Chapter 1 Introduction to Personality Theory

Learning Objectives After reading Chapter 1, you should be able to: 1. Express your own definition of personality. 2. Differentiate theory from (a philosophy (b spe!ulation (! hypothesis, and (d taxonomy. ". Defend the need for more than one theory. #. $how how an understanding of the %arious theorists& life story is related to their theory. '. Explain the relationship between theory and obser%ations. (. )ist and explain the !riteria of a useful theory. *. Explain why falsifiability is a positi%e !hara!teristi! of a theory. +. Dis!uss %arious !omponents for a !on!ept of humanity. ,. Define reliability and %alidity and explain why both !on!epts are important in personality resear!h.

Summary Outline I. Overview o Personality Theory -rom the in%estigations of -reud during the last de!ade of the 1,th !entury until the present time, a number of personality theorists ha%e (1 made !ontrolled obser%ations of human beha%ior and (2 spe!ulated on the meaning of those obser%ations. Differen!es in the theories of these men and women are due to more than differen!es in terminology. .hey stem from differen!es on basi! issues !on!erning the nature of humanity. !hat Is Personality" .he term personality !omes from the )atin word persona, meaning wear or the role they play in life. 0owe%er, most psy!hologists refer to mu!h more than the fa!e or fa!ade people show to others. be defined as a pattern of relati%ely permanent traits and uni1ue that gi%e both !onsisten!y and indi%iduality to human beha%ior

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the mas/ people use the term to Personality !an !hara!teristi!s

III. !hat is a Theory" .he term theory is often used 1uite loosely and in!orre!tly to imply something other than a useful s!ientifi! !on!ept. .heories are used by s!ientists to generate resear!h and organi2e obser%ations. #. Theory $e ined A theory is a set of related assumptions that allow s!ientists to use logi!al dedu!ti%e reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses %. Theory and Its &elatives 3eople often !onfuse theory with philosophy, spe!ulation, hypothesis, or taxonomy. Although theory is related to ea!h of these !on!epts, it is not synonymous with any of them. Philosophy 4the lo%e of wisdom4is a broader term than theory, but one bran!h of philosophy4 epistemology 4relates to the nature of /nowledge, and theories are used by s!ientists in pursuit of /nowledge. .heories rely on speculation' but spe!ulation must be based on the !ontrolled obser%ations of s!ientists. Science

is the bran!h of study !on!erned with obser%ation and !lassifi!ation of data and with the %erifi!ation of general laws. .heories are pra!ti!al tools used by s!ientists to guide resear!h. A theory is more general than a hypothesis and may generate a multitude of hypotheses, that is, edu!ated guesses. A ta(onomy is a !lassifi!ation system, and !lassifi!ation is ne!essary to s!ien!e. .axonomies, howe%er, do not generate hypotheses4a ne!essary !riterion of a useful theory. C. !hy $i erent Theories" 3sy!hologists and other s!ientists ha%e de%eloped a %ariety of personality theories be!ause they ha%e differed in their personal ba!/ground, their philosophi!al orientation, and the data they !hose to obser%e. 5n addition, theories permit indi%idual interpretation of the same obser%ations, and ea!h theorist has had his or her own way of loo/ing at things. $. Theorists) Personalities and Their Theories o Personality 6e!ause personality theories e%ol%e from a theorist&s personality, psy!hologists interested in the psy!hology of s!ien!e ha%e begun to study the personal traits of leading personality theorists and their possible impa!t on their s!ientifi! theories and resear!h. *. !hat +a,es a Theory -se ul" A useful theory: (1 generates research , both des!ripti%e and hypothesis testing7 (2 is alsi iable 7 that is, it must generate resear!h that !an either !onfirm or dis!onfirm its ma8or tenets7 (" organi.es and e(plains data into some intelligible framewor/7 /01 guides action 7 that is, it pro%ides the pra!titioner with a road map for ma/ing day9to9day de!isions7 (' is internally consistent and relies on operational de initions that define !on!epts in terms of spe!ifi! operations7 and (( is parsimoniou s' or simple. I2. $imensions or a Concept o 3umanity 3ersonality theorists ha%e had different !on!eptions of human nature, and the authors of .heories of 3ersonality use six dimensions for !omparing these !on!eptions. .he dimensions in!lude: 1. determinism versus ree choice , 2. pessimism versus optimism , ". causality versus teleology' #. conscious versus unconsciou s determinants o behavior , '. biological versus social in luences on personality, and (. uni4ueness versus similarities among people. &esearch in Personality Theory 3ersonality theories, li/e other theories, are based on systemati! resear!h that allows for the predi!tion of e%ents. 5n resear!hing human beha%ior, personality theorists often use %arious measuring pro!edures, whi!h must be both reliable and %alid. &eliability refers to a measuring instrument&s !onsisten!y and in!ludes test9 retest reliability and internal !onsisten!y. 2alidity refers to the a!!ura!y or truthfulness of test and in!ludes predi!ti%e %alidity and !onstru!t %alidity.

