Flexural

Members

Engineering Science 10 Department of Engineering Science

Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break? College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman
AH-1Pitch Control Rod
(Crash impact forces)
T-2 Wing Carry Through Beams
(Inflight failure)
 TH-57 Rotor Mast
Note: Not a Helical (Torsional) failure, so
it is not separated due to rotational forces.
Beams
 Beams

What is a beam?

A slender (usually) horizontal structural

member that is subjected to a load that tends
to bend it.
 Beams

Examples:
Floor joists and rafters

Tree branches
Vertebral column and neck
 Beams

Types:
Fixed beam (simply supported beam)
 Beams

Types:
Cantilever beam
 Beams

A cantilever beam can be thought of as half of

a fixed beam turned upside down.
 Beams

See!
 Beams

Types:
Beam with overhang
 Beams

Types:
Continuous beam
 Beams

All materials and structures deflect, to greatly

varying extents when they are loaded.

The science of elasticity is about the

interactions between forces and deflections.
The material of the bough is stretched near its
upper surface and compressed or contracted
near its lower surface by the weight of the
monkey.
Bending
 Bending

Forces on a cantilever beam

 Bending

If the material near the neutral axis is

removed, the beam collapses.
 Bending

Material in the middle provides shear

resistance.
 Geometry
of
deformation
 Geometry of deformation

We will consider the deformation of an ideal,

isotropic prismatic beam.

All parts of the beam that were originally

aligned with the longitudinal axis bend into
circular arcs.
 Geometry of deformation
The neutral plane/surface or axis:
 Geometry of deformation
Where is the neutral plane/surface or axis?

 It is the centroid of the cross-section.

 In simple circular or rectangular shapes, it

is the middle.

 For more complex shapes, it is the center of

gravity of a cutout of uniform thickness with
the object’s cross-sectional shape.
 Geometry of deformation
Bending stresses in a beam:
Stress
 Stress

Let’s consider a segment of a loaded beam. The

segment may be deformed as shown below.
 Stress

Hence we can sketch of the stress normal to the

axis of the beam …
 Stress

The radius of curvature:

1 M
= −
ρ EI
Where M is the internal bending moment acting on a
section, E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the
moment of inertia of the section.
 Positive ρ means the positive y-axis is on the
concave side of the neutral axis.

 EI is known as the flexural rigidity of the beam.

 Stress

The fiber stress:

My
σ =
I
Where M is the internal bending moment acting on a
section, y is the distance of a point (fiber) from the
neutral axis and I is the moment of inertia of the
section.
Cross section
 Cross section

Flexural rigidity:
EI gives the resistance to bending of a structure.

Several conditions must be met in order to simply

calculate it. The material must be:
 Homogeneous
 Isotropic

 Linearly elastic

 Deform equally under tension and compression

 Not change shape appreciably under load

 Cross section

What does the I, the moment of inertia mean?

Essentially, this says that the beam is stiffer if the
material in the beam is located further away from
the centroid (neutral axis).
 So any small area is more effective at stiffening
the beam depending on the square of the distance.

 Hence, if you want to make a strong beam with

little material, make sure that the material is as far
as possible from the centroid.
 Cross section

What does the moment of inertia mean?

 Hence, we have ‘I’ beams.

 Cross section

I beams are very stiff in bending but not that

resistant in torsion.
 Cross section

Box girders (hollow square tube)

But stresses tend

Very resistant to concentrate at
to torsion the corners
 Cross section

Hollow tubes

Best if the
Resistant to
direction of the
bending and
load cannot be
torsion
predicted
 Cross section

Typical beam cross sections and the ratio of I to the

value for a solid square beam of equal cross-
sectional area.
Cross section

A T-cross section can be

used to decrease either the
maximum tensile or the
maximum compressive
stress to which the beam is
subjected.
 Cross section

Some organisms take advantage of I to localize

bending.

Sea anemone, Daffodil

Metridium
Beam technology
 Beam technology

The I beam:
 Beam technology

Steel section terminology:

 Beam technology

While we are mostly assuming beams made of steel

or other metals, many are made of concrete
and concrete does not support a tensile stress.

For concrete beams, we assume that only the

material on the compressive side of the neutral axis
actually carries a load.
 Beam technology
One solution is pre-stressed concrete.
Where metal bars set within the concrete are pre-
stressed to provide an initial compression to the
concrete beam.
so it can withstand some tension, until the pre-
stress is overcome

The yellow guidelines highlight the camber (upward curvature) of a pre-

stressed double T. The pre-stressing strands can be seen protruding from the
bottom of the beam, with the larger strands at the bottom edge. The tension is
these strands produces the camber, the beam is straight when cast.`
 Beam technology

Arches
 Beam technology

How an arch works?

