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ENERGY SOURCES Types of Energy Sources 1. nonrenewable energy source energy source that e !sts !n a f! e" a#ount !n $ar!ous places !n the earth%s crust an" has the potent!al for renewal by geolog!cal& phys!cal& an" che#!cal processes ta'!ng place o$er hun"re"s of #!ll!ons to b!ll!ons of years (e.g.& foss!l fuels& nuclear energy) *. renewable energy source energy source that can be replen!she" rap!"ly (hours to se$eral "eca"es) through natural processes (e.g.& solar energy& w!n" energy& b!o#ass energy& water power& geother#al energy) Geother#al energy #ay be cons!"ere" nonrenewable when the rate of e tract!on !s greater than the rate of natural replen!sh#ent. pr!#ary energy sources refer to foss!l fuels alternat!$e energy sources all energy sources other than foss!l fuels+ can be renewable (solar energy& w!n" energy& b!o#ass energy& water power& geother#al energy) or nonrenewable (nuclear energy) ,or#at!on of Coal Trop!cal freshwater swa#ps co$ere" #any areas of the earth -.. #!ll!on years ago. Con"!t!ons !n these swa#ps allowe" the rap!" growth of plants result!ng !n large accu#ulat!on of plant #ater!al. The "eco#pos!t!on of th!s plant #ater!al was !nh!b!te" because !t was un"er water& result!ng to a spongy #ass of organ!c #ater!al calle" peat. /eat "epos!ts are 0.1 water& 21 carbon& an" 21 $olat!le #ater!als. 3n so#e parts of the worl"& peat !s use" as a fuel.

4owe$er& !t !s cons!"ere" as a low5gra"e fuel because of !ts h!gh water content. 6ue to geolog!cal changes !n the earth& so#e of the swa#ps conta!n!ng peat were sub#erge" by seas. The plant #ater!al that ha" collecte" !n the swa#ps was now co$ere" by se"!#ent. The we!ght of the plant #ater!al plus the we!ght of the se"!#ent on top of !t co#presse" !t !nto a har"er for# of low5gra"e coal 'nown as l!gn!te wh!ch conta!ns less water an" a h!gher proport!on of burnable #ater!als. 3f the we!ght of the se"!#ent was great enough& the heat fro# the earth was h!gh enough& an" the length of t!#e was long enough& the l!gn!te was change" !nto b!tu#!nous (soft) coal. 3f the heat an" pressure cont!nue" o$er t!#e& so#e of the b!tu#!nous coal was change" to anthrac!te (har") coal wh!ch conta!ns 071 carbon. ,or#at!on of O!l an" Natural Gas O!l an" natural gas or!g!nate" fro# #!croscop!c #ar!ne organ!s#s. 8hen these organ!s#s "!e" an" accu#ulate" on the ocean botto# an" were bur!e" by se"!#ents& the!r "eco#pos!t!on release" o!l "roplets. Slowly& the #u""y se"!#ent for#e" roc' calle" shale wh!ch conta!ne" "!sperse" o!l "roplets. 9lthough shale !s co##on an" conta!ns a large a#ount of o!l& e tract!on fro# shale !s "!ff!cult because the o!l !s not concentrate". 3f a layer of san"stone for#e" on the top of the shale an" an !#per#eable layer of roc' for#e" on top of the san"stone& con"!t!ons were su!table for o!l pools to for#. Usually the trappe" o!l "oes not e !st as a l!:u!" #ass but rather as a concentrat!on of o!l w!th!n san"stone pores where !t accu#ulates because water an" gas pressure force !t out of the shale. These accu#ulat!ons of o!l are #ore l!'ely to occur !f the roc' layers were fol"e" by geolog!cal forces. The geolog!cal con"!t!ons fa$orable for o!l for#at!on are the sa#e as those for natural gas. That !s why the two fuels

