Aws WJ 201402

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING
AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING
February 2014
C
A
R
B
O
N

S
T
E
E
L
L
O
W

A
L
L
O
Y
S
T
A
I
N
L
E
S
S

S
T
E
E
L
N
I
C
K
E
L

A
L
L
O
Y
S
H
A
R
D
S
U
R
F
A
C
I
N
G
T HE S TA NDA RD OF E XCE L L E NCE I N:
Stainless Steel
Tubular Electrodes
Select-Arc, Inc. produces over
50 premium ux cored and metal
cored stainless steel welding
electrodes. This broad range of
austenitic, martensitic, ferritic
and duplex wires is designed
for a wide variety of welding
applications from auto exhaust
parts to cryogenic tanks, marine
environments to power generation
plants, food and pharmaceutical
processing equipment to textile
facilities - and many more.
These exceptional stainless steel
electrodes deliver outstanding
welding characteristics such as:
Finely rippled, well
washed beads
Smooth arc transfer with
minimal spatter
Freely peeling slag to
minimize cleanup
Higher deposition rates and
travel speeds
Intergranular corrosion
resistance
And, of course, all Select-Arc
stainless steel electrodes are
backed by the nest in value-
added support and our
renowned customer service.
For more information on
Select-Arcs complete line of
stainless steel electrodes, call us
at 1-800-341-5215 or visit our
website at www.select-arc.com.

Select-Arc, Inc. pr
50 premium ux cor
cored stainless steel welding
electrodes. This br
A
R
B
O
N

S
T
E
E
L

c, Inc. produces over
emium ux cored and metal
ed stainless steel welding
odes. This broad range of

and duplex wir
applications fr
parts to cryogenic tanks, marine
environments to power generation
processing equipment to textile
facilities - and many mor
C
A
L
L
O
Y
A
R
B
O
N

S
T
E
E
L

es is designed
applications from auto exhaust
yogenic tanks, marine
onments to power generation
ocessing equipment to textile
facilities - and many more.

electrodes deliver outstanding
washed beads
Smooth arc transfer with
minimal spatter
Freely peeling slag to
L
O
W

A
L
L
O

odes deliver outstanding
washed beads
c transfer with
minimal spatter
eely peeling slag to

minimize cleanup
travel speeds
Intergranular corr
resistance
And, of course, all Select-Ar
stainless steel electr
A
L
L
O
Y
S

minimize cleanup
travel speeds
granular corrosion
And, of course, all Select-Arc
stainless steel electrodes are

renowned customer ser
For more information on
Select-Arcs complete line of
stainless steel electr
at 1-800-341-5215
website at www
N
I
C
K
R
F
A
F
A
C
I
N
E
L
G

enowned customer service.
e information on
s complete line of
stainless steel electrodes, call us
1-800-341-5215 or visit our
w. w.select-arc.com.

