CE 374 FLUID MECHANICS

P Prepared d by: b Dr. Nuray Denli l Tokyay k

Revised by: y Dr. Elin Kentel

Chapter 2. 2 HYDROSTATICS

Introduction
Hydrostatics y is the study y of f fluids f in which there is no relative motion between the fluid particles. If there is no relative motion, motion no shearing stresses to be present. The only stress that exists is a normal stress (the pressure) p ). So it is the pressure that is primary interest in hydrostatics. hydrostatics

2.1. Scalar, Vector, Tensor Q Quantites and Fields

In order to define a point in space, we need 3 coordinates (x,y,z). In g general the physical p y quantities q are tensors of f some order: If a physical quantity at a point can be defined only with one characteristic, such as magnidute we call it as s l : scalar:
(3)0 = 1 0-th order tensor or scalar. Ex: temperature

2.1. Scalar, Vector, Tensor Q Quantites and Fields

If a physical quantity at a point can be defined with three characteristics, such as magnidute, direction and sense we call it as vector:
(3)1 = 3 1-st order tensor or vector. Ex: velocity

If a physical quantity at a point can be defined with 2 nd order tensor: nine characteristic characteristic, we call it as 2-nd
(3)2 = 9 2-nd order tensor. Ex: stress tensor

2.2. Surface & Body y Forces

There are two types of forces acting on the fluids: 1. Body forces 2. Surface Forces Body y Forces, , B: are all external forces which are distributed over the mass of the fluid developed without p physical y contact.

B = B x i + B y j + Bz k
F i = m(a x i + a y j + a z k ) Inertia force can be
considered as body force. force

Ex: When gravity is the only force and z is taken as direction, then the body force is:

B = Bz k = W k = mg k

Surface forces are the forces that develop due to surroundings the direct contact of fluids with its surroundings. Therefore they act on the contact surfaces. Let us examine these surface forces in detail:

Surface Forces and Stress at a point p

Let F be the resultant of all surface forces acting on any surface A defined on the fluid surface.
z B A O C x A

Ax = ABO Ay = BCO Az = ACO

y

F m

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k

Stress
The resultanf force F can be decomposed into components:

F = Fx i + F y j + Fz k
The area vector can also decomposed into components:

A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
Then stress (i.e. the force per unit area) can be defined as:

F Stress ( ) lim A 0 A

Consider a point A in space. We can pass three planes containing t i i point i tA A, one is paralel l lt to xy-plane, l one is paralel l l to t xz-plane, & the other is paralel to yz-plane
z

xz xx
A

xy
y

yz yx zz
A

yy
y

x z

zy
x

zy
y

In each p plane, there will be one normal stress, and two shear stress. The first index shows the direction of the plane, plane and second one shows the direction of stress. Therefore, stresses we have 3 normal and 6 tangential (shear) stresses. Therefore in order to define stress (i.e. force per unit area) ) at t a point, i t we need d nine i components. ts
z

zz zx
A

zy
y

Stress Tensor
i , j lim
z zz zx xz xx xy zy yx yz yy y

F j Ai

Ai 0

Represents nine scalar equations i=1 2 3 and j=1,2,3 i=1,2,3 j=1 2 3 Stress tensor is a symmetrical second order tensor.

plane direction

xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy

xx xy xz = yx yy yz zx zy zz

For all second order tensors, summation of diagonal elements is constant:

xx + yy + zz = 3 = constant

Thermodynamic Pressure
A) Without shear stresses (=0): On the fluid element all ll the h surface f forces f per unit area & th only the l b body d f force, weight i ht are shown. Newton s second law of motion in Newtons y-direction gives:
x yy

nn z

W zz

z = s sin y = s cos

F = m( a x i + a y j + a z k )
yy + nn y = ay 2

F j = ma y j

W = = xyz / 2

yy xz + nn xs sin = a y

z = s sin

Thermodynamic Pressure
yy + nn y = ay 2
yy x

nn z

If f we shrink the volume to obtain stress at a point, i.e: y0 and is constant

yy = nn

W zz

Similarly y Newtons second law in x and z directions would give zz = nn and xx = nn therefore:

xx = yy = zz = nn

Pressure
xx = yy = zz = nn
What is the physical meaning of this equation? The direction n is an arbitrary direction. This equation means that the normal stress in any direction has the same value it does not depend on the direction. Therefore it is a scalar quantity. Pressure in a fluid is constant at a point.