are often foun" together. 4owe$er& !n the for#at!on of natural gas& the organ!c #ater!al change" to l!ghter& #ore $olat!le hy"rocarbons than those foun" !n o!l. The #ost co##on hy"rocarbon !n natural gas !s #ethane. 8ater& l!:u!" hy"rocarbons& an" other gases #ay be present !n natural gas as !t !s pu#pe" fro# a well. coal the #ost abun"ant foss!l fuel Class!f!cat!on of Coal 1. l!gn!te coal the least preferable for# of coal because !t has a h!gh #o!sture content an" !t !s cru#bly !n nature *. b!tu#!nous coal the #ost w!"ely use" coal because !t !s the eas!est to #!ne an" the #ost abun"ant -. anthrac!te coal the best for# of coal because !t has the h!ghest heat!ng $alue an" !t !s the least pollut!ng. 3t !s rare an" e pens!$e because !t !s foun" at great "epths #a'!ng !t har" to obta!n. Two ;etho"s of E tract!ng Coal 1. surface #!n!ng !n$ol$es re#o$!ng the #ater!al on top of a $e!n of coal calle" o$erbur"en to get at the coal beneath. 3t !s use" when the o$erbur"en !s less than 1.. #eters th!c'. The process !s $ery eff!c!ent because !t re#o$es 1..1 of the coal !n a $e!n an" can be prof!tably use" for a sea# of coal as th!n as half a #eter. *. un"ergroun" #!n!ng a type of #!n!ng !n wh!ch the "epos!te" coal !s re#o$e" w!thout "!sturb!ng the o$erbur"en. 3t !s use" when the o$erbur"en !s greater than 1.. #eters th!c'. En$!ron#ental /roble#s of Us!ng Coal

1. Surface #!n!ng "estroys the lan"scape. Th!s "!sturbance can be #!n!#!<e" by recla!#!ng the area after the #!n!ng operat!on !s f!n!she". *. Un"ergroun" #!n!ng causes subs!"ence or s!n'!ng of lan" when the #!ne collapses. -. Un"ergroun" #!ners can suffer fro# blac' lung "!sease& a resp!ratory con"!t!on that results fro# the accu#ulat!on of f!ne coal5"ust part!cles !n the #!ners% lungs. The coal part!cles !nh!b!t the e change of gases between the lungs an" the bloo". =. Coal !s "!rty an" !ts #!n!ng an" transport pro"uce a great "eal of "ust caus!ng local a!r pollut!on proble#s. 2. The sulfur !n the coal !s respons!ble for ac!" #!ne "ra!nage. 9c!" #!ne "ra!nage occurs when the co#b!ne" act!on of o ygen& water& an" certa!n bacter!a causes the sulfur !n the coal to for# sulfur!c ac!". 9c!" #!ne "ra!nage can enter strea#s #a'!ng the# ac!"!c& caus!ng "!srupt!on to the a:uat!c ecosyste#s. 7. 9c!" "epos!t!on occurs when coal !s burne" an" sulfur o !"es are release" !nto the at#osphere& caus!ng ac!"5 for#!ng part!cles to accu#ulate on a surface. >. The release of carbon "!o !"e fro# the burn!ng of coal !ncreases the a#ount of carbon "!o !"e !n the at#osphere& contr!but!ng to global war#!ng.

9"$antages of Us!ng O!l 3nstea" of Coal 1. The e tract!on of o!l causes less "a#age to the en$!ron#ent than the #!n!ng of coal. *. O!l burns w!th less pollut!on than coal. -. O!l can be transporte" eas!ly through p!pes. Total worl" pro$en reser$es of o!l !n 100? were est!#ate" at 1... b!ll!on barrels. ;ore than three5:uarters of these are