 Torsional
Members

Engineering Science 10 Department of Engineering Science

Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break? College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman
F-18 Engine Shaft
Torsional Buckling
UH-1N Turbine: Helical shaft failure
Torsional
loads
 Torsional loads
Torque – twisting couple
1) Turbine exerts torque T
on the shaft.

2) Shaft transmits the

torque to the generator.

3) Generator creates an
equal and opposite torque
T’.
 Torsional loads

Net of the internal shearing stresses is an

internal torque, equal and opposite to the
applied torque,
 Torsional loads

Torque applied to shaft produces shearing

stresses on the faces perpendicular to the
axis.
 Torsional loads

Conditions of equilibrium require the existence

of equal stresses on the faces of the two
planes containing the axis of the shaft.

 The existence of the axial shear

components is demonstrated
by considering a shaft made up
of axial slats.

The slats slide with respect to

each other when equal and
opposite torques are applied to
the ends of the shaft.
Shaft deformations
 Shaft deformations
From observation, the angle of twist of the
shaft is proportional to the applied torque and
to the shaft length.

φ ∝ T
φ ∝ L
 Shaft deformations

When subjected to torsion, every cross-section of a

circular shaft remains a plane and undistorted.

Cross-sections for hollow and solid circular shafts

remain plain and undistorted because a circular
shaft is axisymmetric.
 Shaft deformations

Cross-sections of noncircular (non-axisymmetric)

shafts are distorted when subjected to torsion.
Shearing
 Shearing
Consider an interior section of the
shaft. As a torsional load is applied, an
element on the interior cylinder
deforms into a rhombus.
Since the ends of the element remain
planar, the shear strain is equal to
angle of twist.
It follows that
ρφ
Lγ = ρ φ or γ =
L
Shear strain is proportional to twist and
radius.
 Shearing
The shearing stress varies linearly with the
radial position in the section.

The elastic torsion formula,

Tc Tρ
τ max = and τ =
J J
Torsional failure
 Torsional failure

Ductile materials generally fail in shear. Brittle

materials are weaker in tension than shear.
 Torsional failure

When subjected to torsion, a ductile specimen

breaks along a plane of maximum shear, i.e., a
plane perpendicular to the shaft axis.
 Torsional failure

When subjected to torsion, a brittle specimen

breaks along planes perpendicular to the
direction in which tension is a maximum, i.e.,
along surfaces at 45o to the shaft axis.
Angle of twist
 Angle of twist

Recall that the angle of twist and maximum shearing

strain are related,

cφ
γ max =
L

In the elastic range, the shearing strain and shear

are related by Hooke’s Law,
τ max Tc
γ max = =
G JG
 Angle of twist

Equating the expressions for shearing strain and

solving for the angle of twist,

TL
φ =
JG
 Angle of twist

If the torsional loading or shaft cross-section

changes along the length, the angle of rotation is
found as the sum of segment rotations

Ti Li
φ = ∑
i J i Gi
Transmission
 Transmission

Design of transmission shafts:

Principal transmission shaft performance

specifications are:

 power
 speed

Designer must select shaft material and cross-

section to meet performance specifications without
exceeding allowable shearing stress.
 Transmission

Determine torque applied to shaft at specified

power and speed,

P = Tω = 2π fT
P P
T= =
ω 2π f

Where P is the power, T is the torque and ω is the

angular velocity.
 Transmission

Find shaft cross-section which will not exceed the

maximum allowable shearing stress,

Tc
τ max =
J
J π 3 T
= c = ( solid shafts )
c 2 τ max
J
=
π
c2 2c2
4
( 4
c2 − c1 =) T
τ max
( hollow shafts )
Transmission

The derivation of the torsion

formula,
Tc
τ max =
J
assumed a circular shaft with
uniform cross-section loaded
through rigid end plates.
Transmission

The use of flange couplings, gears

and pulleys attached to shafts by
keys in keyways, and cross-
section discontinuities can cause
stress concentrations.

Experimental or numerically
determined concentration factors
are applied as

Tc
τ max = K
J
 Transmission

Shaft design:

 Shaft must have adequate torsional strength to

transmit torque and not be overstressed.

 Shafts are mounted in bearings and transmit

power through devices such as gears, pulleys, cams
and clutches.

 Components such as gears are mounted on shafts

using keys.

 Shaft must sustain a combination of bending and

torsional loads.
 Slender
Columns

Engineering Science 10 Department of Engineering Science

Strength of Materials: Why Things Bend and Break? College of Engineering
University of the Philippines-Diliman
Buckling
Columns
 Columns

Columns – Straight structural members

subjected to compressive axial loads.
 Columns

Types of columns:

Short

Long
 Columns

Failure of Modes of Columns:

Crushing
 Columns

Failure of Modes of Columns:

Buckling
 Columns

Crushing failure governs in short columns

while buckling failure governs in long columns.
Buckling
 Buckling

When a structure (subjected usually to

compression) undergoes visibly large
displacements transverse to the load then it is
said to buckle.