Pascal Law (p (pressure at a point) p )

In the absence of shear stresses, the normal stress in a fluid is independent of orientation of the plane thus can be represented by a single scalar quantity. Taking the fact that fluids can sustain only compression, pressure p is set equal to negative of this magnitude: xx = yy = zz = p B) With shear stresses (0):
Th bulk stress: The st ss: The pressure is:
1 = ( xx + yy + zz ) = constant 3

p =

The Gradient
Consider a pressure field acting on an infinitesimal frictionless fluid element moving as a rigid body or at rest. rest The net force in y-direction is
p p p dFy = p p + dy y dxdz = dxdydz y = d y y y

The force vector per unit volume due to pressure variations in x, y and z directions is:
p p dF p = f = i+ j+ k = p = gradp d y z x
p z

p+
y dy dx

The Gradient operator

= i+ j+ k x y z
x

dz

p dy y

2.3 Governing Equation

1) ) Consider a f fluid u element m at

rest or moving as a rigid body (i.e. with no relative motion).

F = ma

2) Dividing by volume 3) If there are no shear stresses, stresses

= a

then the force per unit volume, f, is due to p pressure variations and gravity only.

p k = a
(Euler Equation)

Hydrostatics
p k = a
p dF p p = f = i + j + k = p d y z x

r r r r p = k + a = f r p = resultant body force /volume

Equation of hydrostatics

This equation Thi i shows h that h variation i i of f pressure is i due d to the h body force per unit volume in that direction.

Fluid at rest ( a = 0 )
p k = a
p =0 x

p p p i+ j + + k = 0 y x z

p =0 y
p = z

p = p(z)

Governing G i diff differential ti l equation for the hydrostatic pressure distribution

If gravity is the only body force, then

r r f = k r r p = k
The surfaces on which pressure is constant are called equipotential surfaces. L t ds Let d be b th the displacement displ m nt vector t on n an n equipotential ip t nti l surface:

r r r r d s = dx i + dy j + dz k

If we take the dot product of ds with the equation of hydrostatics:

r r r r d s = dx i + dy j + dz k r r p = f r r r r r r p p p p ds = f ds dx + dy + dz = dp = f d s x y z

On the h other h hand h d dp=0 on an equipotential l surface. f r r Therefore f d s = 0 If dot product of two vectors is zero, these vectors are perpendicular to each other. Therefore
equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the direction of resultant body force.

If gravity is the only body force, then equipotential surfaces are horizontal planes.

2.4 Pressure distribution

p = z
zs h zA pA z
Patm

(in an incompressible fluid at rest or moving as a rigid body with no acceleration)

patm

PA

dp = dz
zA

zs

patm p A = ( z s z A ) = h p A = pabsolute = patm + h

p gage = pabsolute patm = h

p A = h gage
where h is the depth of the point. point

Therefore, in an incompressible fluid, the pressure changes with depth only. It remains constant on horizantal planes.

Equipotential surfaces
The surfaces on which pressure is constant are called equipotential surfaces. surfaces If gravity is the only body force, then i t ti l f i t l planes. l equipotentialsurfaces are h horizontal z zs patm h

p = h

Hydrostatic y Condition: Incompressible p Fluids

If f we are working k exclusively l l with h a liquid, l d then h there h is a free surface at the liquid-gas interface. For most applications, the pressure exerted at the surface is atmospheric p pressure, p patm=p po, Then the equation q is written as follows: p = h + patm p = h + po

Hydrostatic y Condition: Incompressible p Fluids

The pressure in a homogenous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference & is not influenced by the shape of the container.
lines of constant pressure p p = po p = p1 p = p2

h1

For p1 = p = h1 + po For p2 = p = h + po

Standard Atmosphere p

Absolute & Gage g Pressure

z patm absolute pressure gauge pressure p

p gauge = pabsolute patm

Barometers measures local atmospheric pressure. pressure Manometers measure gauge presssure.