H
A
R
D
S
U
R

For Info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
3 WELDING JOURNAL
CONTENTS
34 Tips for Selecting a Positioner
Choosing the right positioner for the application requires
many considerations
C. White
Business Briefs
38 Profile: John Stropki
An executive with a 41-year career shares his views on the
welding industry and its future
42 What Can a Welding Positioner Do for You?
Different types of positioners offer various benefits
D. Heinrich II
Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published
monthly by the American Welding Society for
$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-
sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50
per single issue for domestic AWS members and
$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and
$14.00 single issue for international. American
Welding Society is located at 8669 NW 36th St.,
# 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672; telephone (305)
443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla.,
and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send
address changes to Welding Journal, 8669 NW
36th St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672. Canada
Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608
Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip Interna-
tional, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2,
Canada.
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of
articles for personal, archival, educational or
research purposes, and which are not for sale or
resale. Permission is granted to quote from arti-
cles, provided customary acknowledgment of
authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items
excluded from copyright.
Departments
Editorial ............................4
Washington Watchword ..........6
Press Time News ..................8
News of the Industry ............10
Letters to the Editor ............22
Aluminum Q&A ..................24
Brazing Q&A ......................26
Product & Print Spotlight ......28
Brazing & Soldering Today
Technology News ..............56
Coming Events....................64
Certification Schedule ..........68
Welding Workbook ..............70
Society News ....................73
Tech Topics ......................81
Interpretations C3.7, D1.5 ..81
Erratum A5.1 ..................81
Amendment Notice D14.3 ....81
Guide to AWS Services ........95
Personnel ........................96
Classifieds ......................106
Advertiser Index ................108
31-s Welding of Nickel-Based Alloys for Energy Applications
An in-depth look at years of research is provided in this
2013 Adams Lecture
J. N. DuPont
46-s Skilled Human Welder Intelligence Modeling and
Control: Part 1 Modeling
The skills of an experienced welder were used as the foundation
for a model to predict fluctuations in the weld pool during gas
tungsten arc welding
Y. K. Liu et al.
53-s Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal: Part I
Grain Morphology Dependent upon Alloy Composition
and Grain Refiner Content
The influence of grain refiners and welding speed were studied
as a means of reducing solidification cracking
P. Schempp et al.
60-s Diffusion Brazing Metallurgy of IN718/
Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718
An investigation was conducted on the effect of microstructure
development on the mechanical properties of a nickel-based
superalloy
M. Pouranvari et al.
Features
Brazing & Soldering Today
Welding Research Supplement
42
34
50
February 2014 Volume 93 Number 2
AWS website www.aws.org
On the cover: Buzz Noel, a welder/assembler at Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome,
Arcade, N.Y., performs gas metal arc welding on the top of an HD500, a nearly
15,000-lb welding positioner held by a 25-ton crane.
44 Selecting Materials for Brazing a Honeycomb in Turbine
Engines
A gas turbine engine requires tight tolerances and proper
brazing procedures to seal against leakage
D. Sporer and D. Fortuna
*50 What Matters Most in Vacuum Aluminum Brazing
Learn the process fundamentals and characteristics
for success
C. Moller and J. Grann
EDITORIAL
Great news! Weve made several sig-
nificant improvements related to the
quality and number of papers published
in the Welding Journal Research
Supplement. The Research Supplement
published in each issue provides a vehi-
cle for publication of timely and rele-
vant research by the worlds foremost
welding scientists and engineers.
One area of improvement is related
to the quality of papers. A commonly
used measure of quality for a scientific
journal is the impact factor (IF) that
Thomson Reuters reports each year in
Journal Citation Reports (JCR). The IF is often used to estimate the relative importance
of that journal within its field. Journals with higher IFs are considered to be more impor-
tant than those with lower ones. (You can find more information about the impact fac-
tor and JCR at http://thomsonreuters.com/journal-citation-reports.)
The accompanying chart shows how the Welding Journals IF has risen from 0.31 in
2008 to a very respectable 1.00 for 2012. With this IF, the Welding Journal ranks 23rd out
of 76 journals in the Metallurgy and Metallurgical Engineering category.
Why is a high IF important? Tenure and promotion decisions, as well as yearly raises, for
research university professors are often closely tied to the number of papers they publish
and the impact factor of the journals in which they publish. Researchers at certain labs and
corporations may face similar pressures. In addition, funding officers for government agen-
cies supporting research often place a heavy emphasis on the IF of the journals in the pub-
lication history of grant applicants. Consequently, many researchers want rapid publication
of their papers in journals with a high IF. The American Welding Society has incorporated
an initiative within the societys strategic plan aimed at maintaining the reputation of excel-
lence of the Welding Journal and supports efforts to improve its IF.
A second area of improvement deals with the decreased time it now takes to publish
a paper. A few years ago, the Welding Journal began using an automated, online submis-
sion and review system called Editorial Manager that has led to an increased number of
manuscript submissions and shorter review times. The number of submissions has
climbed steadily, with 125 manuscripts submitted and 46 papers published in 2013. In
addition, the time between manuscript submission and completion of the review process
has decreased to about 82 days.
Thanks for these exciting achievements go to the Welding Journal staff, the AWS Technical
Papers Committee, and the reviewers for the Welding Journal Research Supplement.
You should note that several other benefits accrue from publication of your work in
the Welding Journal Research Supplement. Figures are printed in color, and there are no
page charges as with other journals. Moreover, your research is disseminated to more
than 69,000 AWS members worldwide. In addition, all Research Supplement papers
published since 1970 are available for free on the AWS website at www.aws.org/wj/sup-
plement/supplement-index.html.
How can you share in these exciting develop-
ments? I urge you to submit your best research work to
the Welding Journal Research Supplement.
Manuscripts can be submitted electronically through
Editorial Manager at www.editorialmanager.com/wj.
You can also share your expertise by becoming a
reviewer. If youre interested, contact Peer Review
Coordinator Melissa Gomez at mgomez@AWS.org.
FEBRUARY 2014 4
Officers
President Dean R. Wilson
Welldean Enterprises
Vice President David J. Landon
Vermeer Mfg. Co.
Vice President David L. McQuaid
D. L. McQuaid and Associates, Inc.
Vice President John R. Bray
Affiliated Machinery, Inc.
Treasurer Robert G. Pali
J. P. Nissen Co.
Executive Director Ray W. Shook
American Welding Society
Directors
U. Aschemeier (Dist. 7), Miami Diver
R. E. Brenner (Dist. 10), CnD Industries, Inc.
D. J. Burgess (Dist. 8), University of Tennessee
N. C. Cole (Past President), NCC Engineering
G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services
T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Victor Technologies
P. H. Gorman (Dist. 20), Sandia National Laboratories
S. A. Harris (Dist. 4), Altec Industries
K. L. Johnson (Dist. 19), Vigor Shipyards
J. Jones (At Large), The Harris Products Group
J. Knapp (Dist. 17), Gas and Supply
