Structural Organization of the Human Body tissues- groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common

or related function; different types of tissue allow for specialization, and specific functions allow for organization and efficiency in the body -cell specialization allows the body to function in sophisticated ways and allows for division of labour; division of labor has its hazards (when a particular group of cells is indispensable, its loss or injury can severely disable or even destroy the body ) -there are 4 main types of tissue: epithelial- for covering connective- for support muscle- for movement nervous- for control and regulation -usually, all 4 tissues ma e up an organ (at least ! tissue types are re"uired, but organs with 4 types of tissue are most common) histology- the study of tissues (their organization, appearance, etc# ) 1) Epithelial Tissue -also called epithelium (plural: epithelia) -a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity -epithe: laid on, covering -it occurs in the body as covering and lining epithelium or glandular epithelium covering and lining epithelium- creates boundaries; forms the outer layer of the s in, dips into and lines the open cavities of the cardiovascular, digestive, and respiratory systems, and covers the walls and organs of the closed ventral body cavity (e#g#: outer walls of stomach $ idney, lumen, etc#) glandular epithelium- fashions the glands of the body; involved in secretion (e#g#: salivary glands, pancreas etc#) Functions of Epithelia %) !rotection- creates a physical boundary (i#e#: s in); allows for mechanical, chemical and infectious protection -chemical secretions protect body from invaders; the immune system is integrated with epithelium !) "#sorption- involved with the brea down of products and movement into the bloodstream (i#e#: &' tract)

() Filtration- allows for a barrier between fluid $ blood and waste products (i#e#: idneys) 4) E$cretion )) Secretion *) Sensory %eception- taste buds $ olfactory membranes are modified epithelial cells Special &haracteristics of Epithelium %) &ellularity- epithelium is very cell-dense, unli e connective tissues (+, is fibrous and spacious) !) Specialized &ontacts- epithelial cells fit close together to form continuous sheets; adjacent cells are bound together at many points by lateral contacts (tight 'unctions and desmosomes) -tight junctions: individual cell membranes fused tightly together; helps eep proteins and apical regions of the plasma membrane from diffusing into the basal region, and thus help to maintain epithelial polarity -desmosomes: connects ! cells strongly together and contains intermediate filaments to strengthen layer (i#e#: in the esophagus) () !olarity- epithelia have apical surfaces and #asal surfaces and all epithelia e-hibit apical-#asal polarity, where cell regions near the apical surface different from those near the basal surface in both structure and function and is maintained by the highly ordered cytos eleton of epithelial cells apical surface- an upper, free surface e-posed to the body e-terior or the cavity of an internal organ; apical surfaces are often specialized and this may include cilia (hair-li e projections that propel substances along their free surface; can be found in respiratory passages and used to push mucous) or microvilli (finger-li e projections that increase e-posed surface area for increased absorption) -dense areas of microvilli, usually found in epithelia that absorb or secret substances (intestines and idney tubules) have a fuzzy appearance called a #rush #order #asal lamina- thin sheet that lies adjacent to the basal surface of an epithelium; this noncellular, adhesive sheet consists largely of glycoproteins secreted by the epithelial cells and find collagen fibres and acts as a selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from the underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter the epithelium -also acts as a scaffolding along which epithelial cells can migrate to repair a wound -provides attachment site for epithelial cells and allows for organization -attachment and filtration 4) Supported #y &onnective Tissue- all epithelial sheets rest upon and are supported by connective tissue; the reticular lamina lies beneath the basal lamina and consists of a layer