!n O/EC countr!es. ;ore than half can be foun" !n Sau"! 9rab!a& 3ra:& @uwa!t& an" 3ran. One proble# of o!l e tract!on !s !ts !neff!c!ency. /resent technology allows only about one5th!r" of the o!l !n the groun" to be re#o$e" an" because of th!s secon"ary reco$ery !s use" to get #ore of the o!l. Secon"ary reco$ery can be "one by pu#p!ng water or gas !nto the well to force the o!l out or can be "one by start!ng a f!re !n the o!l5soa'e" roc' to l!:uefy th!c' o!l. The "!fferent co#ponents of cru"e o!l can be separate" an" collecte" by heat!ng the o!l !n a "!st!llat!on tower. 9fter th!s& the pro"ucts are further ref!ne" by crac'!ng. 6ur!ng crac'!ng& heat& pressure& an" catalysts are use" to pro"uce a h!gher percentage of $olat!le che#!cals such as gasol!ne fro# less $olat!le l!:u!"s such as "!esel fuel an" furnace o!ls. En$!ron#ental /roble#s of Us!ng O!l 1. /rocess!ng of cru"e o!l !s an opportun!ty for acc!"ental or rout!ne releases of a!r an" water pollutants. The petroche#!cal !n"ustry !s the #aAor contr!butor to a!r pollut!on. *. O!l sp!lls !n the oceans "estroy the a:uat!c ecosyste#s. -. O!l sp!lls on lan" can conta#!nate the so!l an" the groun"water. =. The e$aporat!on of o!l pro"ucts an" the !nco#plete burn!ng of o!l cause a!r pollut!on. Natural gas !s reco$ere" the sa#e way as o!l. 3n fact& a well #ay y!el" both foss!l fuels. Secon"ary reco$ery !s also use" to #a !#!<e the pro"uct!on of natural gas. Natural gas !s l!:uef!e" at 17*oC an" !t has only 1B7.. of the $olu#e of !ts gaseous for#. Tan'ers ha$e been "es!gne" to transport l!:uef!e" natural gas fro# the area of pro"uct!on to the area of "e#an". Natural gas !s the least "!srupt!$e to the en$!ron#ent a#ong the foss!l fuels. 9 natural gas well "oes not pro"uce any waste although there #ay be local o"or

proble#. E cept for the "anger of an e plos!on& !t poses no har# to the en$!ron#ent "ur!ng transport. ;ore than two5th!r"s of natural gas reser$es are locate" !n Russ!a an" ;!""le East. ;ore than a th!r" of total reser$es are locate" !n Aust ten g!ant f!el"sC s! are locate" !n Russ!a an" the rest are !n Datar& 3ran& 9lger!a& an" Netherlan"s. 8ays of Us!ng Solar Energy 1. pass!$e heat!ng syste# *. act!$e heat!ng syste# -. generat!ng electr!c!ty pass!$e solar syste#s 3n these syste#s& the energy of the sun !s con$erte" to heat energy when !t !s absorbe" by a surface. Earl!est uses of pass!$e solar energy are to "ry foo" an" clothes an" to e$aporate seawater to pro"uce salt. 4o#es an" bu!l"!ngs can be "es!gne" to use pass!$e solar energy for heat!ng. Such syste#s re:u!re a large w!n"ow through wh!ch sunl!ght enters an" a large #ass that collects an" stores the heat. Th!s large #ass #ay be a th!c' wall or floor that woul" be a nor#al part of the roo#. Th!s syste# !s free fro# #a!ntenance because !t has no #o$!ng part. 9lso !t has no operat!ng cost. act!$e solar syste# 3n th!s syste#& a solar collector cons!st!ng of a ser!es of l!:u!"5f!lle" tubes& a pu#p& an" a syste# of p!pes are re:u!re" to transfer the heat fro# the s!te of !ts pro"uct!on to the area to be heate". 9n act!$e solar syste# can be !nstalle" !n new bu!l"!ngs an" !n e !st!ng structures. One cons!"erat!on !n th!s syste# !s the !n!t!al cost of !nstallat!on. 9nother !s the operat!on an" #a!ntenance costs because the syste# has #o$!ng parts.

