The Administrative System in Tibet during the Tang and Yuan Dynasties (China Tibetology vol.

1) (1) China's Tang Dynasty (618-907) and Yuan dynasty (1279-1368) were o e!o"h-#a$ing i#!ortan"e in the or#ation and de%e&o!#ent o the Ti'etan ethni" grou!( )u#erous ethni" tri'es 'egan to unite* and the !ro"ess o e%o&ution ro# a tri'a& to a !o&iti"a& so"iety was 'asi"a&&y "o#!&eted o%er the s!an o the two dynasties( The ad%an"ed !o&iti"a&* e"ono#i" and "u&tura& syste#s o the +an !eo!&e were introdu"ed into Ti'et* !ri#iti%e tri'es were gradua&&y re!&a"ed 'y a united go%ern#ent* and "onsanguinity ina&&y ga%e way to an aristo"ra"y,the euda& &ord syste#( -n short* #ost o the great e%ents o histori"a& signi i"an"e in the esta'&ish#ent o the Ti'etan ad#inistrati%e syste# too$ !&a"e during the Tang and Yuan Dynasties( The origins o the distin"ti%e&y theo"rati" ser do# in or"e in Ti'et during the .ing Dynasty (136816//) and 0ing dynasty(i6//-i9ii) #ay 'e tra"ed 'a"$ to the Tang and Yuan( The an"estors o the Ti'etan !eo!&e* &i$e those o the +an and other ethni" grou!s* #ade a signi i"ant "ontri'ution to the o%era&& greatness o the Chinese nation(The Ti'etans a&so esta'&ished ties with the 0iang* Tangart* and* #ost !arti"u&ar&y* the +an* whi"h ha%e re#ained strong and "&ose sin"e an"ient ti#es( -n the "ourse o history* there ha%e 'een "on &i"ts and dis!utes* as we&& as integration and #ergen"e a#ong the ethni" grou!s o China( 1riend&y re&ations and 'itter hosi&ities ha%e "oe2isted* 'ut* genera&&y s!ea$ing* hosti&ities ha%e 'een o the sort that #ight o""ur 'etween 'rothers* a&though on o""asion ha%e 'een serious enough to end in war( -n a retros!e"ti%e o history* howe%er* the o'%ious "on"&usion to 'e drawn is that the #ain strea# o ethni" re&ations in China has a&ways 'een one o #i2ing* e2"hange* and uni i"ation( 3#!&e e%iden"e o this "an 'e ound in %o&u#e u!on %o&u#e o histori"a& re"ords( The o&&owing are e2tra"ts ro# the Ti'etan Co##entary in The +istory o the Tang Dynasty* and gi%e a genera& !i"ture o ethni" re&ations 'etween the +an and Ti'etan !eo!&es4 -n the eighth year o the reign o 5henguan(63/)* Ti'etan !rin"e 0i6ong&ong6an (7rong 'tsan-sga#-!o) sent an en%oy to !resent tri'utes to the Tang e#!eror( -n the i teenth year o 5henguan* the Tang e#!eror Tai6ong ga%e his daughter* 8rin"ess 9en"heng* in #arriage to 0i6ong&ong6an* who o&&owed the "ourtesies o a son-in-&aw( 9hen the Tang e#!eror :ao6ong(6;0-683)"a#e to the throne* that #ade 0i6ong&ong6an the e#!eror's 'rother-in-&aw 0i6ong &ong6an and was awarded the tit&e 8rin"e o the 9estern 7ea and was !ro#oted to the !osition o 8rin"e o <in( 0i6ong&ong6an died in the irst year o Yonghui (6;0)(The Tang e#!eror :ao6ong he&d a #ourning "ere#ony and sent an en%oy to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the ourth year o Yi eng (679)* the Ti'etan 'tsan-!o died and his son 0inu2i&ong =hri-%dus-srong su""eeded the to throne( The Tang e#!eror (who was a"tua&&y the e#!ress 9u 5etian) sent an en%oy to attend the unera&( -n the irst year o Yong&ong(68o)* 8rin"ess 9en"heng !assed away( The Tang e#!eror sent an en%oy to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the se"ond year o Changan(702)*a Ti'etan en%oy sent to Chang'an(((said to >#!ress 9u 5etian4 ?9e o this s#a&& and re#ote !&a"e are at &oss as to how to return your hea%en&y a%or@ 3&& we "an do is to !ray or &onge%ity or your highness'(? The ne2t year*Tu'o (an"ient Ti'et) !aid tri'ute o one thousand horses and two thousand tae&s o go&d or the hand o a Tang !rin"ess* whi"h was granted 'y >#!ress 9u 5etian( -n the irst year o 7hen&ong(70;)* a Ti'etan en%oy re!orted the death o 8rin"e 0inu2i&ong ($hri-%dug-srong)( The Tang Dynasty e#!eror he&d a #ourning "ere#ony and sus!ended a"ti%ities at the i#!eria& "ourt

