
-

Mu = fybd2[1 (.59)( fy/fc)] 4728 = (.90)(.0180)(60)bd2{1 (.59)[(.018)(60/4)]} bd2 = 5786in3

-

Assume a 12 wide beam. Then . . . d = 21.96

Round up to 22 with a cover below the centroid of the steel of about 2 1/2 which will increase the overall beam depth to 24 1/2 minimum Step 5: Find the actual area of steel using the minimum dimensions
-

As = bd As = (.018)(12)(21.96) As = 4.74in2

-

Using Table 11.1, six #8 bars will give exactly 4.74in2 or five #9 bars will give 5.00in2 which will not fit in a single layer in a 12 wide beam b/c of the minimum cover and spacing requirement of the ACI code of 1 1/2 clear between the steel and exterior of the concrete in beams and columns and a minimum clear dimension of one inch or one bar diameter (which ever is greater) between bars to allow proper placement For a 12 beam (assuming #4 bars for shear reinforcement) the clearance requirements leave a width of only 8 would be needed to accommodate six #8 bars but would probably be made 16 wide b/c widths are multiples of 2 Either the beam must be increased in width or the percentage of steel must be reduced It would be more economical to reduce the steel percentage and increase the depth of the beam so try a new percentage of .013 and recalculate 4728 = (.90)(.0130)(60)bd2{1 (.59)[(.013)(60/4)]} bd2 = 7611in3

Since at this point it is known that the width is important simply to accommodate the steel, try a width of 14 this time 14d2 = 7611 d = 23.32in

Round up to 23 1/2 with a cover of 2 1/2 gives a depth of 26 A 14x26 beam seems reasonable so use this Find the actual area of steel with this new size and new assumed percentage of steel As = bd As = (.013)(14)(23.5) As = 4.28in2

This can be satisfied with four #10 bars (A = 5.08in2) or five #9 bars (A = 5.00in2) However: five bars will not fit in a 14 beam Required minimum width 14.15 so use four #10 bars in a 14x26 beam

Shear
Diagonal tension stress: caused by the combination of shear and longitudinal flexural stress result is characteristic diagonal cracking of the concrete beam in the areas of high shear forces close to the beam supports

When calculating for shear forces critical section is usually taken at the distance d from the support b/c reaction from the supports introduce vertical compression into the beam which mitigates excessive shear in that area Two ways shear reinforcement or web reinforcement is provided for Bend up some of the tension steel near the supports at 45 angles since most of the tension steel is required in the center of the beam where the moment is greatest Vertical stirrups are small diameter bars (usually #3, #4 or #5 bars) that form a U shape cage around the tension steel

The minimum area of web reinforcement required by the ACI code is given by the formula Used if the required shear strength Vu is more than one-half of the shear capacity which is Vc time shear strength reduction factor For shear is .85 Av = (50)(bws/fy)

Design the area of steel required for vertical stirrups S = Avfyd/Vu - Vc

Compression Steel
Doubly reinforced beams: reinforcement is added to the top side of a beam under compression If concrete is not able to resist the compressive forces Low strength concrete Cross sectional area is small in proportion to the applied loads Compression steel reduces long term deflection caused by creep Steel in the compression zone may simply be used to support stirrups before placement T may provide for expected or unexpected negative moment in a member normally stressed with only positive moment When imposed load on one portion of a continuous span causes an adjacent unloaded span to bend upward If the member is designed for compression, steel must be restrained to prevent its buckling outward just as with a column Lateral ties used and must encircle the compression and tension steel on all four sides and spaced for entire length of the member Shear reinforcement can serve part of this purpose but must continue across the top of the compression reinforcement to form a secure it