T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory
D. E. Lynnes (Dist. 15), Lynnes Welding Training
C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc.
S. P. Moran (At Large), Weir American Hydro
K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), K. A. Phy Services, Inc.
W. R. Polanin (At Large), Illinois Central College
W. A. Rice (Past President), OKI Bering
R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College
D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp.
R. W. Roth (At Large), RoMan Manufacturing, Inc.
N. Saminich (Dist. 21), NS Inspection and Consulting
K. E. Shatell (Dist. 22), Pacific Gas & Electric Co.
T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST (ret.)
J. Stoll (Dist. 18), Bohler Welding Group U.S.
H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), Ford Motor Co.
J. A. Willard (Dist. 13), Kankakee Community College
M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute
D. Wright (Dist. 16), Wright Welding Technologies
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,
Technology and Application of Welding
A Boost for Welding Research
Supplements Ratings
Thomas J. Lienert
AWS Director-at-large, vice chair, AWS Technical Papers Committe, and
lead Principal Reviewer for the Welding Journal Research Supplement
1-800-263-2547
Email info@hcrsteel.com
Fax 1-905-356-6025
www.hcrsteel.com
For all of your rolling, forming
and bending needs, please call
1-800-263-2547
Email info@hcrsteel.com
Fax 1-905-356-6025
www.hcrsteel.com
For all of your rolling, forming
and bending needs, please call
North Americas largest
Plate Rolling, Brake
Forming and Structural
Rolling facility delivers
cost effective solutions.
We serve a wide range of
industries including energy,
transportation, architectural,
construction, mining, metals,
and agricultural as well as
OEMs across North America.
11 thick 11 thick
3.5 thick x
200 in length x
40 inside diameter
OSHA to Require E-Filing, Create Database
of Injuries, Illnesses
The U.S. Occupational Health and Safety Administration
(OSHA) is planning to mandate that employers submit their re-
ports on workplace injuries and illnesses electronically. This in-
formation will then be included in a searchable online database.
Originally, this initiative was announced in a Federal Register
notice in late 2013, though it was long known that OSHA was
moving in this direction. There are no new requirements in terms
of what must be reported or which employers must compile and
report such data.
This represents a significant change in the law. Presently, em-
ployer-specific data are not readily available to the public or even
to employees of a particular firm. The new database will allow
OSHA, and others, to better target enforcement and related ef-
forts, as well as facilitate the ability of employers to benchmark
themselves against their competitors in these areas.
Congress Pursues STEM Initiatives
Science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) educa-
tion initiatives are the focus of several bills currently in Congress.
There are two in particular that are generally considered to be
bipartisan and capable of being approved. One is the Innovate
America Act, the primary purpose of which is to fund 100 new
STEM-focused high schools throughout the United States. This
legislation is also designed to accomplish the following:
Encourage greater commercialization of research and de-
velopment by expanding the basic research tax credit to include
all industry-funded university research;
Allow companies to take a flat 30% tax credit for donating
equipment to high schools and technical and community colleges;
Incentivize colleges and universities to increase graduation
rates for STEM students;
Expand undergraduate research opportunities;
Establish a website for technology commercialization ideas;
Establish a manufacturing assistance program;
Remove regulatory barriers for top 20 exporting industries;
Enforce existing international exporting and importing laws.
The second bill, the STEM Gateways Act, is designed to pro-
vide funding through the U.S. Department of Education to help
schools implement rigorous STEM academics, with a focus on
reaching underrepresented groups. Selected elementary and sec-
ondary schools in partnership with community colleges, nonprof-
its, and other partner organizations would be able to use federal
funding to support STEM classroom activities, extracurricular
and after-school learning, summer programs, student tutoring
and mentoring, and professional development for educators.
Such effors are focused on expanding STEM opportunities for
female, minority, and economically disadvantaged students.
Defense Authorization Legislation Includes
Key Contracting Provisions
The National Defense Authorization Act of 2013, signed into
law at the end of last year, includes several contracting policy
provisions intended to favor small businesses in the federal pro-
curement marketplace.
First, the Act requires federal agencies to incorporate in the
performance evaluation of senior agency contracting officials
their promotion of, and conformance with, existing small busi-
ness contracting requirements. Overall, the federal government
consistently fails to meet small business contracting thresholds
by 25% or more.
Second, the Act imposes requirements to help ensure that
when the government restricts competition to small businesses
the work is actually performed by small businesses and not sub-
contracted to large firms.
Finally, the Act is intended to enhance contracting opportu-
nities for small businesses by adding an incentive for prime fed-
eral contractors to consider small firms for more subcontracts.
Government Issues Manufacturing
Communities Playbook
A new federal partnership, the Investing in Manufacturing
Communities Partnership (IMCP), aims to accelerate the resur-
gence of manufacturing and create a competitive climate for com-
munities to attract manufacturing jobs and investment. The IMCP
encourages communities to devise comprehensive economic de-
velopment strategies that strengthen their competitive edge in
attracting global manufacturers and their supply chains.
In this regard, IMCP has developed a playbook that identi-
fies existing federal planning grant and technical assistance re-
sources and catalogs best practices in economic development,
including a three-step approach to building an effective strategy.
The playbook is available online at www.manufacturing.gov
/imcp/index.html.
House Passes Patent Troll Legislation
The U.S. House of Representatives has approved H.R. 3309,
the Innovation Act, by a bipartisan vote of 325 to 91. This bill
takes steps to combat the ever-increasing problem of abusive
patent litigation, i.e., patent trolls. This legislation would
Require plaintiffs in patent litigation to disclose who the
owner of a patent is before litigation, so that it is clear who the
real parties behind the litigation are;
Require plaintiffs to actually explain why they are suing a
company in their court pleadings;
Require courts to make decisions about whether a patent is
valid or invalid early in the litigation process so that patent trolls
cannot drag patent cases on for years based on invalid claims;
Require judges to award attorneys fees to the victims of a
frivolous lawsuit;
Require the Judicial Conference to make rules to reduce
the costs of discovery in patent litigation, so that patent trolls
cannot use the high costs of discovery to extort money from small
businesses and entrepreneurs;
Create a voluntary process for small businesses to postpone
expensive patent lawsuits while their larger sellers complete sim-
ilar patent lawsuits against the same plaintiffs, to protect cus-
tomers who simply bought the product off-the-shelf.
There is similar legislation pending the Senate that also is ex-
pected to pass.
WASHINGTON
WATCHWORD
FEBRUARY 2014 6
BY HUGH K. WEBSTER
AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at
1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail
hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.
PRESS TIME
NEWS
Hirschfeld Industries Awarded New Tappan Zee
Bridge Project
A partnership between
Hirschfeld Industries, San Angelo,
Tex., and High Steel Structures,
Inc., has landed the contract pack-
age for structural steel fabrication
of the approach spans on the New
NY Bridge by Tappan Zee Con-
structors LLC.
The companies will manufacture
steel girders for the bridge super-
structure spans with primary mate-