of e-tracellular material containing a fine networ of collagen protein fibres that belong to the underlying +,; together they form the basement membrane #asement mem#rane- basal lamina . underlying reticular connective tissue; reinforces the epithelial sheets, helping it to resist stretching and tearing forces, and also defines the epithelial boundary -cancerous epithelial cells fail to respect the basement membrane boundary, which they penetrate to invade the tissues beneath (allowing metastasis) )) "vascular #ut (nnervated- epithelium is innervated (supplied by nerves) and avascular (contains no blood vessels since they can/t pass through basement membrane); epithelial cells are nourished by substances diffusing from blood vessels in the underlying connective tissue *) High %egenerative &apacity- epithelia often e-posed to friction and surface cells rub off, or are damaged by hostile substances in the e-ternal environment; when apical-basal polarity and lateral contacts are destroyed, epithelia cells begin to reproduce themselves as long as they receive ade"uate nutrition &lassification of Epithelia -epithelium is given ! names; the %st part indicates the number of cell layers present, and the !nd part describes the shape of its cells &overing and )ining Epithelium simple epithelia- consists of a single cell layer; typically found where absorption, secretion, and filtration occur and a thin epithelial barrier is desirable; protection is not its specialty stratified epithelia- composed of ! or more cell layers stac ed one on top of the other; common in high-abrasion areas where protection is important, such as the s in surface and the lining of the mouth and esophagus -stratified epithelia, cell shapes differ among the different cell layers; to avoid ambiguity, stratified cells are named according to the shape of the cells in the apical layer -they regenerate from below; basal cells divide and push apically to replace the older surface cells -there are ( common shapes of epithelial cells s*uamous cells- flattened and scale-li e; nucleus is a flattened disc cu#oidal cells- bo--li e and appro-imately as tall as they are wide; nucleus is spherical columnar cells- tall and column shaped; nucleus is elongated from top to bottom and usually located at the cell base simple s*uamous epithelium- cells are flattened laterally, and their cytoplasm is sparse -from a surface view, these cells resemble a tiled floor; from a side view, after being cut perpendicular to their free surface, they resemble fried eggs seen from the side

-found where filtration and e-change of substances by rapid diffusion is priority (i#e#: idneys, lung alveoli, etc#) endothelium- 0inner covering0; provides a slic , friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessels and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system (blood vessels and the heart); capillaries are e-clusively endothelium and e-ceptional thinness between the efficient e-change of nutrients and waste between the bloodstream and surrounding tissue cells mesothelium- 0middle covering0; the epithelium found in serous membranes (thin, smooth membranes that secrete serous fluid) lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs simple cu#oidal epithelium- consists of a single layer of cells as tall as they are wide; important for secretion and absorption and forms the smallest ducts of glands and many idney tubules -resembles a string of beads when under a microscope simple columnar epithelium- single layer of tall, closely pac ed cells, aligned li e soldiers in a row and associated with absorption and secretion -the digestive tract lining has ! distinct modifications that ma e it ideal for the dual function of absorption and secretion: (%) dense areas of microvilli on the apical surface of absorptive cells and (!) cells secrete a protective lubricating mucous pseudostratified columnar epithelium- cells vary in height and all of its cells rest on the basement membrane, but only the tallest reach the free surface of the epithelium -because the cell nuclei lie at different levels above the basement membrane, the tissue gives the false impression that several layers are present (hence, 0pseudostratified0) -the shorter cells are relatively unspecialized and give rise to the taller cells -important for secretion and absorption of substances -a ciliated version containing mucus-secreting cells lines the respiratory tract; the cilia propel sheets of dust-trapping mucus away from the lungs stratified s*uamous epithelium- the most widespread of the stratified epithelia; composed of several layers -it is thic and well suited for its protective role in the body -its free surface cells are s"uamous, and cells of the deeper layers are cuboidal or columnar -found in areas subject to wear and tear, where its surface cells are constantly being rubbed away and replaced by division of its basal cells -epithelial cells farther from the basement membrane are less viable; cells at the apical surface are flatten and atrophied -forms e-ternal parts of the s in and e-tends a short distance into every body opening that is directly continuous with the s in -the outer layer of the epidermis is +eratinized (surface cells contain eratin, a tough protective protein)