or one day( 0i&isy6an ($hri-&de-gtsug-'rtsan) su""eeded to the Tu'o throne* and his grand#other sent an en%oy to the i#!eria& go%ern#ent see$ing a #arriage a&&ian"e( This was agreed to 'y the Tang e#!eror 5hong6ong*and 8rin"ess Ain"heng was #arried into Ti'et's roya& a#i&y 1ro# then on*Ti'et !aid tri'ute to the Tang i#!eria& go%ern#ent on a year&y 'asis( -n the e&e%enth #onth o the third year o Aing&ong (709)* a Ti'etan en%oy tra%e&&ed to Chang'an to es"ort 8rin"ess Ain"heng to Ti'et* where the !rin"ess arri%ed the o&&owing year* to stay in a "ity that had 'een 'ui&t es!e"ia&&y or her( -n the se%enteenth year o Baiyuan(729)* the Ti'etan go%en#ent sent a high-ran$ing o i"ia& na#ed .ing2i&ie to the Tang i#!eria& "ourt to ho&d !ea"e negotiations( The Ti'etan !rin"e su'#itted a #e#oria& to the e#!eror that read4 ?- ha%e the honor to 'e Your .aCesty's ne!hew* and a "&ose re&ati%e o the &ate e#!eror(<y the hea%en&y a%or "on erred on #e in 'eing gi%en the hand o 8rin"ess Ain"heng* - "onsider the Ti'etan and +an !eo!&es to 'e o one a#i&y* and !eo!&e under hea%en who enCoy !ea"e and ha!!iness( <earing in #ind the &ate 8rin"ess 9en"heng* and a&so 8rin"ess Ain"heng* Your .aCesty's hu#'&e ne!hew has ne%er orgotten his own !osition or dared "o##it a 'rea"h o etiDuette( +owe%er* 'eing young and ine2!erien"ed*@ ha%e 'een de"ei%ed 'y s&anderous ta&$ and a&se in or#ation gi%en to #e 'y "ertain genera&s* whi"h has gi%en rise to 'order dis!utes* and "aused Your .aCesty's !ea"e o #ind to 'e distur'ed( - now 'eg your !ardon and se%ere re!ri#and( .ing2i&ie $nows "&ear&y that Your .aCestEs ne!hew !unished the genera&s who were at the root o these dis!utes* and who were the u&ti#ate "ause o +an !eo!&e 'eing ro''ed( 9hen +an so&diers surrendered to our side( - &ost no ti#e in ha%ing the# sent 'a"$( - earnest&y ho!e that Your .aCesty "an see #y sin"erity and a&&ow us to reesta'&ish riend&y re&ations* so that the !eo!&e "an &i%e in !ea"e( - Your .aCesty "on ers on #e the a%or o granting #y reDuest* rest assured that your hu#'&e ne!hew sha&& re#ain true to his word?( -n the tenth #onth o the eighteenth year o Baiyuan* .ing2i&ie and his o&&owers arri%ed in the "a!ita&* Chang'an( The Ti'etan en%oy !resented a #e#oria& to the Tang Dynasty e#!eror*in whi"h 8rin"ess Ain"heng reDuested the <oo$ o Fdes* the <oo$ o =ites* and C&assi"a& 7e&e"tions( The -#!eria& 7e"retariat was instru"ted to see that the 'oo$s were !re!ared( -n the twenty-ninth year o Baiyuan(7/i)*8rin"ess Ain"heng died( The Ti'etan go%ern#ent sent an en%oy to the "a!ita& to announ"e the sad news* and again s!o$e o !ea"e( -n the ourteenth year o Tian'ao(7;6)* the Ti'etan !rin"e 0i&isu&ong died( 9ith the su!!ort o "ourt su'Ce"ts* his son* 8osrong&e6an su""eeded to the throne( >#!eror Guan6ong sent an en%oy as his o i"ia& re!resentati%e to Ti'et to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the irst year o 5hide(7;6)*Ti'et sent an en%oy to negotiate !ea"e( -n the irst year o <aoying(762)* the Ti'etan en%oy 5hu an#anger !resented tri'utes to the i#!eria& Tang "ourt( -n the irst year o Yongtai(76;)*Ti'et sent its re!resentati%e to see$ !ea"e( -n the ourth #onth o the se"ond year o Yongtai (766)*#ore than one hundred Ti'etan re!resentati%es &ed 'y Hord HunDi6ang arri%ed in the "a!ita& to e2!ress goodwi&&( -n the e&e%enth #onth o the se"ond year o Da&i (767)*the Ti'etan &ord Hun2iDi&ing had an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror* and was soon o&&owed 'y a grou! o i teen re!resentati%es &ed 'y Hu2i* who a&so sought and audien"e( -n the irst #onth o Aian6hong(783)*Ti'et and the Tang he&d a #eeting*west o the 0ing ri%er* with the ai# o or#ing an a&&ian"e(8art o the treaty o a&&ian"e reads4 ?The i#!eria& "ourt o Tang has esta'&ished #arriage ties with Ti'etan !rin"es in an e ort to 'ui&d good neigh'orhood and share !ea"e( Fur 'In"&e and )e!hew're&ationshi! has &asted or near&y 200 years( During this !eriod* howe%er* there arose unne"essary dis!utes that grew into wars* when !ast goodwi&& and a%or were orgotten( Frder a&ong the 'order areas was there ore distur'ed( The Tang e#!eror*with dee! "o#!assion or the #u&titudes* re&eased war !risoners and &et the# return to Ti'et( The Ti'etan !rin"e res!onded to the a%or o +is .aCesty with "ourtesy*and the