solar5generate" electr!c!ty /hoto$olta!cs !s a technology that con$erts sunl!ght "!rectly !nto electr!c!ty. The syste#s use solar cells also calle" photo$olta!c cells wh!ch are #a"e of th!n layers of se#!con"uctors (s!l!con) an" sol!"5state electron!c co#ponents w!th few or no #o$!ng parts. The cells are constructe" !n stan"ar"!<e" #o"ules& encapsulate" !n plast!c or glass& wh!ch can be co#b!ne" to pro"uce syste#s of $ar!ous s!<es so that power output can be #atche" to the !nten"e" use. /hoto$olta!cs !s use" to supply power to satell!tes an" space $eh!cles. 3t !s also use" as a power source !n re#ote areas for electr!c e:u!p#ent such as water5le$el sensors& #eteorolog!cal sensors& an" e#ergency telephones. 6!sa"$antages of Us!ng Solar Energy 1. 3t !s relat!$ely "!sperse"& arr!$!ng at Earth%s surface l!'e a f!ne #!st& so that a large lan" area !s re:u!re" to generate a large a#ount of energy. Th!s proble# !s #!n!#!<e" when solar collectors can be co#b!ne" w!th e !st!ng structures as w!th the a""!t!on of solar hot5 water heaters on the roofs of e !st!ng houses. *. 4!ghly central!<e" an" h!gh5technology solar energy un!ts such as solar power towers ha$e a greater !#pact on the lan" because they nee" cons!"erable space. Th!s proble# can be #!n!#!<e" by locat!ng the# !n re#ote areas not use" for other purposes an" by #a'!ng use of "!sperse" solar energy collectors on e !st!ng structures where$er poss!ble. -. The #anufacture an" use of solar e:u!p#ent !n$ol$e large $ar!ety of #etals& glass& plast!cs& an" flu!"s. So#e of these substances #ay cause en$!ron#ental proble#s through pro"uct!on an" by acc!"ental release of to !c #ater!als.

water power a for# of store" solar energy because cl!#ate wh!ch "!ctates the flow of water on Earth !s "r!$en !n part by "!fferent!al solar heat!ng of the at#osphere 8ays of Us!ng 8ater /ower 1. construct!ng "a#s *. pu#p storage 6ur!ng t!#es when "e#an" for power !s low (for e a#ple& at n!ght !n the su##er)& electr!c!ty pro"uce" fro# foss!l fuels or nuclear plants !n e cess of the "e#an" !s use" to pu#p water uph!ll to a h!gher reser$o!r (h!gh pool). Then& "ur!ng t!#es when "e#an" for electr!c!ty !s h!gh (for e a#ple& on hot "ays !n the su##er)& the store" water flows bac' "own to a low pool through generators to help pro$!"e energy. The a"$antage of pu#p storage l!es !n the t!#!ng of energy pro"uct!on an" use. #!cro5hy"ropower syste#s ha$e power output of less than 1.. '8 6!sa"$antages of Us!ng 8ater /ower 1. Earge "a#s an" reser$o!rs floo" large tracts of lan" that coul" ha$e ha" other uses. ,or e a#ple& towns an" agr!cultural lan"s #ay be lost. *. 6a#s bloc' the #!grat!on of so#e f!sh such as sal#on. -. 8ater fall!ng o$er h!gh "a#s #ay p!c' up n!trogen gas+ !f the gas enters the bloo" of f!sh& !t e pan"s an" '!lls the#. Th!s !s s!#!lar to the con"!t!on 'nown as the ben"s wh!ch occurs !f "!$ers us!ng a co#presse" a!r source surface too rap!"ly fro# "eep water. The f!sh resp!re n!trogen gas un"er pressure of the fall!ng water+ an" when the pressure !s re"uce" :u!c'ly& the gas bubbles !n the bloo" e pan" an" "a#age t!ssue. N!trogen has '!lle" #!grat!ng ga#e f!sh !n the /ac!f!c Northwest !n th!s #anner.