Absolute & Gage g Pressures

Local atmospheric pressure reference

Absolute zero reference

Basic Principles in Measurement of Pressure

The basic principles in measuring the pressure are:
1. 2.

On equipotential surfaces, pressure is constant. If the g gravity y is the only y body y force, then equipotential q p surfaces are horizontal planes. In an incompressible fluid, pressure increases in moving down, and decreases in moving up.

3.

2.5. Measurement of Pressure

Barometers measures local atmospheric pressure

pB = pB ' pB = patm = p A + m h p A = p pB = patm = pv + m h pv 0 pB = patm = m h

equal l potential t ti l li line
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647)

B'

pB = pB '

Manometers measures the gage pressure

The various forms of manometers are:
Piezometers U Tube Manometers Differential Manometers Inclined Manometers

Piezometer Tube
patm t h A

p A = patm + h
Disadvantages: 1. The pressure in the container has to be greater than atmospheric p pressure. 2. Pressure must be relatively small to maintain a small column of fluid. fluid 3. The measurement of pressure must be of a liquid.

U-tube manometer
The fluid in the U-tube is known as the gage fluid. The g gage g fluid f type yp depends on the application, i e pressures attained i.e. attained, and whether the fluid measured is a gas or liquid. liquid
patm w A h1 1 h2 m 2 equal potential line

p1 = p2 p A + w h1 = patm + m h2

Differential manometer
pY = pF p A + 1h1 + 2 h2 = pB + 3h3
B A 1 h1 h3 h2 equal potential line Y 2 F 3 Final notes: 1) Common gage fluids are Hg and H2O, some oils, and must be immiscible (i.e. that do not mix). 2) Temp. must be considered in very accurate measurements, as the h gage fluid properties can change. 3) C Capillarity ill it can play l a role, l but b t in i many cases each meniscus will cancel.

p A + 1h1 + 2 h2 3h3 = pB

Inclined Manometers
This type of manometer is used to measure small pressure changes.
patm pA h

equal potential line

L x

p A = pY = pF
p A = h + Patm = L sin + Patm

Measurement of Pressure:
Spring Bourdon Gage:

Mechanical & Electrical Devices

Pressure Transducer:

Motion

2.6. Hydrostatic Forces on Plane Surfaces

Consider a plane surface which is immersed completely in an incompressible liquid. We wish to evaluate the resultant hydrostatic force on the upper face. Since there can be no shear stress, stress this force must be normal to the surface surface. For the purpose of calculation, the plane of the submerged surface is extended so as to intersect with the plane of the free surface. The trace of intersection is shown as the x axis in the figure. Note that the y axis is coplanar with the top surface of the plate.

dF = p dA = h dA
o x

hp hc dF

h y y c yp

F = h dA
A

F = y sin dA
A

Distance to a centroid is defined as

y c cp dA

F = sin y dA
A

1 yc = y dA A A

xc xp

F = sin yc A = hc A

F = pc A = hc A

This equation shows that these two systems are equivalent, but not equal. Because, the point of application pp of F is not at the centroid, but at a lower distance, cp, called center of pressure.

Equivalent cp=center of pressure F hc

hc

hc

c=centroid

F = pc A = hc A

Center of Pressure
Application point of the resultant hydrostatic force is called the center of pressure. Let F act at (xp, yp) The value of yp can be obtained by equating moments about b the h x-axis i
Fy p = ypdA
A

ypdA = y y sin dA = sin y 2 dA

A A
A

yp =

ypda F

sin y 2 dA sin ydA

A

Ix I xc + Ayc2 I xc = = yc + yc A yc A yc A
I x = I xc + Ayc2

second d moment t of f I = x area about x-axis

2 y dA A

second moment of an area is realated to the second moment of an area, Ixc about the centroidal axis by the parallel-axis-theorem

Center of Pressure
Similarly for xp

xp

xpdA F

sin xydA sin ydA

A

I xy y yc A

I xyc y + xc yc A yc A

= xc +

I xyc y yc A

the product of I xy = i intertia i of f the h area A

xy dA
A

I xy = I xyc + Axc yc
using the transfer theorem

The Pressure Prism Concept p

Pressure prism is a geometric representation of the hydrostatic force on a plane surface.