two "ountries 'egan to #end their re&ations(9ith !eo!&e "o#ing and going 'etween us* 'road"asting the har#ony 'etween the two so%ereigns* there "an 'e no !&ots o sa'otage or war are(?-n the irst ha& o the third #onth o the twentieth year o 5henyuan(8o/)*the Ti'etan !rin"e died( Fn hearing this sad news* the Tang e#!eror did not enter the i#!eria& "ourt or three days* and sent 5hangAian* #inister in "harge o the <oard o 9or$s* to e2!ress his "ondo&en"es( -n the ourth #onth o the sa#e year* Ti'et sent i ty- our en%oys or an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror( -n the se%enth #onth o the twenty- irst year(80;)* Hun2ino and other en%oys ro# Ti'et "a#e to Chang'an or an audien"e with the e#!eror( -n the tenth #onth o the irst year o Yong6hen (80;)* Ti'etan en%oy HunDi&ou'o arri%ed in the "a!ita& to !resent tri'ute o go&d* si&%er* "&othes* "att&e and horses to the Tang e#!eror De6ong( -n the si2th #onth o the irst year o Yuanhe(806)* Ti'etan en%oy Hun'o "a#e to the "a!ita& or an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror( -n the si2th #onth o the i th year o Yuanhe(810)* Ti'et sent its en%oy Hunsiyere or an audien"e with the Tang e#!eror( 1ro# the si2th year to the tenth year o Yuanhe (811-81;)*Ti'et regu&ar&y sent en%oys to Chang'an to see$ audien"es with and !resent tri'ute to the Tang e#!eror( -n the ourth #onth o the twe& th year o Yiianhe (817)* a Ti'etan en%oy re!orted the death o the Ti'etan !rin"e(The i#!eria& go%ern#ent sent a s!e"ia& a#'assador to e2!ress "ondo&en"es( -n the tenth #onth o the irst year o ChangDing (821)* Ti'et and the Tang he&d a #eeting to dis"uss or#ing an a&&ian"e( -ts "on"&usion was in"&uded in the treaty o a&&ian"e*whi"h read as o&&ows4 ?-n the "entra& !art o China* the Tang e#!eror is so&e ru&erJand in the western regions* Ti'et is &ord(1or# now on* the two states wi&& "ease war are and orget o&d grudges and hatreds( The two sides wi&& reesta'&ish their un"&e-and-ne!hew re&ationshi!*ease tension a&ong the 'order and e2tinguish the &a#es o war( =ather than resorting to %io&en"e and ro''ery the two sides shou&d he&! ea"h other and share wea& and woe( 3s guards o the origina& "ru"ia& !osts a&ong the 'order* the Tang go%ern#ent and Ti'et shou&d trust ea"h other and ne%er stoo! to de"e!tion or raud(? -n the irst #onth o the third year o ChangDing (823)* Ti'et sent its en%oy Hundare to e2tend greetings or the new year( -n the ninth #onth o the ourth year o ChangDing (82/)* Ti'et sent an en%oy reDuesting a !i"ture o 9utaishan( -n the tenth #onth o the sa#e year* Ti'et !aid tri'ute in the or# o ya$s* and si&%er igurines o a rhino"eros* shee! and deer( -n the third #onth o the irst year o <ao&i(82K)* Ti'etan en%oy 7hangDi&ire tra%e&&ed to the "a!ita& or an audien"e with the e#!eror and to e2!ress goodwi&&( -n the ninth #onth o the sa#e year* the Tang go%ern#ent sent an o i"ia& na#ed Hi =ui or a re"i!ro"a&%isit to Ti'et( <etween the i th and eighth years o Taihe(831-83/)*Ti'et regu&ar&y sent en%oys to the "a!ita&*see$ing audien"es and !resenting tri'ute( The "entra& go%ern#ent o Tang a&so sent re!resentati%es to Ti'et to re"i!ro"ate their goodwi&&( -n the irst year o Bai"heng(8/2)* a Ti'etan en%oy arri%ed in the "a!ita&( -n the se"ond year o +ui"hang* the Ti'etan !rin"e died(-n the twe& th #onth* a Ti'etan en%oy "a#e to re!ort the sad news* and the Tang go%er#ent sent an o i"ia& na#ed HiAing to e2!ress "ondo&en"es( There were a!!ro2i#ate&y one hundred and ninety e2"hanges o o i"ia& %isits 'etween the Tang and Ti'et* ro# the eighth year o 5henguan when Ti'etan !rin"e 0i&ong6ong6an (srong-'tsan sga#!o) irst !aid tri'ute to the "entra& go%en#ent o Tang* to the "o&&a!se o tri'a& ser do# u!on the death o 8rin"e Dar#aE3 genera& !i"ture o the re&ations 'etween the "entra& Tang go%ern#ent and Ti'et a&so e#erges ro# these e2tra"ts( 3 ew 'asi" tenden"ies a&so warrant attention4 1( 1reDuent e2"hanges and signi i"ant #utua& in &uen"e e2isted in the !o&iti"a&*e"ono#i" and "u&tura& ie&ds o the "entra& Tang go%ern#ent and Ti'et( 2( 3&though wars 'ro$e out ro# ti#e to ti#e* Ti'et steadi&y &earned the ad%an"ed as!e"ts o the