Buckling may be demonstrated by pressing

the opposite edges of a flat sheet of cardboard
towards one another.

For small loads the process is elastic since

buckling displacements disappear when the
load is removed.
Buckling
 Buckling

Types:

Euler buckling

 Column is smoothly bent from end to end.

 Compressive forces on the concave side

and tension forces on the convex
 Buckling

Types:

Euler buckling

The critical Euler load:

2
π EI
P= 2
(KL)
Where E is the Young’s modulus, I is the
moment of inertia, K is the effective length
factor and L is the length of the column.
 Buckling

Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Pinned ends:
 Buckling

Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Fixed and free ends:

 Buckling

Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Fixed ends:
 Buckling

Types of column and the Euler buckling:

Pinned and Fixed ends:

 Buckling 2
π EI
P=
Types of column and the Euler buckling: (KL)2
 Buckling

Types:

Local buckling
 The way empty cans fail.

 Indicated by growth of bulges, waves or

ripples.
 Buckling

Buckling proceeds in manner which may be

either :

Stable - in which displacements increase in a

controlled fashion as loads are increased, ie.
the structure's ability to sustain loads is
maintained, or

Unstable - in which deformations increase

instantaneously, the load carrying capacity
nose-dives and the structure collapses
catastrophically.
 Buckling

Neutral equilibrium is also a theoretical

possibility during buckling – this is
characterized by deformation increase
without change in load.
Compression structures
 Compression structures

Advantage: so long as they are put together

correctly, gravity will do the work of keeping
everything in its proper place (no specific
fasteners needed). Traditionally, large
compression structures have been built of
brick/stone.

Disadvantage: susceptible to failure by

bending; stone has little resistance to tension.
 Compression structures
How high can we build a column/wall?
Theoretical limit: the point at which the
vertical load becomes so great that the
material/s are crushed beneath the weight of
the material/s above them.

The crushing strength of stone and brick is

> 40 MN/m2

We should be able to build a column/wall

several miles high.
 Compression structures
How high can we build a column/wall?
The wall will fail long before the theoretical
limit is reached. Why?

Important point: mortar between bricks does

not glue the bricks together (it carries no
tensile load). Mortar fills in the surface
irregularities in the bricks’ surfaces, so that
the compressive load is not carried by a few
high spots (which would increase local stress).
 Compression structures
Analysis of column/wall stability?
Assumptions:
 Compressive stresses are so low that the
material will not be broken by crushing.
 Mortar is used, so the fit between the stones
is so good that the compressive force is
distributed over the whole area of the joint.
 Friction in the joints is so high that failure
will not occur because of the stones sliding
over one another.
 The joints (mortar) have no tensile strength.
 Compression structures
Symmetrical vertical force,P

Compressive stresses
are spread evenly
over the entire width
of the joint
 Compression structures
What if P is eccentric?
 Compressive
stresses are no longer
uniform.
 Stress will vary
linearly across the
width of the
column/wall if the
material is Hookean.
 Whole joint is still in
compression.
 Compression structures
P is now at the edge of the middle third of the
column/wall.
 Stress at the outside
edge of the wall is
zero.
 We still have
compressive forces
across the entire
width of the
column/wall.
 Compression structures
P is outside of the middle third of the
column/wall.
 The outside edge of
the wall is now in
tension.
 But mortar cannot
carry tension
stresses!
 What will happen?
 Compression structures
The column/wall cracks.

We are still okay,

because the
remaining width of the
wall can still carry the
load.
 Compression structures
Disaster!

 If P’s line of action

moves outside of the
wall, the whole joint is
put into tension.
 The wall tips up and
falls over.
 Compression structures
What if the vertical force is applied to the wall
obliquely?
 We need to know
the point at each
successive joint at
which we can
consider the weight to
be acting.
 We can connect the
points and plot a
thrust line.
 Compression structures
Thrust line
 Compression structures
Thrust line and stability

If the thrust line comes in contact with the

edge of the wall at any point, the wall is liable
to fall over.

How can one insure that the thrust line stays

within the middle third of the wall?
 Compression structures
One of the most effective strategies is to
simply add more weight to the top of the wall
 Compression structures
That is the practical reason behind the
decorative statues adorning so many large
stone buildings
Compression structures

cornice or gargoyle
 Next Meeting:

Project
Bridge building competition, 9/14.
Bring toothpicks