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Test Items

5ill6in6the6%lan,s 1. .he term personality ::::::::::::::::::. !omes from the word persona, meaning a theatri!al

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3ersonality is a pattern of relati%ely permanent :::::::::::::::::::::, dispositions, or !hara!teristi!s within an indi%idual that gi%e some measure of !onsisten!y to that person&s beha%ior. A ::::::::::::::::::: is a set of related assumptions that allows s!ientists to use logi!al dedu!ti%e reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses. .heories are most !losely related to :::::::::::::::::::::::::, philosophy that deals with the nature of /nowledge. the bran!h of

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.he field of study !on!erned with obser%ation and !lassifi!ation of data and with the %erifi!ation of general laws through the testing of hypotheses is !alled :::::::::::::::::::::::. A ::::::::::::::::::::::::: natural relationships. is a !lassifi!ation of things a!!ording to their

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A hypothesis is often defined as an ::::::::::::::::::: guess. .he psy!hology of ::::::::::::::::::::::: is a subdis!ipline of psy!hology that studies the personal traits of s!ientists. A useful theory must be :::::::::::::::::::::, whi!h means that resear!h must be able to either !onfirm or dis!onfirm its ma8or tenets. .he law of parsimony states that the :::::::::::::::::::::: of two theories is preferred. .he most important fun!tion of a ::::::::::::::::::: is to generate resear!h. An ::::::::::::::::: definition is one that defines !on!epts and units in terms of spe!ifi! operations. .eleology is an explanation of beha%ior in terms of ::::::::::::::::::::::: goals. A reliable test will yield ::::::::::::::::::: results. A test that measures :::::::::::::::::::. what it is supposed to measure is said to be

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True65alse :::::1. :::::2. :::::". <seful theories are founded on both spe!ulation and s!ientifi! e%iden!e. .he word personality !omes from the )atin persona, meaning a mas/ or fa!ade. 3ersonality refers mostly to those !hara!teristi!s that a person pro8e!ts to the rest of the world. .he terms theory and hypothesis are synonymous.

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3hilosophy is a broader term than theory. .he terms theory and edu!ated guess are used inter!hangeably by s!ientists. Epistemology is the bran!h of philosophy dealing with the nature of /nowledge. $!ien!e is the bran!h of study !on!erned with obser%ation and !lassifi!ation of data and with the %erifi!ation of general laws. .heories should be %iewed as impra!ti!al but interesting spe!ulations. .heory is a broader term than hypothesis. .axonomies are dynami! and generate a multitude of hypotheses. A useful theory should generate multiple hypotheses. A !y!li! relationship should exist between theory and obser%ation. .he psy!hology of s!ien!e studies personal traits of personality theorists. A useful theory of personality should be falsifiable. 3ersonality theorists should a%oid being influen!ed by their own personalities and ba!/grounds. .he psy!hology of s!ien!e in%estigates ways in whi!h personal !hara!teristi!s of s!ientists influen!e s!ientifi! theory and resear!h. .he %alue of a theory rests mostly on the personal !hara!teristi!s of the theorist who de%eloped it. 5f a theory is falsifiable, it has been pro%en false. 3ersonality tests may be reliable yet la!/ %alidity.

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+ultiple Choice :::::1. a. b. !. d. ::::: 2. a. b. !. d. .he word personality !omes from =persona,= whi!h originally meant theatri!al mas/. soul. the animal side of human nature. that whi!h one truly is. 3sy!hologists are most li/ely to agree that three personality traits !an explain all human beha%ior. personality refers mostly to surfa!e appearan!e. there is a single best definition of personality. none of the abo%e.