#ateria& and "u&tura& &i e o the +an !eo!&e( 3( 3n"ient Ti'etan no#adi" tri'es esta'&ished "ount&ess ties with the Centra& 8&ains o China through "u&tura& e2"hanges(2 <ased on the a'o%e a"ts* it is sa e to "on"&ude that Ti'et was a "o#!onent !art o the !o&iti"a&* e"ono#i" and "u&tura& s!here o the Tang dynasty( Certain no#adi" tri'es a""e!ted the traditiona& "u&ture o the Centra& 8&ains o China ro# the 9arring 7tates 8eriod(/7;-221<C) to the +an Dynasty (2o6<C-22o3D) right through to the Ain Dynasty(26;-/20)*and this !ro"ess ne%er "eased( Ti'et was Cust one o these no#adi" 'tri'es( -n his essay Fn +istori"a& Changes o Ti'etan Ho"a& :o%ern#ents* 8ro essor 9ang 1uren !ro%es 'eyond dou't that Ti'et has a&ways 'een !art o the territory o China(and that the Ti'etan !eo!&e ha%e* sin"e an"ient ti#es* 'een a !art o the Chinese nation( The o&&owing is an interesting e2tra"t ro# The 7tory o Ti'et in The )ew +istory o the Tang Dynasty* whi"h #entions !o&o* and de#onstrates the reDuent and "&ose e2"hanges 'etween the Ti'etan and +an !eo!&e4 ?-n the third year o GianDing(6;8)*a Ti'etan en%oy !resented go&d "u!s* go&d'!o&uo'and other ite#s o tri'utes* and again reDuested urther #arriage ties?( 3""ording to te2tua& resear"h "arried out 'y 8ro essor 9ang Yao*?!o&uo?#eans !o&o* the s!ort that originated in Ti'et and s!read to "entra& 3sia and >uro!e(The go&d?!o&uo? !resented 'y the Ti'etan en%oy in the third year o GiangDing was a go&d !o&o( 1urther resear"h on the !art o Co#rade Chen Chang#ing "on ir#ed that ro# a &inguisti" and so"io&ogi"a& !ers!e"ti%e* as we&& as ro# the "hara"teristi"s o !o&o itse& *the ga#e is a "ontri'ution #ade 'y an"ient Ti'etan !eo!&e to the wor&d( +is resear"h a&so re &e"ts how the two "u&tures o Ti'et and the Centra& 8&ains were in !er e"t har#ony( 8o&o 'e"a#e a sour"e o as"ination to a&& so"ia& strata o the Tang dynasty* ro# aristo"rats to "o##oners* in"&uding >#!ress 9u 5etian and >#!eror Guan6ong* who 'e"a#e !o&o ans( 3s the o&d Chinese saying goes4?Those 'e&ow o&&ow the e2a#!&e o those a'o%e(? The ga#e there ore 'e"a#e %ery !o!u&ar a#ong the "o##on !eo!&e* #en and wo#en a&i$eEThere are a nu#er o !oe#s* arti"&es and !aintings de!i"ting and re erring to !o&o* ro# whi"h "an 'e seen the e2tent o its !o!u&arity at that ti#e( Ti'etan !rin"e 7ongtsen :a#!o(7rong-'tsan sga#-!o)4?7ent young students ro# ri"h and !ower u& a#i&ies to study !oe#s and "&assi"s? 5hong6ong* a high o i"ia& in the Ti'etan go%ern#ent* was one o the students sent to study at the Tang -#!eria& Ini%ersity in order to attain ad%an"ed "u&tura& a"hie%e#ent( +e on"e to&d >#!eror :ao6ong that the #ateria& wea&th o Ti'et a#ounted to &ess than a s#a&& ra"tion o that o the Centra& 8&ains'( Ti'etans studying in Chang'an o ten wore +an sty&e "&othes* s!o$e Chinese* studied the &aws o the +an !eo!&e and a"Duired a u&& understanding o the Chinese "i%i&i6ation( .a$ing u&& use o the o!!ortunity to read i#!eria& de"rees and regu&ations* they a&so a"Duired state"ra ting s$i&&s( .any Ti'etan s"ho&ars had the oresight to a'sor' "o#!&ete&y the ad%an"ed "u&tura& a"hie%e#ents o the Centra& 8&ains( (2) -n "ertain a"ade#i" wor$s* the Ti'etan regi#e !eriod is re erred to as the ?Ti'etan -#!eria& Dynasty?(These are o "ourse "on"rete grounds or dis!ute asregards the "ontent o these wor$s* 'ut in any e%ent* ro# a histori"a&* "&utura&* and anthro!o&ogi"a& !oint o %iew* it wou&d 'e #ore a!!ro!riate and "onsistent with histori"a& a"ts to re er to this era as the ?Tsen!o 8eriod?( -n the Ti'etan &anguage (Tsen #eans strong and !ower u&* and !o #eans #an( 3n"ient Ti'etan !eo!&e a&& addressed their "hie as?Tsen!o?(7o*it wou&d 'e a!!ro!riate to re er to the Ti'etan regi#e !eriod as the ?Tsen!o 8eriod?( The !ri#iti%e so"ia& &i e o the Tu'o tri'es is e%ident ro# the way in whi"h the !eo!&e addressed their so%ereign* as Tsen!o* and ro# the !u'&i" ownershi! o the #eans o !rodu"tion* !asture* in or"e at the ti#e( -n the Tu'o regi#e*the !ri#e #inister was "a&&ed ?Hun?(There was a ?:reat Hun?