rials provided by ArcelorMittal
USA. Steel deliveries begin this
October.
Governor Andrew M. Cuomo
recently announced construction of
the New NY Bridge to replace the Tappan Zee with installing the first permanent piles
that will comprise the new bridges foundation. It is scheduled for completion in under
five years from the start of formal construction.
The New NY Bridge is part of the 570-mile New York Thruway system that will re-
place the existing bridge spanning the Hudson River. Also, according to a press release
by Hirschfeld Industries, it will be the largest design-build bridge system ever built in
the United States with a project cost of $3.9 billion and approximately 110,000 tons of
structural steel.
We are excited to be a part of such a monumental bridge project of this size and his-
toric nature, said Dennis Hirschfeld, CEO of Hirschfeld Industries. The combination
of experience and resources that we as U.S. fabricators bring to this project is strong
and important to its success, and we are proud that Hirschfeld was recognized as a com-
pany that has the capability and strength to handle a job of this magnitude.
Illinois Manufacturing Lab Launched
Governor Pat Quinn was recently joined by officials from the University of Illinois
and UI LABS to launch the Illinois Manufacturing Lab (IML). It brings a public-
private approach to implementing advanced manufacturing technology applications for
Illinois small- and medium-sized manufacturers; joins research capabilities, technical
resources, and commercialization expertise; and will serve as a hub for companies to
learn high-tech tools and software.
The labs initial venture includes ten pilot projects. They are focused on increasing
the productivity of manufacturers design, testing, and/or manufacturing process by using
modeling, simulation, and high-performance computing. In addition, they fall in the fol-
lowing three areas: computational fluid dynamics, finite element analysis, and virtual
machining.
IMLs pilot projects in advanced manufacturing technology are an important com-
ponent of UI LABS broader efforts to spur economic development and job creation in
Chicago, the state of Illinois, and the Midwest region, said UI LABS Board Chairman
Warren Holtsberg.
Genesis Systems Group Expands, Adds Jobs
Genesis Systems Group, Davenport, Iowa, a large robotic integrator, revealed a $4.6
million capital investment that will add jobs and allow it to manufacture more products
in the Quad Cities. Also, the company is renovating an additional 61,000-sq-ft building
in Davenport. With the expansion, it will add nine jobs immediately with the capacity
for future growth. Currently, Genesis employs approximately 163 people.
As a result of this expansion, the company will be able to implement lean manufac-
turing processes as well as decrease lead time and manufacturing costs by producing
many of its subassemblies internally.
FEBRUARY 2014 8
MEMBER
Publisher Andrew Cullison
Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber
Editorial
Editorial Director Andrew Cullison
Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen
Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward
Associate Editor Kristin Campbell
Editorial Asst./Peer Review Coordinator Melissa Gomez
Design and Production
Production Manager Zaida Chavez
Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores
Manager of International Periodicals and
Electronic Media Carlos Guzman
Advertising
National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein
Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca
Advertising Sales Representative Sandra Jorgensen
Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson
Subscriptions
Subscriptions Representative Tabetha Moore
tmoore@aws.org
8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353
Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee
D. L. Doench, Chair
Hobart Brothers Co.
S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair
ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.
J. D. Weber, Secretary
D. Brown, Weiler Brush
T. Coco, Victor Technologies International
L. Davis, ORS Nasco
D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg.
J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.
F. H. Kasnick, Praxair
D. Levin, Airgas
E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant
R. Madden, Hypertherm
D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash
J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant
S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products
D. Wilson, Welldean Enterprises
N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering
J. N. DuPont, Ex Off., Lehigh University
L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrop Grumman Ship Systems
D. J. Landon, Ex Off., Vermeer Mfg.
S. P. Moran, Ex Off., Weir American Hydro
E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center
R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co.
N. Scotchmer, Ex Off., Huys Industries
R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society
Copyright 2014 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-
tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or
opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors
of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-
tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the
part of potential users.
A partnership with High Steel Structures has resulted
in a structural steel fabrication package for the New
NY Bridge.
FEBRUARY 2014 10
NEWS OF THE
INDUSTRY
Pennsylvania School Donates Sign to AWS
Students in the Welding & Metal Fabrication program at York
County School of Technology, York, Pa., recently donated a neon
sign they built to the American Welding Society (see figure). The
AWS sign now hangs on the first floor of the AWS World Head-
quarters building in Miami, Fla.
The students were challenged to build the sign in 2012, and it
took nearly a year to complete the project. Instructor Brian Yarri-
son praised student Jordan Mackison for taking the lead and
doing much of the work.
The sign is made of 16- and 18-gauge hot rolled steel sheet
that was either hand cut or sheered. The students welded the sign
using the gas metal arc process. To give an illusion of depth, 3-
in.-wide strips of sheet metal were welded to the sides of the let-
ters. The contrast of the yellow face of the letters with the dark
blue sides also adds depth.
Mackison shadowed workers at a local sign shop as they cre-
ated the neon tubes for the sign. He was involved in every step
of the fabrication process; performing the electrical wiring for
the sign, and painting and powder coating the letters in an oven
he built at his familys metal finishing business.
In the end, as a welding instructor, I wanted to see the stu-
dents start and finish a complex project involving many trades
and disciplines including fabrication, electrical, paint, and finish,
etc., Yarrison said. This project did just that. I would say for
15- to 17-year-old kids, they did a great job.
IPC Hand Soldering Competition Winner
Crowned at productronica 2013
Forty-three competitors gave it their all during IPCs Hand
Soldering Competition held at productronica 2013, November
1215, in Munich, Germany. Jacek Majchrzak, PartnerTech,
Poland, earned first place with a cash prize of approximately $680
(500 euros), a new soldering station from JBC Tools, and a spot
at the IPC Hand Soldering World Championship at IPC APEX
EXPO 2014 in Las Vegas, Nev. Second place with a cash prize
of about $408 (300 euros) went to Baigyou Tamas, GMOSZ
Elektronikai Kft, Hungary. Halil Ibrahim Demir, Tai Tusas Aero-
space, Turkey, captured third place with a cash prize of nearly
$136 (100 euros).
Participants built a functional electronics assembly within a
Siemens recently completed constructing a high-volt-
age, gas-insulated transmission line (GIL) for China
Three Gorges Project Corp. at the countrys second
largest hydropower plant, Xiluodu. It is located in the
southwest of China on the Jinsha Jiang River at the Xilu-
odu Dam. The project consisted of installing seven three-
pole systems each with a length of 620 m.
The GIL tubes are welded over their entire length to
increase operational reliability and give flexibility for
adapting to any changes in the tunnel wall that occur over
time. Welding the GILs aluminum tubes required a high-
tech process. Up-to-date welding and ultrasound meth-