::::: ". A pattern of relati%ely permanent traits and uni1ue !hara!teristi!s that gi%e both !onsisten!y and indi%iduality to human beha%ior is !alled a. personality. b. a general trait. !. a spe!ifi! trait.

d. a geneti! predisposition. :::::#. a. b. !. d. ::::::'. a. b. !. d. ::::::(. a. b. !. d. ::::::*. a. b. !. d. :::::: +. a. b. !. d. >hi!h term should be most !losely asso!iated with the word theory? spe!ulation taxonomy s!ien!e philosophy A theory !an be defined as an un%erified hypothesis. an edu!ated guess. a group of philosophi!al spe!ulations !on!erning the nature of reality. a set of related assumptions that generate testable hypotheses. >hi!h statement best refle!ts the relationship between theory and hypothesis? .heories are narrower than hypotheses. A single theory may generate se%eral hypotheses. .heories flow logi!ally from spe!ifi! hypotheses. .heories !an be pro%en7 hypotheses !annot. A hypothesis is best defined as a !lassifi!ation system. arm!hair spe!ulation. an unpro%ed theory. an edu!ated guess or predi!tion. .axonomies are systems for !lassifying data. prin!iples of learning that ma/e up a theory. guidelines for li%ing a prin!ipled life. legal entities for raising re%enue.

::::::,. >hat is the relationship among theory, hypothesis, and obser%ation? a. @bser%ations are pra!ti!al tools7 theories and hypotheses are impra!ti!al. b. .heories generate hypotheses that lead to obser%ations that may alter the original theory. !. 0ypotheses generate theories, whi!h then result in obser%ations. d. @bser%ations generate hypotheses, whi!h in turn generate theories. :::::1;. a. b. !. d. :::::11. a. b. !. d. ::::: 12. a. b. !. .he ultimate %alue of a theory is its truthfulness. usefulness. simpli!ity. logi!. A theory should be open to dis!onfirmation. ability to be pro%en. generate resear!h. pro%ide guidelines for the pra!titioner. be falsified. .his refers to the theory&s

A related set of if9then assumptions would !onstitute a hypothesis. philosophy. theory.

d. s!ientifi! experiment. ::::: 1". .he subdis!ipline of psy!hology that s!ientists is !alled a. psy!hology of s!ien!e. b. the s!ien!e of psy!hology. !. s!ien!e in autobiographi!al study. d. psy!hology in autobiographi!al study. loo/s at the personal traits of

::::: 1#. Although s!ientists are influen!ed by their personal !hara!teristi!s, the usefulness of their wor/ is a. the !larity of their obser%ations. b. the reliability of their measuring instruments. !. 8udged by their s!ientifi! produ!t. d. 8udged by their ability to !reate a wor/able taxonomy. :::::1'. b. !. d. e. :::::1(. a. b. !. d. :::::1*. a. b. !. d. ::::: 1+. a. b. !. d. :::::1,. a. b. !. d. A useful theory should ser%e as a guide to a!tion. organi2e obser%ations. generate resear!h. all of the abo%e. An internally !onsistent theory generates a single hypothesis. !an be dire!tly %erified. !an explain nearly all empiri!al obser%ations. in!ludes operational definitions of its terms. A theory that is as simple as possible is internally !onsistent. parsimonious. useless. an operational theory. An explanation of beha%ior in terms of future goals or purposes is a parsimonious theory. also hypotheti!al. !ausal. teleologi!al. A test that yields !onsistent results is said to be standardi2ed. a norm9referen!ed test. reliable. %alid.

::::: 2;. A %alid test a. is also reliable. b. has a pen!il and paper format. !. is usually unreliable. d. is also standardi2ed. Short #nswer 1. Define theory and show its relationship with (a hypothesis, and (d taxonomy. philosophy, (b spe!ulation, (!

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Explain the intera!tion among theory, hypotheses, and obser%ations.

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)ist six !riteria of a useful theory.

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)ist and dis!uss the six dimensions for a !on!ept of humanity dis!ussed by the authors.

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Define reliability and %alidity and dis!uss at least two types of ea!h.