and a?7#a&& HunE''oth o who# ran state a airs(3""ording to histori"a& re"ords* the roya& "&ans were "a&&ed ?Hun*('&on)? and o i"ia& a#i&ies ?7hang?(3s !ointed out 'y .r( +an =u&in4 ?The ad#inistrati%e syste# o the Tu'o regi#e was %ery si#!&e( 3&& the "i%i& and #i&itary o i"ia&s "a#e ro# the aristo"ra"y* eigher ro# the Tsen!o "&an* or ro# o i"ia& a#i&ies re&ated to Tsen!o 'y #arriage* su"h as #aterna& un"&es* ne!hews* 'rothers-and sons-in-&aws( This shows u&&y the "onsanguinity as!e"t o the tri'a& so"ia& syste#(?; The Tu'o tri'es sea&ed their a&&ian"e with ritua&s o a strong 'inding or"e( -t was a ru&e that the Tsen!o and his "ourtiers shou&d ho&d a "ere#ony to renew their oath o a&&ian"e e%ery year* #a$ing sa"ri i"es o shee!* dogs and #on$eys( The ani#a&s were $i&&ed whi&e a sha#an !rayed to the gods o hea%en* earth* the #ountains* and ri%ers* and the sun* #oon and stars( The oath reads4 ?- we "ease to 'e aith u& and turn against ea"h other* our ate wi&& 'e the sa#e as these shee! and dogs?( >%ery three years*a grand sa"ri i"ia& rite was he&d( Dishes o ood* and sa"ri i"es o dogs*horses* don$eys and "ows were &aid on an a&tar* and the oath read4 ?3&& o you shou&d 'e o one heart and one #ind to !rote"t our "ountry* &et your !&edges 'e $nown to hea%en* earth and the gods( 7hou&d you 'rea$ this oath* your 'odies sha&& 'e "ut into !ie"es &i$e these ani#a&s?( +istori"a& re"ords*in the or# o 'oo$s* &etters* 'a#'oo and wooden s&i!s and on #ore an"ient writing ta'&ets o e2"a%ated ro# Dunhuang* Ti'et and GinCiang* !ro%ide e%iden"e that tri'a& organi6ations wide&y e2isted in Ti'etan so"iety( During the Tsen!o !eriod*Ti'et a'sor'ed $now&edge ro# the Tang Dynasty as we&& as ro# other nationa&ities in China* su"h as the +ans(an"ient Boreans* Tuyuhuns and Tangarts( 3&& these ethni" grou!s e2erted in &uen"e on &i e in Ti'et( Co#!ared with other !&a"es in the wor&d* the tri'a& a&&ian"e in Ti'et was uniDue*a&'eit o a strong euda& "o&or( -t "ou&d 'e de ined as an'3&&ian"e o euda& "&ans?or K'8ost- euda& syste#?*or a?1euda& a&&ian"e o no#adi" tri'a& "&ans?( 7ongtsen :a#!o "&ear&y a"$now&edged the 'a"$- wardness o Ti'et*and a&so that it was a "o#!onent !art o the "entra& go%ern#ent o the Tang Dynasty( There is an a""ount in =e"ords o Ti'etan Bings and .inisters o how Ti'et 'ought #edi"a& 'oo$s and "a&endars ro# the +an !eo!&e e%en 'e ore the ti#e o 7ongtsen :a#!o4 ?7ongtsen :a#!o hi#se& a&so renoun"ed ur and e&t gar#ents and donned the ine si&$ "&othes o the +an( +e ad#ired the #agni i"ent #ateria& and "u&tura& a"hie%e#ent o the Centra& 8&ains*and sent young !eo!&e ro# ri"h and !ower u& a#i&ies to study !oetry and &iterature( +e a&so in%ited inte&&e"tua&s ro# the Centra& 8&ains to standardi6e #e#oria&s and other do"u#ents(? 7ongtsen :a#!o wrote to the Tang >#!eror Tai6ong to "ongratu&ate hi# on his triu#!h in a war in >ast Hiaoning* saying4 ?Your .aCesty has "onDuered in e%ery dire"tion under hea%en* and now* a&& the !&a"es i&&u#inated 'y the &ight o the 7un and the .oon sha&& 'e the territory o Your .aCesty(? -n his &etter* he a&so e2!ressed his &oya&ty to >#!eror :ao6ong* stating4 '3t this ti#e* when Your .aCesty has Cust as"ended the throne*@ %ow to &ead #y Tu'o ar#y and other &oya&ists against any atte#!ts to &aun"h a re'e&&ion(? These a"ts !ro%e that 7ongtsen :a#!o hi#se& regarded Ti'et as 'eing under the &o"a& ad#inistration o the Tang Dynasty -t is there ore in"orre"t to re er it as a?de!endent state?or?%assa& state?o the $ind that a!!eared a ter the Tang Dynasy( <( Hau er* an 3#eri"an e2!ert on Ti'etan studies* e2!ounded u!on and identi ied ro# %arious ang&es the "o#!&ete !o&iti"a& stru"ture o Ti'et in the Tang Dynasty( .r( +an =u&in* howe%er* a ter "arrying out his own resear"h on the sa#e su'Ce"t in his The =oya& C&ans and F i"ia&do# in Ti'et*+an !ro%ed <( Hau er's argu#ent to 'e untena'&e( .r( +an !ointed out that4 ?The ad#inistrati%e stru"tues o Ti'et were not as so!histi"ated as those o the Tang Dynasty* to the e2tent that the two were 'eyond "o#!are?( .r(+an's o!inion is &arge&y "onsistent with the argu#ents that Ti'et was at that ti#e 'asi"a&&y a euda& no#adi" tri'a& a&&ian"e( 1urther "orro'oration o this "on"&usion "an 'e ound in histori"a&