stratified cu#oidal epithelium- stratified cuboidal epithelium is "uite rare in the body, it is mostly found in the ducts of some larger glands (i#e#: sweat glands, mammary glands) which typically have ! layers of cuboidal cells stratified columnar epithelium- is "uite rare in the body; small amounts are found in the pharyn-, the male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts -occurs at transition areas or junctions between ! other types of epithelia -only its apical layer of cells is columnar1 transitional epithelium- forms the lining of hollow urinary organs; important in areas where there is stretching -cells of its basal layer are cuboidal or columnar -the apical cells vary in appearance, depending on the degree of distension of the organ -when the organ is distended (inflated) with urine, the transitional epithelium things from about * cell layers to ( cell layers, and its domeli e apical cells flatten to become s"uamous-li e -the ability of transitional cells to change their shape allows a greater volume of urine to flow through a tube-li e organ; in the bladder, it allows more urine to be stored -shape of individual cells change; the basal layer contains more columnar$cuboidal cells and become more s"uamous when filled ,landular Epithelia gland- consists of % or more cells that ma e and secrete (e-port) a particular product; the product, called a secretion, is an a"ueous fluid that usually contains proteins or lipid $ steroid-rich secretions secretion- an active process; glandular cells obtain the needed substances from the blood and transform them chemically into a product that is discharged from the cell; the term secretion can be used in reference to the gland/s product and the process of ma ing and releasing that product -glands are classified as endocrine or e$ocrine endocrine glands- internally secreting; do not have ducts (ductless) and release product into e-tracellular space; they produce hormones -endocrine glands are mostly compact, multicellular organs e$ocrine glands- e-ternally secreting; very numerous and all e-ocrine glands secrete their products onto body surfaces or into body cavities (e#g#: mucous glands, sweat, oil, salivary glands, the liver, pancreas etc#) unicellular e$ocrine glands- the only important e-ample are mucous cells and go#let cells which produce mucin (which dissolves in water when secreted and forms mucus; a protective and lubricating covering)

-in goblet cells, the cupli e accumulation of mucin distends the top of the cell, ma ing it loo s li e a 0goblet0 and this distortion does not occur in mucous cells; they can be found lining the digestive and respiratory tracts) -there are no ducts in these cells since it is only one cell multicellular e$ocrine glands- consist of an epithelium-derived duct and a secretory unit (acinus) consisting of secretory cells -in most of these comple- glands, supportive connective tissue surrounds the secretory unit and supplies it with blood and nerve fibres, which forms a fi#rous capsule that e-tends into the gland proper and divides the glands into lobes -this area is associated with production and the ducts convey products to their destination -multicellular e-ocrine glands can be classified into: simple glands- unbranched duct; (may include simple, branched) compound glands- branched duct (branches from branches) tu#ular- if the secretory cells form tubes alveolar- if the secretory cells form small, flas -li e sacs (alveolus 2 small hollow cavity) tu#uloalveolar- if they have both types of secretory units -odes of Secretion merocrine glands- secrete their products by e-ocytosis as they are produced; the secretory cells are not altered in any way (e#g#: pancreas, most sweat glands, salivary glands) -they have active cells ma ing the products; constant production of product and movement into duct system holocrine glands- accumulate their products within them until they rupture and then are replaced by the division of underlying cells -sebaceous (oil) glands of the s in are the only e-ample of holocrine glands apocrine glands- accumulate their products, but only just beneath the free surface; eventually, the ape- of the cell pinches off, releasing the secretory granules and a small amount of cytoplasm -involves a small rupture and replacement of plasma membrane -mammary glands may be considered apocrine glands, but are usually classified as merocrine glands &onnective Tissue -all connective tissues have common characteristics that set them apart from other primary tissues: %) &ommon Origin -all +, arises from mesenchyme (cells with the most ability to specialize) !) .egrees of /ascularity -+, run the entire gamut (range) of vascularity