Development Length and Reinforcement Anchorage

In addition to the bond between the two materials due to deformation of the rebars, one of the primary requirements for safety is that there is a sufficient length of steel bar from any point of stress to the end of the bar to develop the necessary bond Required tension development length is primarily dependent on The strength of the concrete Strength of the steel Size of bar Amount of concrete surrounding the bar Amount of transverse reinforcement surrounding the bar ACI code allows development length to be calculate by two separate means Case I may be used if: Clear cover is not less than the bar diameter & clear spacing is not less than two times the bar diameter Clear cover is not less than the bar diameter the clear spacing is not less than the bar diameter & transverse reinforcing meets the minimum for ties or stirrups Case II applies if: Neither of the Case I conditions are met

Deflection
Predicting deflection is not as easy as with homogeneous materials such as steel & wood and further complicated by two phases of deflection Immediate deflection: caused by normal dead and live loads Long-term deflection: caused by shrinkage and creep & may be two or more times the initial deflection

Continuity
Continuity: extension of a structural member over one or more supports Example: continuous member is placing a 30 steel beam over four supports each 10 on center. Since concrete is typically poured in forms extending across several columns, concrete structures are inherently continuous Concrete structures are typically continuous in vertical direction as well as in horizontal

Midspan of the beams there is positive moment However: Over the center column support the loads tend to cause the beam to bend upward with negative moment while outer columns, the beam is fixed Continuous beams and columns are statically indeterminate meaning that they cannot be solved with the principles or equations of equilibrium Continuous beams are more efficient than simply supported beams b/c maximum moment for a given load and span is less than the moment for the corresponding simple beam b/c loads in adjacent spans effectively counteract each other to a certain extent
-

T-Beams
Slabs are always poured with the beams that support them & act integrally with portion of slab acting as the top portion of the beam then becomes a T-beam with a part of the slab resisting compressive forces Flange: horizontal portion Web or Stem: vertical portion For an isolated T section, the entire top flange acts in compression However: for stems in middle of slabs or edge beams, the effective flange width is smaller than what is available

Isolated beams: flange thickness shall not be less than one half the width of the web and total flange width shall not be more than four times the web width Symmetrical T-beams: interior beams poured with the slab, the smallest of three conditions determines the effective width Width shall not exceed 1/4th the span Nor shall the overhanging slab width on either side of the beam exceed 8x the thickness of the slab Nor shall it exceed 1/2 the clear distance to the next beam Edge beams: Effective overhanging slab portion shall not exceed 1/12th the span of the beam nor shall the overhanging slab exceed 6x the thickness of the slab nor shall it exceed 1/2 the clear distance to the next beam

CONCRETE SLABS
One way slabs: reinforcement is run in one direction perpendicular to the beams supporting the slab Need extra reinforcement to counteract the effects of shrinkage and temperature changes Temperature steel: minimum amount of reinforcement set by ACI by percentage as tension steel is but in no case can the rebars be placed farther apart than five times the slab thickness or more than 18 Minimum steel ratio based on gross concrete area is .0018 for fy = 60ksi is .0020 for fy = 40ksi or 50ksi

CONCRETE COLUMNS
Primary consideration is effect of buckling by axial load Slenderness is not a critical consideration However: steel tends to fail by buckling and pushing out the concrete cover so lateral ties are required as tied bars or continuous spiral

Tied Columns
Vertical steel parallel to length with lateral reinforcing at regular intervals ACI code requires lateral ties be at least #3 rebars for longitudinal bars up to #10 bars #4 bars also for bundled reinforcement Spacing of ties cannot exceed 16 diameters of vertical bars 48 diameters of tie bars Least dimension of the column Ties arranges do every corner and alternate vertical bar has lateral support in both directions No bar can be more than 6 clear from such a laterally supported bar Strength reduction factor is .70 for tied columns

Spiral Columns
Continuous spiral of steel in lieu of individual lateral ties At least 3/8 in diameter Clear spacing between turns cannot be less than 1 or more than 3 Pitch of spiral: distance between center lines of the turns Strength reduction factor for spiral columns is .75 reflecting the fact that spiral columns are slightly stronger