data ro# &ate Tang Dynasty* the 1i%e Dynasties* and the )orthern and 7outhern 7ong Dynasties* through to the esta'&ish#ent o the Yuan Dynasty Tu'o de"&ined a ter the death o Dar#a Tsen!o* whi"h #ar$ed the end o the Tsen!o !eriod *when tri'es and their a&&ian"es disso&%ed( -t is re"orded in The +istory o the 7ong Dynasty that4 ?3t the end o Tang Dynasty* Tu'o de"&ined( Tri'es,the &arger o se%era& thousand househo&ds* and the s#a&&er o a'out one hundred househo&ds-se!arated ro# one another*and there was no &onger a united go%ern#ent?( 1ro# the 1i%e Dynasties through to the 7ong Dynasty*Ti'et 'asi"a&&y "onsisted o dis!arate regi#es* and its under&ying e"ono#y 'asis and ideo&ogy #ade the or#ing o a united !o&iti"a& syste# i#!ossi'&e( 3 +a!!y 1east or 9ise .en "ontains an a""ount o Tu'o at that ti#e4 ?9ars were ra#!ant in #ost !arts o Ti'et( 3&& the regions were su'di%ided into great and s#a&& ad#inistrations* with go&d and Cade strata* #eat eaters and tsa#'a eaters(? -n Chinese histori"a& re"ords* Ti'etans were re erred to as ?&o"a& househo&ds?and?outsiders?(The 7tory o 7ong LK +istory o the 7ong Dynasty states4 ?The "usto#s o the Tangarts and Ti'etans are si#i&ar* in that its !eo!&e are di%ided into'&o"a& househo&ds*'that &i%e in "ities adCa"ent to those o the +an !eo!&e* and 'outsiders' who stay in re#ote areas and &i%e on the !ro"eeds o 'anditry('Ti'etan !eo!&e &i%ing in the inner areas had #ore o!!ortunities to a""e!t the +an "u&ture* and were there ore regarded as?&o"a& househo&ds?(Those who &i%ed urther out were regarded as?outsiders(?The?&o"a& househo&ds? were a"tua&&y ethni" grou!s &i%ing around agri"u&tura& areas* and the?outsiders?were no#adi" Ti'etans( 5i6hitong ian' (a 29/-%o&u#e "hroni"&e 'y 7i.a :uang* "o%ering a !eriod o 1*362 years through to the >!o"h o the 1i%e Dynasties* "ites De!uty .inister o Court 7e"retariat +an 0i as saying4 ?3!art ro#'&o"a& househo&ds'in Aingyuan and 0in eng* there are innu#era'&e?outsiders?in Cuo$u* >r6hu* Degu* <a&i"heng* HaCia"heng* 5hi2iao"heng* :uwei6hou*Banggu* Tao* +e*Han* Die* Yan6hou* 5onger and 0ingtang"heng(3s the ?outsiders? 'e&onged to tri'a& "&ans o %arious si6es* with no syste#ati" ad#inistration* it is i#!ossi'&e to gain a "&ear !i"ture o their &i e and #odes o !rodu"tion(? The so-"a&&ed tri'a& "&ans "onstituted a 'asi" so"ia& and !o&iti"a& organi6ation* and a&so a"ted as #i&itary units( The Tu'o 3r#y +istory o 7ong Dynasty re"ords4 7anyang Ca#!4i8 gates*3/ 'ig se"ts* /3 a#i&y na#es* 180 "&ans* ar#y o 3*/67( Hong"heng Ca#!4K gates* ; 'ig se"ts* 3/ s#a&& "&ans* 3/ a#i&y na#es* ar#y o 2*0K/( :ong#en Ca#!42 'ig gates* 17 se"ts* 17 a#i&y na#es* 17 s#a&& "&ans* ar#y o 1*70/( :uwei Ca#!* 172 gates* 171 a#i&y na#es* 12 'ig "&ans* 16*970 s#a&& "a#!s( The sa#e 'oo$ re"ords4 Ca!tured 381 Tu'o #i&itary o i"ia&s ro# nine "a#!s o Yuan6hou* together with 7*736 so&diers or# 229 "&ans( These re"ords show that "onsanguinity was sti&& an i#!ortant &in$ in Tu'o so"iety* and that it o ten had a !o&iti"a& un"tion(This was reDuent&y #entioned in 7ong Dynasty histori"a& re"ords4 Three hundred thousand Tu'o so&diers surrendered and were o ered a#nestyJ 1*900 househo&ds and 22 "&an &eaders surrendered( Ca!tured 270 "hie s and o%er ;00 Tu'o se"ts( F ered a#nesty and en&ist#ent to 30 "&ans(/*800 househo&ds o &oo "&ans o the 5husuwei surrendered( These "&ans were under the "ontro& o tri'a& "hie s that were o ten a&so euda& &ords( F%er the "ourse o history* 'oth o&d and new "&ans had their ro&e to !&ay within the !o&iti"a&* #i&itary and re&igious arenas( This era o dis"rete regi#es "a#e to an end our hundred years &ater* when the .ongo&ians* with their ar#ored "a%a&ry* o""u!ied >uro!e and 3sia( 3s <uddhis# rose and de%e&o!ed*Ti'etan tri'a& &eaders were gi%en su!!ort ro# the Yuan "entra& go%ern#ent( 1ro# then on* ser do# gradua&&y too$ ho&d in Ti'et* and ad#inistrati%e and re&igious !ower "o#'ined as Ti'et 'e"a#e a Yuan ad#inistrati%e region(