-cartilage is avascular -dense +, is poorly vascularised -other types of +, have a rich supply of blood vessels () E$tracellular -atri$ -+, are largely nonliving e$tracellular matri$ (matri- 2 womb), which separates the living cells of tissue -+, is able to bear weight, withstand tension, and endure abuses due to its matriStructural Elements of &onnective Tissue -+, has ( main elements: ground substance (matri-), fibres, and cells -+, have a common structural plan and the areolar (open space) +, is used as the prototype for this group of tissues %) ,round Su#stance -matri- proteins -unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibres -composed of interstitial (tissue) fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans (large molecules that trap water allowing arealor +, to be rich in fluid -3 for cushioning) -cell adhesion proteins (fibronectin, laminin, etc) serve as a +, glue that allows +, cells to attach themselves to matri- elements -the higher the glycosaminoglycans (&4&) content, the more viscous the ground substance -the ground substance holds large amounts of fluid and functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between the blood capillaries and cells !) Fi#res -collagen fi#res constructed primarily of the fibrous protein collagen which assemble spontaneously into cross-lin fibrils from collagen molecules; collage fibres are e-tremely tough and provide high tensile strength -a a white fibres -elastic fi#res long, thin fibres that form branching networ s in the e-tracellular matri-; contain elastin that allows them to stretch and recoil -a a yellow fibres -reticular fi#res short, find, collagenous fibres that are continuous with collagen fibres; they branch e-tensively, forming delicate networ s that surround small blood vessels and support the soft tissue of organs; allows more /give/ than collagen fibres () &ells - undifferentiated cells are indicated by the suffi- #last (to bud, sprout; forming) -these are actively mitotic cells that secrete the ground substance and the fibres characteristic of their particular matri-common 0blast0 cell types are

%) fi#ro#last- connective tissue proper !) chondro#last- cartilage () osteo#last- bone 4) hemocyto#last- blood (hematopoietic stem cells) -once they synthesize the matri-, the blast cells assume their less active, mature mode, indicated by the suffi- cyte (more mature, carry out functions to maintain +,, more differentiated, used to maintain the health of the matri-) Types of &onnective Tissue 1) &onnective Tissue !roper -+, proper has ! subclasses: the loose &T (areolar, adipose, and reticular) and the dense &T (dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic) -not including bone, cartilage, and blood, all mature +, belong to this class a) )oose &T -include areolar, adipose, and reticular tissue "reolar &T- 0areola0 meaning small open space; functions include: %) supporting and binding other tissues (the role of fibres) !) holding body fluids (the role of ground substance) () defending against infection (interactions with 56+s and macrophages) 4) storing nutrients as fat (in fat cells) -areolar +, is the site of edema and the site where the body can draw water as well; it provides a reservoir of water and salts for surrounding tissues -contains fibroblasts -loose arrangement of fibres categorize areolar +, under loose +, -the rest of the matri- is occupied by ground substance -areolar +, is the most widely distributed +, in the body and it serves as a ind of universal pac ing material between other tissues; it binds body parts together, wraps small blood vessels and nerves, surrounds glands, forms subcutaneous (lowest layer of the s in) tissue which cushions and attaches the s in to underlying structures and is present in all mucous membranes as the lamina propria (mucous membranes line body cavities open to the e-terior) "dipose 0Fat) Tissue -areolar +, modified to store nutrients (i#e#: adipocytes); cell dense +, are filled with adipocytes -its nutrient-storing ability is much greater than areolar +, -matri- is sparse and the cells are pac ed closely together -mature adipocytes are among the largest cells in the body