ods ensured quality, plus allowed rapid installation.
Also, according to the company, the single-pole tube
length is 12.5 km making this the worlds longest GIL.
Designed for a power capacity of 3900 MVA at a voltage
of 550 kV and a rated current of 4500 A, it is also believed
to be the worlds highest-capacity connection using GIL.
The individual GIL modules, each of which is about
11.5 m long, were welded directly to each other in a ver-
tical position inside the installation shafts and pushed up-
ward, section by section, in the tunnel. Various branch
offs and horizontal sections extend the overall length of
the individual three-phase systems to 620 m.
Looking upstream on the Jinsha Jiang River at the Xiluodu Dam, two
of the water-entry openings are visible. The dam filling with water is
ongoing. (Siemens press picture)
Siemens Completes Welded Gas-Insulated Transmission Line in China
Jordan Mackison (left) and Tanner Grove, students at York County
School of Technology, proudly show the neon AWS sign that is now
on display at the AWS World Headquarters building.
11 WELDING JOURNAL
45-min time limit. A panel of independent judges from Institut
IFTEC and PIEK International Educational Centre evaluated
each assembly based on workmanship, overall functionality, com-
pliance with IPC-A-610E Class 3 criteria, and completion speed.
Snowbotics Youth Workshop Encourages
Creativity with Engineering Technology
More than 50 youths participated in the soldering workshop,
Snowbotics, held Nov. 16 and Dec. 7 at Triton College, River
Grove, Ill. The hands-on event, open to youth ages 8 to 14, pro-
PIPE WELDERS... PURGE PROBLEMS?
INTERPURGE... IS YOUR SOLUTION!
QUICK & ACCURATE
PIPE ALIGNMENT
PURGE MONITORS
(OXYGEN TO 1PPM)
PURGING DAMS FOR
ALL PIPE SIZES
ASSORTED PURGE
KITS AVAILABLE
WHY SETTLE FOR THIS?
WHEN YOU CAN HAVE THIS!
PERFECT PURGING = HIGH QUALITY WELDS
316L Stainless w/ Argon Purge @ 250ppm Oxygen Level
316L Stainless w/ Argon Purge @ 12ppm Oxygen Level
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
Lars Wallin (right), IPCs European representative, announces
Jacek Majchrzak, PartnerTech, Poland, as the first-place winner of
IPCs Hand Soldering Competition at productronica 2013.
FEBRUARY 2014 12
vided an engineering technology lesson. They created their own
soldering electronics project in Tritons fabrication lab. Ventures
included a lighted Christmas tree, digital bird, and robotic car.
The workshop, in its third year, was led by Triton Engineer-
ing Tech instructors Andrea Blaylock and Antigone Sharris with
assistance from students of Tritons Engineering Technology pro-
gram as well as Proviso Mathematics and Science Academys
(high school) Monty Pythons robotics team.
Sharris, chair of Tritons Engineering Technology program,
believes by introducing youth to science, technology, engineer-
ing, and mathematics careers in an engaging atmosphere, they
are likely to develop a greater interest in their education as the
means toward reaching their goals.
Event proceeds go to support the only high school FIRST ro-
botics team in the district at this time, Proviso Mathematics and
Science Academy, FIRST Team 2151, Forest Park, Ill.
Results of Lightweight Steel Twist Beam
Study Revealed
The Steel Market Development Institutes (SMDI) Automo-
tive Applications Council recently unveiled the results of its light-
weight steel twist beam study. The selected U-beam design, based
on a tubular shape using advanced steels, achieves a 30% mass
reduction relative to the baseline assembly at a 15% cost increase.
The original project objective was to develop a lightweight
steel twist beam that achieved 15 to 25% mass reduction with
equivalent performance to the baseline design and a lower or
equivalent cost to alternative materials. A twist beam assembly
in commercial use today was selected for baseline packaging, per-
formance, mass, and cost.
Funded by members of SMDIs Automotive Applications
Council and members of Chrysler Group, LLC, Ford Motor Co.,
and General Motors Co., this project was conducted by Ontario,
Canada-based Multimatic, Inc.
Koike Opens Its Doors to Spark Students
Interest in Manufacturing
Recently at Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Arcade, N.Y., a
manufacturer of welding positioners, cutting products, and gas
apparatus equipment, local students visited the companys facil-
ity up close to learn about manufacturing careers.
Over the past year, the company has hosted numerous groups,
including 20 teachers from across the state as part of the 2013
New York Association of Agricultural Educators conference;
four school districts within the Syracuse, N.Y., area; West Valley
Central School; and Pioneer Central School.
All visits include a presentation featuring the companys his-
tory; jobs available within the company; education requirements;
The RWMAAnnual Meeting is a three-day event filled with unparalleled networking opportunities and enlightening
presentations. Renowned economist Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for Trend Research (ITR) continues to be the
keynote speaker for the meeting. Additional speakers will be announced. Non-members are welcome to attend!
Registration opens mid-December.
For more information please contact:
Keila DeMoraes at kdemoraes@aws.org or 800-443-9353, ext. 444
A STANDING COMMITTEE OF ANDING COMMITTEE OF ST TA AA
inoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla. Vinoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla.
y
inoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla. inoy Renaissance Resort & Golf Club, St. Petersburg, Fla.
The R
b
Co
b
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for presentations. Renowned economist
WMAAnnual Meeting is a thre RRW
oadening its use, b
ommitted to advan
bro d i it
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
WMAAnnual Meeting is a three-day event filled with unparalleled networking opportunities and enlightening
omoting its eco
esistance we ncing r
, pr
g
ti it
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the T Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
onomic benefits.
elding technology, g g
i b fit
y,
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the
Registration opens mid-December
keynote speaker for the meeting.
presentations. Renowned economist
. Registration opens mid-December
Additional speakers will be announced. Non-members are welcome to attend! keynote speaker for the meeting.
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for presentations. Renowned economist
Additional speakers will be announced. Non-members are welcome to attend!
Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the T Alan Beaulieu of the Institute for
rend Research (ITR) continues to be the
A girl receives help with her soldering project during Triton Col-
leges Snowbotics workshop.
earning potential of manufacturing jobs; and a plant tour. In ad-
dition, employees share their experiences. For example, Paul
King has reviewed his 25-year progression from working part
time in the stockroom while attending high school to his current
position as director of manufacturing.
Lincoln Electric Partners with RAMTEC
The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, has partnered with
Tri-Rivers Career Center, Marion Technical College, and The
Ohio State University at Marion to provide robotic welding and
fume-removal systems for the Robotics & Advanced Manufac-
13 WELDING JOURNAL
Students from West Valley Central School toured Koikes facility
on Nov. 8. Pictured in this group shot wearing yellow helmets are
company employees Rachael Becht (left), human resource and
safety manager, with George Kazmierczak, senior sales engineer.
Also present from the school are Matthew LaBrake, guidance coun-
selor (kneeling, center), and Dan Amodeo, principal (far right).
turing Technology Education Collaborative (RAMTEC) on the
campus of the Tri-Rivers Career Center, Marion, Ohio.
The facility, considered the first of its kind in Ohio, is designed
to bring industrial robotic/advanced manufacturing skills train-
ing to high school and adult students in the central Ohio area.
Also, the center not only is getting students excited about man-
ufacturing, but its providing them with skills they need in the
workplace while utilizing advanced automation technology.
Chuck Speelman, Tri-Rivers superintendent, believes the cen-
ter will benefit central Ohio. He hopes it will be an attraction for