(3) <uddhis# had* sin"e the Tsen!o !eriod* s!read through the Centra& 8&ains and a&ong the 7ino-ndian 'order area( +owe%er*no Ti'etans were initiated as #on$s unti& the ti#e o Trisong Detsen($hri-srong -de-'tsan) in the se"ond ha& o the 7K"entury( The irst grou! o se%en !eo!&e* that in"&uded 7as-.i entered a #onastery as #on$s* whi"h is genera&&y regarded as the !oint where <uddhis# 'e"a#e esta'&ished in Ti'et( 8rior to <uddhis#* 7ha#anis# !re%ai&ed on the 0inghai-Ti'et 8&ateau and 3sian grass&ands( -t was "a&&ed?<on*? re erred to as?<&a"$ <on?'y outsiders* and had its origins in !ri#iti%e so"iety( <uddhis# and <on went through a !ro&onged and "o#!&i"ated !ro"ess o "on &i"t in Ti'et* and ea"h in turn e2!erien"ed 'oth !ea$s and di!s( -n the !ro"ess o "ontention 'etween <uddhis# and <on*howe%er* ea"h 'e&ie syste# a'sor'ed and e%entua&&y #e&ded* in &uen"ing &o"a& re&igious* !o&iti"a& and e"ono#i" &i e* as we&& as Ti'etan so"iety and "u&ture( The su!!ression o <uddhis# 'y Dar#a Tsen!o was the "u&#ination o a ier"e "on &i"t 'etween <on and <uddhis#*and "ontinued or a &ong ti#e( 3s &ate as the :e&ug 7e"t (<uddhist Ye&&ow 7e"t)!eriod* the great #aster Tsong-$ha-!a sti&& ad%o"ated "oo!eration with the <on( 3 ter the rise o the 7a$ya 7e"t 'etween the nKand the i6K"enturies* #onasteries o "onsidera'&e s"a&e 'egan to 'e 'ui&t* and "ertain te#!ora& &eaders a&so 'e"a#e re&igious &eaders( During the who&e !eriod o se!arate $ingdo#s* "ertain o&d aristo"rati" "&ans de"&ined* as others rose* whi&e others dis!ersed* in &ine with the nor#a& "ourse o history 3""ording to histori"a& re"ords* and &egend* the des"endents o Dar#a Tsen!o e&& into three se"ts4 the .arong* :uge* and <urong( They were s"attered o%er the who&e o Ti'et and as ar a ie&d as #do-$ha#s( 3""ording to resear"h 'y :(Tu""i* when the an"ient no'&es o Ti'et "a#e to !ower* they wou&d 'oast that their an"estors were ro# the north or the northeast( 1or instan"e* the !rin"es o :yan6e(rgya&-rtse) "&ai#ed that they had '&ood ties with Bing :esar* as did the )a#rin-!a o the .inya* whi&e the 0onggyai-'a (%!hyong-rgyas-!a) "&ai#ed $inshi! with the <a"hahor( The :nas-gsar &ords &i%ing a&ong the )yang-0u (#ya-ng "hu) =i%er 'etween :yan6e(rgya&-rtse) and 7higatse (g6his-$a-rtse)* "a&&ed the#se&%es des"endents o Tuyuhun( Des!ite the "enturies o #i2ing* #erging* and di%ergen"e o di erent grou!s and tri'es o Ti'et* Ti'etans were a&& nonethe&ess distin"ti%e in their &anguages and !hysi"a& "hara"teristi"s( The 0inghai-Ti'etan 8&ateau is not an idea& &i%ing en%iron#ent* 'ut ro# the 8a&eo&ithi" 3ge* to the )eo&ithi" 3ge* through to the -ron 3ge* other ethni" grou!s #igrated into Ti'et ro# the )orth and the )ortheast( This !heno#enon is "onsistent with "on"&usions drawn ro# the study o Chinese histori"a& re"ords( .ost o the an"ient no'&es o Ti'et united with the %arious rising se"ts within Ti'etan <uddhis#* and the resu&t was the or#ation o the no'i&ity with the "&ergy and in &ay so"iety These two strands o aristo"rats were inter-de!endent and "onstant&y dis!uted ownershi! o !asture(-n the 12th andK"enturies(#any no'&es Coined hands with re&igious &eaders so as to dou'&e their strength in ru&ing their tri'es and de%e&o!ing their in &uen"e( 1or the irst 30 years o the iK"entury* .ongo&ian ar#ies #o%ed towards the northwest region( Con ronted 'y su"h a strong ar#y* 7a$ya 8andita and his ne!hew %8hags!a were or"ed to esta'&ish re&ations with :odan* the grandson o .ongo& &eader :enghis Bhan( 3t that "ru"ia& !oint* the Ti'etan !eo!&e #ade the wise "hoi"e o re&ying on the Yuan "entra& go%ern#ent to !reser%e Ti'et's !o&iti"a& syste# and or# a uni ied &o"a& ad#inistration(This e%ent was %i%id&y re"orded in the a#ous histori"a& do"u#ent $nown as 7a$ya 8andita'sHetterto the Ti'etans( 9hen Bu'&ai Bhan* the ne!hew o :odan as"ended to the throne* he !atroni6ed 8hag!a %!hags-

!a o the 7a$ya 7e"t as we&& as Bar#a 8a$shi( -t is "&ear that the !o&iti"a& and e"ono#i" !owers awarded the Ti'etan 7a$ya 7e"t ena'&ed greater "ontro& 'y the "entra& Yuan go%ern#ent* 'y whose i#!eria& edi"ts their !ri%i&eges were stri"t&y de ined( 1ro# as ear&y as the Tsen!o !eriod* Tu'o had 'egun to &earn the #ethods o &and #anage#ent and !o!u&ation "ontro& e#!&oyed 'y the Tang Dynasty The Tu'o esta'&ished a househo&d registration syste# in its su'ordinate areas* so that ta2 "o&&e"tion* "or%ee &a'or and a dra t #ight 'e rationa&&y ad#inistered( The "entra& Yuan go%ern#ent "arried out "ensuses in Ti'et soon a ter its esta'&ish#ent( 7a$ya's Hinea& Des"ri!tion gi%es a genera& !i"ture o the so"ia& stru"ture o that ti#e4 ?There are si2 !o&es to a househo&d*na#e&y* the hus'and and wi e *two "hi&dren and two ser%ants(one #a&e and one e#a&e)* tota&&y si2 !eo!