-as they ta e up or release fat, they become plumper or more wrin led loo ing respectively -adipose tissue is richly vascularised, indicating its high metabolic activity -ma es up %78 of an average person/s body weight -adipose tissue may develop almost anywhere areolar tissue is plentiful -functions include: prevention from heat loss, fuel reservoir, support and protection for organs -1hite adipose tissue stores nutrients for other cells -#ro1n adipose tissue contains abundant mitochondria which use the lipid fuels to heat the bloodstream to warm the body; very common in babies who can/t produce body heat by shivering %eticular &onnective Tissue -resembles areolar +, -only has reticular fibres that form a delicate networ along which fibroblasts called reticular cells are scattered -reticular fibres are widely distributed in the body but reticular tissue is limited to certain sites -found with and supports free blood cells, 96+s and 56+:, lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow -fibres help support smaller cells #) .ense &onnective Tissue .ense %egular &onnective Tissue -contains closely pac ed bundles of collagen fibres running in the same direction, parallel to the direction of the pull; white, fle-ible tissue with great resistance to tension -arrangement allows for great resistance to tension (pulling forces) where the tension is e-erted in a single direction -fibroblasts are found in between collagen fibres; fibroblasts continuously manufacture the fibres and some ground substance -collagen fibres allow tissue to stretch slightly -high tensile strength ma es dense regular +, good for tendons (cords that attach muscle to bones), aponeuroses (flat, sheet-li e tendons; as opposed to rope-li e structures, that attach muscles to other muscles or bones), and fascia (fibrous membrane that wraps around muscles, groups of muscles, blood vessels, and nerves, binding those structures together) -ligaments contain more elastic fibres than tendons and are slightly more stretchy (connect bone to bone) .ense (rregular &onnective Tissue -same structural elements as dense regular +, -more bundles of collagen fibres that are much thic er and are arranged irregularly; ideal for areas where tension is e-erted from many different directions -found in the s in as leather dermis, fibrous joint capsules, fibrous coverings of organs etc# to protect from wear and tear

Elastic &onnective Tissue -ligaments connecting adjacent vertebrae are very elastic and are referred more specifically as elastic connective tissue 2) &artilage -can withstand tension and compression -has "ualities between dense +, and bone -tough and fle-ible; provides rigidity to the structures it supports -higher proportion of elastic fibres -lac s nerve fibres -avascular (receives nutrients by diffusion) -ground substance contains large amounts of &4&s (i#e#: chondroitin sulfate, hyaluronic acid) and firmly bound collagen fibres -&4&s (glycosaminoglycans); associated with sugar and protein and is a large molecule -sturdier than dense +, -holds a great deal of water, allowing for cushioning properties -no blood supply 2 longer time to heal -made up of up to 7;8 water -( types of cartilage include: hyaline cartilage (most abundant; provides firm support with some pliability), elastic cartilage (elastic fibres are abundant; found where strength and stretchability are needed), and fi#rocartilage (compressible and resists tension; found where strong support and the ability to withstand heavy pressure is re"uired e#g#: intervertebral discs, nee cartilage etc ) 3) Bone -also nown as osseous tissue; living tissue that is vascularised, innervated, and a ban of calcium -functions to support and protect body structures -bones provide cavities for fat storage and synthesis of blood cells -bone matri- is similar to that of cartilage but is harder and more rigid; it has more abundant collagen fibres and inorganic calcium salts (bone salts); calcium phosphate salts act as matri- in the bone -calcium salts give hardness and strength for supporting $ protection of softer tissues -osteo#lasts produce the organic portion of the matri- and bone salts are deposited on and between the fibres -osteocytes reside in the lacunae (gaps in bones) within the matri- they have made -osteons are the structural unit of bone tissue -bone is well supplied by blood vessels -osteoclasts chew up bone when calcium is needed -osteoporosis involves increased osteoclast activity and chews up too much bone in important areas 4) Blood -the fluid within blood vessels -not the typical connective tissue (does not connect things or give support)

-classified as a connective tissue since it develops from mesenchyme and consists of blood cells, surrounded by a non-living fluid matri- called #lood plasma -the cells include 96+s (erythrocytes), 56+s (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils etc#) -the fibres of blood are soluble protein molecules that precipitate, forming visible fibre-li e structures during blood clotting -blood functions as the transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system (carries nutrients, waste, respiratory gases, and many other substances throughout the body)