=. 6a#s trap se"!#ent that woul" otherw!se reach the sea an" e$entually replen!sh the san" on beaches. 2. ,or a $ar!ety of reasons& #any people "o not want to turn w!l" r!$ers !nto a ser!es of la'es. b!o#ass energy energy reco$ere" fro# b!o#ass (organ!c #atter such as plant #ater!al an" an!#al waste) F!o#ass Sources 1. woo" *. agr!cultural res!"ue fro# the har$est!ng of crops (coconut hus's& sugarcane waste& corncobs& peanut shells) -. crops grown for the!r energy content (sugarcane& corn& sorghu#) =. an!#al waste 2. urban waste (waste paper& organ!c househol" waste) 8ays of Us!ng F!o#ass Energy 1. "!rect burn!ng of b!o#ass e!ther to pro"uce electr!c!ty or to heat water an" a!r *. gas!f!cat!on 5 heat!ng of b!o#ass to for# a gaseous fuel -. process!ng of b!o#ass to pro"uce b!ofuels such as ethanol& #ethanol& or #ethane 6!sa"$antages of Us!ng F!o#ass Energy 1. 3t can pollute the a!r an" "egra"e the lan". *. The use of b!o#ass as fuel places pressure on an alrea"y hea$!ly use" resource. geother#al energy natural heat fro# the !nter!or of the earth that !s con$erte" to heat bu!l"!ngs an" generate electr!c!ty 6!sa"$antages of Us!ng Geother#al Energy

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1. 8hen geother#al energy !s "e$elope" at a part!cular s!te& en$!ron#ental proble#s !nclu"e on5s!te no!se& e#!ss!on of gas& an" "!sturbance of the lan" at "r!ll!ng s!tes& "!sposal s!tes& roa"s an" p!pel!nes& an" power plants. *. Geother#al "e$elop#ent often "oes pro"uce cons!"erable ther#al pollut!on fro# hot wastewater wh!ch #ay be sal!ne or h!ghly corros!$e& pro"uc!ng "!sposal an" treat#ent proble#s. -. The e plorat!on an" "e$elop#ent of geother#al energy "egra"e the trop!cal forest as "e$elopers construct roa"s& bu!l" fac!l!t!es& an" "r!ll wells. =. The stea# conta!ns hy"rogen sulf!"e gas. 2. The #!nerals !n the stea# corro"e p!pes an" e:u!p#ent& caus!ng #a!ntenance proble#s. The #!nerals are also to !c to f!sh. nuclear energy the energy of the ato#!c nucleus 8ays of Us!ng Nuclear Energy 1. f!ss!on the spl!tt!ng of ato#!c nucle! *. fus!on the fus!ng or co#b!n!ng of ato#!c nucle! nuclear reactors "e$!ces that pro"uce controlle" nuclear f!ss!on One '!logra# of uran!u# o !"e pro"uces heat e:u!$alent to appro !#ately 17 #etr!c tons of coal. Natural 3sotopes of Uran!u# 1. uran!u#5*-? (00.-1 abun"ance) *. uran!u#5*-2 (..>1 abun"ance) the only naturally occurr!ng f!ss!onable or f!ss!le #ater!al -. uran!u#5*-= (....21 abun"ance)

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enr!ch#ent process!ng uran!u# to !ncrease concentrat!on of uran!u#5*-2 fro# ..>1 to about -1

the

l!ght water reactors nuclear reactors that use water as the #o"erator #elt"own a nuclear acc!"ent !n wh!ch the nuclear fuel beco#es so hot that !t for#s a #olten #ass that breaches the conta!n#ent of the reactor an" conta#!nates the outs!"e en$!ron#ent w!th ra"!oact!$!ty 6!sa"$antages of Us!ng Nuclear Energy 1. Uran!u# #!nes an" #!lls pro"uce ra"!oact!$e waste #ater!al that can pollute the en$!ron#ent. *. Uran!u#5*-2 enr!ch#ent an" fabr!cat!on of fuel asse#bl!es pro"uce waste #ater!als that #ust be carefully han"le" an" "!spose" of. -. 8aste "!sposal !s contro$ers!al because no one wants a nuclear waste "!sposal fac!l!ty nearby. =. The probab!l!ty of a #elt"own that #!ght release har#ful ra"!at!on !nto the en$!ron#ent.