new businesses to locate to the area while inviting students to
enter manufacturing careers.
Lincoln Electric is also helping RAMTEC provide instruction
on several types of advanced automation.
Industry Notes
Jones County Junior Colleges new Learning Center in Way-
nesboro, Miss., has opened. The $1.054 million in federal grant
money from the U.S. Department of Commerces Economic
Development Administration helped make the projects suc-
cess. Also, the 12,000-sq-ft facility was constructed to Leader-
ship in Energy and Environmental Design specifications, and
its features include welding and large industrial labs.
Wall Colmonoys European Headquarters, Pontardawe, Wales,
has reached a distributor partnership agreement with Italian-
based distributor, Soges S.p.A., to sell its surfacing/brazing
products and castings in Italy. Additionally, company division
Aerobraze Engineered Technologies has selected Mercer Tech-
nologies, Inc., to rebuild an Abar HR50 and VFS HL7272 vac-
uum furnace for the Cincinnati, Ohio, facility.
Hypertherm, a U.S.-based manufacturer of metal cutting sys-
tems, has been chosen as the Best Large Company to Work For
in New Hampshire. This is the eleventh year it has earned the
best company honor. Among other factors, judges noted its
high rate of associate engagement and no lay off policy.
North Platte Community College, North Platte, Neb., has com-
pleted welding program renovations. The project was made
possible with $399,861 in grant monies from the U.S. Depart-
ment of Labors Trade Adjustment Assistance Community Col-
lege and Career Training program. New equipment includes
12 permanent and two portable weld stations, plus updated fil-
tration systems.
Computrol, Inc., recently placed an order for its third KISS
103 selective solder system from ACE Production at its facility
in Meridian, Idaho. The unit will be installed at the plant in
Orem, Utah.
FEBRUARY 2014 14
For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info, go to www.aws.org/ad-index
The new RAMTEC facility is designed to bring industrial robotic/
advanced manufacturing skills training to high school and adult
students in the central Ohio area.
continued on page 99
Call us at 800-782-2110 for a free quote on your
next Metal Rolling job.
www.greinerindustries.com
Give it to us straight, and well handle the curves
Plate Forming: 2,750-ton Press Brake with 40' long bed
Plate Rolling: Up to 4-3/4" thick by 12' wide carbon steel
I-Beam Rolling: Up to 44" the hard way and any size the easy way
Pipe Rolling: Up to 24" in diameter with 2 wall thickness
Tube Rolling: Up to 30" square
Channel Rolling: Up to 36" the easy way and 24" the hard way
Angle Rolling: Up to 12" by 12"
Tees: Any size
Solid Bar Rolling: Up to 14" square and up to 16" round
Flat Bar Rolling: Up to 40" by 7" the easy way and
20" by 6" the hard way
Structural Steel Fabrication
Steel Plate & Sheet Metal Fabrication
Miscellaneous Metals
Machining
Rolling & Forming Services
Cutting Services
Industrial Coatings
Industrial & Electrical Contracting
Crane Rental & Trucking Services
Heat-Bending Services
(AISC Certied for Major Steel
Bridge Fabrication)
W40x593# I-beam being rolled to a
100-ft. radius.
Greiners job shoparsenal now includes the
worlds largest steel rolling capacity.
Our Roundo R-16S Angle Rolling Machine is only the second machine
with this technology and capacity in the world, and the only one in
the United States. It can roll any beam size either the easy way or the
hard way. It can roll a W40-in. by 211-lb. beam to a radius less than
100 ft. with almost no distortion. Plus, roll up to 24-in.-OD pipe with
2-in. wall thickness.
Friends and Colleagues:
The American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize individual
members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the image and
impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an individuals career of
outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in the
welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the welding
industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as
evidenced by support of participation of its employees in industry activities.
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to training and
vocational education in the welding industry. The individuals organization shall have shown an
ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employee in
industry activities.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Counselor nomination form in this
issue of the Welding Journal. The deadline for submission is July 1, 2014. The committee looks
forward to receiving these nominations for 2015 consideration.
Sincerely,
Lee Kvidahl
Chair, Counselor Selection Committee
Nomination of AWS Counselor
I. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
In 1999, the American Welding Society established the honor of Counselor to recognize indi-
vidual members for a career of distinguished organizational leadership that has enhanced the
image and impact of the welding industry. Election as a Counselor shall be based on an
individuals career of outstanding accomplishment.
To be eligible for appointment, an individual shall have demonstrated his or her leadership in
the welding industry by one or more of the following:
Leadership of or within an organization that has made a substantial contribution to the
welding industry. (The individuals organization shall have shown an ongoing
commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of participation of its employees
in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA, NSRP SP7 or other
similar groups.)
Leadership of or within an organization that has made substantial contribution to training
and vocational education in the welding industry. (The individuals organization shall
have shown an ongoing commitment to the industry, as evidenced by support of partici
pation of its employees in industry activities such as AWS, IIW, WRC, SkillsUSA, NEMA,
NSRP SP7 or other similar groups.)
II. RULES
A. Candidates for Counselor shall have at least 10 years of membership in AWS.
B. Each candidate for Counselor shall be nominated by at least five members of
the Society.
C. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS
headquarters.
D. Nominations must be submitted to AWS headquarters no later than July 1
of the year prior to that in which the award is to be presented.
E. Nominations shall remain valid for three years.
F. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence.
G. Candidates who have been elected as Fellows of AWS shall not be eligible for
election as Counselors. Candidates may not be nominated for both of these awards
at the same time.
III. NUMBER OF COUNSELORS TO BE SELECTED
Maximum of 10 Counselors selected each year.
Return completed Counselor nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
4
Miami, FL 33166
(please type or print in black ink)
COUNSELOR NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
COMPANY/CITY/STATE_____________________________________________________________________________________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS COUNSELOR ACCOMPANY THE NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY
BE INCORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
**MOST IMPORTANT**
The Counselor Selection Committee criteria are strongly based on and extracted from the categories identified below. All in-
formation and support material provided by the candidates Counselor Proposer, Nominating Members and peers are considered.
SUBMITTED BY:
PROPOSER_______________________________________________
AWS Member No.___________________
The proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. The proposer is encouraged to include a
detailed biography of the candidate and letters of recommendation from individuals describing the specific accomplishments of the can-
didate. Signatures on this nominating form, or supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition
to the proposer. Signatures may be acquired by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the sig-
natures are secured, the total package should be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE JULY 1, 2014
5
From the versatility of the 141i and 181i, to the power of the 211i, this family of machines sets a new standard
for optimized performance.
All Fabricator 3-in-1 multi-process systems come with reliable Tweco Fusion
MIG guns and Velocity
consumables.
TWECO
FABRICATOR
SERIES