&e( <esides* a househo&d shou&d ha%e a horse and a don$ey* and "ows and shee! as we&& as a !ie"e o &and &arge enough to sow 12 .ongo&ian gra#s o seed( This $ind o househo&d is "a&&ed a +or Dud Chung*and 2;K +or Dud Chung or# a Dud Chen( Two Dud Chen !ut together are "a&&ed a =ta .go* and two =ta .go are "a&&ed a =gya <s$or( Ten =gya <s$or or# a 7tong <s$or* and ten 7tong <s$or are "a&&ed a Bri <s$or* whi&e ten Bri <s$or are a B&u* and ten B&u usua&&y "onstitute a region(? There were n ie&ds or !ro%in"es under the ru&e o the Yuan >#!eror( Though the three areas o Ti'et were not &arge* they were ne%erthe&ess regarded as a ie&d and 'estowed on 8hag!a* so that he "ou&d !ro%ide or the e2!enses o <uddhist ritua&s and "ere#onies( -t "an 'e "on"&uded ro# the a'o%e re"ords that?+or Dud?and?Dud?were 'oth units used in a "ensus( These two words are synony#ous* and their #eaning and !ronun"iation are si#i&ar to those o ?ordu?*whi"h in the .ongo&ian &anguage #eans "ity( -n the Ti'etan &anguage*?dud? #eans s#o$e(>a"h yurt* or "ir"u&ar dwe&&ing #ade ro# e&t and hide* had a "he#ney* and the nu#'er o "hi#neys indi"ated the nu#'er o house-ho&ds-the 'asi" so"ieta& units(There were a'out i%e or si2 !eo!&e to ea"h househo&d o this $ind* whi"h was gene2a&&y re erred to as a ? a#i&y o i%e? in Chinese histori"a& re"ords( During the Yuan Dynasty*Ti'et "a#e under the ad#inistration o the Guan6heng-yuan (the Co#ission or <uddhist and Ti'etan 3 airs)( Ti'et had !re%ious&y 'een the res!onsi'i&ity o the 5ong6hiyuan)( -n the twenty- i th year o the Yuan Dynasty(1288)*the .inister o 1inan"e*7engge*!ut orward a suggestion to >#!eror Bu'&ai4 ?The 5ong6hi-yuan hand&es the #i&itary and "i%i& a airs o #inority nationa&ities in the western areasJ it is there ore suggested that this organi6ation shou&d 'e !ro#oted in status and its na#e "hanged to Guan 6heng-yuan(This organi6ation was there ore !ro#oted or# the se"ond to the irst ran$ with three sea&s*and its to! o i"ia& !ost he&d "on"urrent&y 'y 8ri#e .inister 7engge(3s a resu&t*the Guan6heng-yuan 'e"a#e an i#!ortant go%er#ent #inistry on the sa#e &e%e& as the 5hongshu-sheng (the -#!eria& 7e"retariat)* the 7hu#i-yuan (K>KK* <ureau o .i&itary 3 airs)* and the Yushi-tai C t &Ki&K* the Censorate)-the "ore units o the Yuan "entra& go%ern#ent(There were %arious de!art#ents and !ositions in the Guan6heng-yuan* su"h as the Guanweishisi (8a"i i"ation Co##ission)* the 5haotaoshi (o i"ia&s in "harge o #i&itary a"tion)* the 3n ushi (o i"ia&s in "harge o !a"i i"ation a airs)* and other regiona& &eaders( Ti'et was 'estowed 'y Bu'&ai Bhan on his son* Gi!ing 8rin"e 3uru"hi* as a ie do#( I!on the death o 3uru"hi*this ie do# was !assed on to 3uru"hiM&s 7on*5hen2i 9uCing 8rin"e Te#ur*and grandson* 7os!an*unti& the down a&& o the Yuan Dynasty( 3""ording to the +istory o the .ing Dynasty4?5hen2i 9uCing 8rin"e 8ona&a su'#itted tri'ete on 'eha& o Ti'etan tri'es?(This de#onstrates that during the who&e o the Yuan Dynasty* Ti'et was under the ru&e o the 6hen2i 8rin"e &ine( The "entra& go%er#ent o the Yuan Dynasty #ade Ti'etan <uddhis# an i#!ortant "o#!onent in its ru&ing #a"hine* in whi"h ser do# go%erned 'y a theo"ra"y was the 'asi" !o&iti"a& syste# o Ti'et( The Guan6heng-yuan o the Yuan Dynasty "ontro&&ed a %ast area o whi"h Ti'et was on&y a !ortion( 3""ording to the Ti'etan histori"a& re"ords*the Yuan Dynasty "entra& go%ern#ent di%ided Ti'et into 13 Ten thousand-househo&ds(Bhri-s$or '"u-gsu#)(3s an ad#inistrati%e unit*a $hri-s$or

'"u-gsu# #ight ha%e #ore or &ess ten thousand househo&ds that were under the ad#inistration o three 8a"i i"ation Co##issions* na#e&y*the I (d'us)*Tsang (gtsang) and )gari (#nga%ris)( -n 'ui&ding a great and uni ied dynasty(the .ongo&ians atta"hed great i#!ortan"e to trans!ort routes that a"i&itated #i&itary a"tion as we&& as e"ono#i" and !o&iti"a& a"ti%ities(The go%ern#ent 'ui&t ?5han"hi?(!ost-houses) on "o##on-&y used routes that "onne"ted the inner and western areas*and were Bey trans!ort and "o##uni"ation arteries whose e i"ient un"tioning*and #aintenan"e 'y the "entra& go%ern#ent was essentia&(Through a&&o"ation o ne"essary unds and the su!!&y o horses*"att&e and shee!*the "entra& go%ern#ent #aintained the nor#a& o!eration o these !ost-houses and su!!orted the !eo!&e that &oo$ed a ter the#( The anne2ation o Ti'et during the Yuan Dynasty as an ad#inistrati%e region was deter#ined 'y the "onte#!orary histori"a& a"tors(The good re&ationshi! 'etween the "entra& go%ern#ent and the &o"a& ad#inistration o Ti'et &aid a so&id oundation or the euda& ser do# that "a#e into or"e Ti'et in the .ing and 0ing Dynasties( -t a&so 8ro%ided a ra#ewor$ or the uture de%e&o!#ent o the euda& theo"ra"y o Ti'et(

<y4 TangJia-hong