F = p dA
h1 h1
A

the volume of the pressure prism

FR

h2

FR h2

cp b

The magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force is equal to the volume of the pressure prism & passes through its centroid. centroid
h1
h1

FR

h2

FR

cp

h2

F2

F1

(h2-h1)

h1

FR = F1 + F2 = pc A

F2 =

(h2 h1 )
2

(h2 h1 )b

+ F1 = h1 (h2 h1 )b

Force on a plane area with top edge in a free surface

Pressure Prism

rectangular area

pressure distribution on the area

pressure prism.

2.7. Hydrostatic y Forces on Curved Surfaces f

Example: Arch Dams Picture: Gkekaya Dam

Hydrostatic y Force on Curved Surfaces

Forces on curved surfaces submerged in any static fluid can be partially determined by methods used on plane surfaces. A curved surface is shown in figure below, submerged in a static fluid. The force on any area element dA of this surface is directed along the normal to to the area element and is given as:

dF = p dA
z zs

h dAy dAz x

dA dAx y

The (-) sign indicates that pressure and area are in opposite directions. Taking the dot product of each side of the equation above with unit vectors i, j and dk k, we get t th the components t dFx, dFy and dFz:

dFx = p dAx dFy = p dAy dFz = p dAz

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces: Horizontal Components

z pdAcos p p

dA

dFx = pdA cos = pdAx

Fx = pdAx = pc Ax
A

Fy = pdAy = pc Ay
A

where Ax and Ay are the projected areas of the curved surface on planes perpendicular to the x- and y- axes. Then: Th The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force on a curved surface is the p product of the p pressure at the centroid of the area projected on a vertical plane perpendicular to the x- and yaxis.

Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces: Vertical Component

z

dFz = p dA sin = p dAz

h p dA x

Fz = p dAz = h dAz = d
A A

Fz =

The vertical Th ti l component t of f the th hydrostatic h d t ti force f on a curved surface is the weight of the liquid volume between the free surface (real or imaginary) and the curved surface.

2.8. Buoyancy & Flotation

The lifting force due to hydrostatic pressure distribution on submerged volumes is called the b buoyant f force. The buoyant force acts through the center of gravity of the submerged g volume in a direction opposite pp to that of gravity.

Forces on a submerged body

(a) submerged body

(b) free free-body body diagram d agram

(c) free free-body body shown FB

Forces on a floating g object j

Buoyancy

Buoyancy
dFB = ( p2 p1 ) dAz
p1 h z

FB = ( h2 h1 ) dAz
Az

p2

FB = (h2 h1 ) dAz
Az

Net upward force is called the buoyant force. force

FB = displaced liquid

Buoyancy uoyancy an and Stability Sta ty

Buoyancy force FB is equal only to the displaced volume fgVdisplaced di l d Three scenarios are possible: p
1. 2 2.

body<fluid Floating body body=fluid Neutrally buoyant body>fluid Sinking body

FB = displaced liquid FB = submerged

3.

Stability of Floating Bodies

A body is said to be in stable equilibrium position if, if when displaced, it returns to its original equilibrium position. position

W cg W cp FB cg cp F B

Restoring couple

Stability of Floating Bodies

A body is in unstable equilibrium if, when displaced, it moves to a new equilibrium position.

W cg cp cg cp F B

FB

Overturning couple l

Stability y of a submerged g body y

(a) unstable

(b) neutral

(c) stable

Stability y of a floating g body y

(a) equilibrium position

(b) rotated position