Introducing the game-changing 3-in-1 MIG, Stick and TIG portable welders.



TO TO FA FABRICA
TWECO

SERIES ES
OR

Tw Tweco and Fabricator are regis
All Fabricator 3-in-1 multi-process systems come with reliable T

. 2014 Victor T
weco and Fabricator are registered trademarks of Victor Technologies

All Fabricator 3-in-1 multi-process systems come with reliable T

ictor Technologies International, Inc.
MIG guns and V
Tw with reliable Tweco Fusion


800-426-1888 T
consumables. elocity
MIG guns and V y

Tw 888 Tweco.com
LETTERS TO THE
EDITOR
What It Means to Be an
AWS Member
Thirty-three years ago, I joined the
American Welding Society (AWS). The
involvement came easy, and the journey
has been a good one. The friendships
formed have also been numerous and long
lasting.
We have all had numerous mentors
who encouraged our involvement and
built interest in the society. Several of
mine are gone now, such as Butch Sosnin,
Shelton Ritter, O. J. Templet, Gervis
Sheets, John Tabony, Ron VanArsdale,
Rocky Albritten, and most recently Matt
Lucas. Many of my mentors are still
among us, and there are just too many of
them to address here.
Why do I mention these influential
people? It is simple. Several of these I
knew and respected before I became an
AWS member. They were the ones who
inspired me to join the Society.
To paraphrase John Bruskotter and O.
J. Templet, once you join and get involved,
the real AWS takes over. American Weld-
ing Society membership offers an oppor-
tunity to make new acquaintances and cre-
ate lifelong friendships. The comradery
we develop allows us to work together and
complete tasks at the local level, as well
as on the regional, national, and interna-
tional levels. Very often, this challenges
us to work together with our business com-
petitors to accomplish a common goal for
the welding community and society.
In the recent past, I have heard mem-
bers of the AWS board of directors and
outgoing presidents giving their farewell
addresses eloquently expressing how
much they enjoyed serving the Society and
its members.
This organization is made up of not just
Americas greatest skilled craftsmen, but
also others interested in expanding their
technical knowledge of welding. In my
thirty-three years, I have met many mem-
bers employed in various careers: welders,
fitters, supervisors, high school and tech-
nical college instructors, consultants, en-
gineers, sales persons, research scientists,
and a huge number of inspectors. These
represent just the tip of what makes up
the Society.
The AWS Section meetings and other
activities have allowed rival companies to
cross over the normal competitive bound-
aries and enter into a cooperative assis-
tance-type dialog. Meetings are where
questions can be answered in a friendly
and relaxed manner. They also offer an
opportunity for employers and prospec-
tive employees to become acquainted in
a noncommercial setting.
Most of us did not come looking for
mentors or role models. Nevertheless, we
found many along the way. Most of these
persons touched our lives in a very posi-
tive way, and we saw them giving back in
a selfless manner. In fact, they gave back
tenfold for what they got out of it.
How can they keep volunteering in
such a generous way? After all, isnt AWS
just in it for the money? No, what these
volunteer members give back is nonmon-
etary dedication that allows them to work
tirelessly without any need for acclaim.
What they are working for is the return
that AWS gives in the form of our schol-
arship programs and other endeavors.
Most often, their focus is on benefiting
the student member or the member try-
ing to better him or herself.
In summary, AWS is nothing more or
less than its members and their ideals. The
volunteer work starts at the Section level,
and then finds its way into committees,
the AWS board, and elected offices.
Yes, we have a paid staff, but over my
thirty-three years of membership, I have
seen staff members give of their own per-
sonal time to assist our Section, other Sec-
tions, and individual members. As with
the board, staff individually supports
funding of the AWS Foundation and its
scholarship efforts. When you need help,
they are simply the best. And I know that
there are times when they do not say what
we want to hear, but after all of these years
getting to know this group, you realize that
they are just dedicated to our Society and
want to get it right.
Who else beside AWS can say it has
69,000-plus members, 22 U.S. Districts,
146 U.S. Sections, 127 Student Chapters,
members in 126 countries around the
world, and still growing strong? Thats be-
cause we make it all about our members
and the services provided.
George Fairbanks
District 9 Director
General Manager
Fairbanks Inspection & Testing, LLC
St. James, La.
FEBRUARY 2014 22
The Broadest Line.
The Best Support.
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome designs and
manufactures one of the industrys broadest lines of
welding positioners and thermal cutting products.
That kind of world-leading position would be the
end-all for most companies. But for Koike, its merely
a good start. Were also the only company in the
business whose machines are serviced when needed
by the same experts who build them. That means every
cutting machine, every positioner, and every portable
is supported by a master technician who knows it
literally inside and out.
Give Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome a call. We probably
have the right machine for your job.
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome
Arcade, NY USA 800-252-5232
www.koike.com
Versagraph Extreme
Thermal Cutting Machine
Auto Picle
Portable Pipe Cutting
LD-R
Portable
Bench Positioner
Positioners
Headstock & Tailstock
Follow us on
FEBRUARY 2014 24
ALUMINUM
Q&A
BY TONY ANDERSON
Q: I understand that aluminum is a rel-
atively new material when compared with
steel. What is the history of aluminum and
aluminum welding?
A: To appreciate the history of aluminum
welding, it is helpful to understand the his-
tory of aluminum itself.
About the Metal
As widely used and important as alu-
minum is in our lives today, you would sus-
pect that it has been around for a very long
time. In actuality, the process of convert-
ing aluminum ore (bauxite) into the metal
that we know and use today as aluminum
was discovered relatively recently.
One of the earliest known pieces of
ironware was excavated from an archaeo-
logical site in Anatolia and thought to be
about 4000 years old. Ancient steel found
in East Africa dates back to 1400 BC. In
the 4th century BC, steel weapons like the
falcata (a sickle-shaped sword) were pro-
duced in the Iberian Peninsula (modern-
day Spain, Portugal, Andorra, part of
France, and Gibraltar). Around the same
time in ancient history, Noric steel, from
Noricum (modern-day Austria and part
of Slovenia, and during that time part of
the Roman Empire) was used by the
Roman military.
In contrast, the industrial production
of aluminum only began in the late 19th
century, making this material very much
a latecomer among the common metals.
For many years, people had tried with-
out success to develop something compa-
rable to what we now know as metallic alu-
minum. The primary reason for such a late
development of this metal was the diffi-
culty of economically extracting it from its
ore. The ore combines strongly with oxy-
gen in a compound that, unlike iron, can-
not be reduced in a reaction with carbon.
In 1886, two men (see Fig. 1) working
in different countries simultaneously dis-
covered the electrolytic process for pro-
ducing aluminum that is still used today.
Charles Martin Hall and Paul L. T. Her-
oult developed a workable electrolytic
process (the Hall-Heroult process) that
formed molten aluminum when purified
alumina was dissolved in a molten salt
called cryolite and electrolyzed with di-
rect current.
By 1914, the Hall-Heroult process had
brought the cost of aluminum down amaz-
ingly. Aluminum was now becoming an
accessible material that could be used for
many applications. Subsequently, the pro-
duction of aluminum multiplied dramati-
cally. In 1918, it had already reached the
180,000 ton level, and it has maintained
steady long-term growth ever since. The
production and consumption of alu-
minum grew, on average, through the mid-
1970s more than 8% per year. The total
consumption of aluminum in the western
world reached 2 million tons in 1952 and
20 million tons in 1989. Aluminum
had been recognized as a material of the
future.
Welding Aluminum
After the initial discovery of a suitable
method to produce aluminum as a cost-
effective material, the next step was to
modify and improve upon the basic ma-
terial. Pure aluminum has some unique
and very important characteristics, its cor-
rosion resistance and electrical conduc-
tivity being two. However, pure alu-
minum, because of its relatively low
strength, was not the most suitable mate-
rial for structural applications.
It was soon found that by adding rela-
tively small amounts of alloying elements
to pure aluminum, major changes could
be made to the materials properties. One
of the first aluminum alloys to be pro-
duced was the aluminum-copper alloy.
Around 1910, the phenomenon of precip-
itation hardening in this family of alloys
was discovered. Many of these precipita-
tion-hardened alloys would produce im-
mediate interest within the developing air-
craft industry. Base Alloys 2024, 2219, and
7075, all precipitation-hardened alloys
used in the aircraft and aerospace indus-
tries, were registered with the aluminum
association in 1954. Along with the high-
strength, heat-treatable aluminum-cop-
per and aluminum-zinc alloys, many other
alloys were developed; one of these was
the nonheat-treatable 3xxx series man-
ganese alloys, which were predominantly
used for cookware. The 3xxx series alloys
were found to have excellent properties
at elevated temperatures, and for that rea-
son, are still used today for manufactur-
ing heat exchangers.
It was found that by adding such ele-
ments as copper (Cu), manganese (Mn),
silicon (Si), magnesium (Mg), and zinc
(Zn) along with combinations of these el-
ements, various physical and mechanical
characteristics of pure aluminum could be
dramatically changed. Many of these new
alloys could match the strength of good
quality carbon steel at one-third the
weight. The development of many new
aluminum alloys, which were suitable for
structural application, immediately posed
the question of suitable joining methods.
Fig. 1 In 1886, these two men working in different countries, Hall in the U.S.A. and
Heroult in France, simultaneously discovered the electrolytic process for producing alu-
minum that is still used today. Their discovery was the initial long-awaited step that
made aluminum, once a precious metal used for fine jewelry, into an accessible material
for many applications.
25 WELDING JOURNAL
It is one thing to have a desirable base ma-
terial, but without a practical and reliable
method of joining such a material, it be-
comes impractical to use it for fabrication.
The development of welding proce-
dures for aluminum alloys was somewhat
different than that of carbon steel. Be-
cause of the many variations of aluminum
base alloys and the different effects each
alloying element would have on the weld-
ability of the base materials, it was neces-
sary to develop many different filler metal
alloys to accommodate these variables.
The addition of these elements produced
aluminum alloys with varying amounts of
crack sensitivity. The various degrees of
sensitivity for each of the different alloys
needed to be established to provide guid-
ance for developing suitable welding pro-
cedures that would produce consistently
crack-free welds. This welding develop-
ment work was a major project in itself.
Much of the work was performed by
two groups the aluminum base mate-
rial manufacturers, as it was certainly to
their advantage to show that aluminum
could be reliably welded, and also by some
of the first aluminum fabricators, who rec-
ognized the potential of this new material
and were eager to use it within their man-
ufacturing operations. Two of the pioneers
in aluminum welding development in the
United States were ALCOA (The Alu-
minum Corp. of America) and Kaiser Alu-
minum and Chemical Corp. Their publi-
cations, Welding ALCOA Aluminum, was
first published in 1954, and Welding Kaiser
Aluminum was first published in 1967.
To be competitive in the modern in-
dustrial world, a structural metal must be
readily weldable. The earliest welding
methods used for aluminum were oxyfuel
gas welding and resistance welding. Arc
welding of aluminum was limited to
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),
which was soon found to be not the most
suited process for welding aluminum. It
uses a flux-coated welding electrode, and
even though these electrodes are still
available today, the quality of the welds
produced with them is generally poor.
Also, SMAW is not recognized within
the AWS structural welding code for
aluminum.
The breakthrough for aluminum weld-
ing occurred with the invention in the
1940s of the inert gas welding processes.
The introduction of gas tungsten arc weld-
ing (GTAW), shortly followed by gas metal
arc welding (GMAW), which used an inert
gas to protect the molten aluminum dur-
ing welding, and did not require the use of
flux, made it possible to make high-qual-
ity and high-strength aluminum welds.
Summary
We have Hall and Heroult to thank for
creating a readily accessible material that
has provided challenges throughout re-
cent years and promoted the development
of new welding processes and filler met-
als required to weld this material success-
fully.
Today, aluminum and its alloys are
readily weldable using a variety of tech-
niques and welding processes, including
newer methods such as laser beam weld-
ing and friction stir welding; however,
GMAW and GTAW remain the most
popular.
TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum
technology, ITW Welding North America. He is
a Fellow of the British Welding Institute (TWI),
a Registered Chartered Engineer with the British
Engineering Council, and holds numerous posi-
tions on AWS technical committees. He is chair-
man of the Aluminum Association Technical
Advisory Committee for Welding and author of
the book Welding Aluminum Questions and
Answers currently available from the AWS.
Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Weld-
ing Journal, 8669 NW 36 St., # 130, Miami, FL
33166-6672, or via e-mail at tony.anderson@
millerwelds.com.
BRAZING
Q&A
BY ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO
Q: What etchants do you use to etch
brazed joints to visualize the joint metal
for metallography using an optical micro-
scope? For instance, stainless steel brazed
with BAg-24, or titanium Grade 5 brazed
with TiBraze200? I cannot find etchant
formulations in the literature, and I am
having a hard time seeing the brazed joint
properly. Many times we dont have time
to send samples for electron scanning mi-
croscope study. I may be overetching my
samples, but I want to make sure that I am
seeing the correct things.
A: You are right. We rarely see optical
metallography of brazed joints, etching
procedure, and etchant formulations in
the literature of the last two decades. Elec-
tron scanning microscopy is mostly used
today, which does not require etching.
However, for practical purposes, many
companies still use optical metallography
of polished and etched brazed joints. The
following offers some practical informa-
tion about etchants and other recommen-
dations related to the polishing and etch-
ing procedure of cross sections of brazed
joints.
Etchant compositions for visualizing
the microstructure of the most popular
groups of brazing filler metals are pre-
sented in Table 1. Some etchant composi-
tions and etching times are given in wide
ranges. This is because successful etching
depends on many factors, and the process
parameters should be adjusted experi-
mentally. This is not difficult to do, usually
two or three iterations are sufficient.
The most important factors that affect
the etching process and reveal microstruc-
ture of both the joint metal and the base
metal interface are the quality of polishing
and the composition of the etched alloys.
The base metal and the joint metal often
have different hardnesses; therefore, pol-
ishing should be done without a relief (or
step) from the base metal surface to the
joint metal surface. In order to avoid this
step, we recommend using only fine abra-
sive papers, changing the direction of pol-
ishing by 90 deg every two to three min-
utes, and frequently rinsing the polished
surface under a tap-water stream to re-
move abrasive grains that can get stuck in
soft joint metal. Final polishing with a di-
amond paste is used in cases where there
is a big difference in hardness of the base
and joint metals.
An example of the microstructure of a
titanium joint brazed with AWS BTi-5 (Ti-
20Zr-20Cu-20Ni [wt-%]) is shown in Fig.
1. The etching was done using Reagent
#5. The etchant revealed the grains of the
FEBRUARY 2014 26
Table 1 Etching Procedure and Reagents for Revealing Microstructure of Brazed or Soldered Joints of Most-Used Base Metals and Filler Metals
No. Base Metal Brazing Etchant Formulation Etching Procedure
Filler Metal
1 (NH
4
)
2
S
2
O
8
120 g, H
2
O up to 100 mL. Immerse for 510 s.
Add 35 drops of a saturated ammonia Rinse in cold water.
solution immediately before application.
2 Stainless or Ag-based FeCI
3
25 g, H
2
O, 100 mL (for joint metal), Deposit etchant for 1060 s.
carbon steels brazing filler ethanol 100 mL (for steel). Add 2030 mL Rinse in cold water.
Cu alloys metals H
2
O
2
immediately before etching joints of
copper alloys.
3 Acetic acid 510 mL, ethanol up to 100 mL Rub with a wad or Q-tip for
20120 s. Rinse in cold water.
4 Stainless or Cu-based Step 1: 4% solution of HNO
3
in ethanol Immerse for 510 s. Rinse in
carbon steels brazing filler Step 2: 5060% solution of ammonia in water cold water.
Cu alloys metals; Sn-Pb solders
5 HF 25 mL, H
2
O 100 mL (If a dark shadow Immerse or rub with a wad or
appears, immerse in 5% HNO
3
solution for Q-tip for 1030 s. Rinse in
23 s.) warm water.
6 Ti alloys Ti-based HF 15 mL, HNO
3
15 mL, H
2
O 8990 mL. Immerse or rub with a wad or
brazing filler metals Use hot (6070C) if cold etchant is not effective. Q-tip for 23 min. Rinse in
warm water.
7 Krolls reagent: HF 4 mL, HNO
3
22 mL, H
2
O Immerse or rub with a wad or
100 mL Q-tip for 210 s. Rinse in
warm water.
8 Al alloys Al-Si brazing HF 1 vol part, HNO
3
2 vol parts Immerse or rub with a wad or
filler metals Q-tip for 510 s. Rinse in
warm water. Dry with ethanol.
9 Cu or Steel Sn-Pb, Sn-Ag, and HNO
3
26 mL, ethanol 9498 mL Immerse or rub with a wad or
Sn-Zn solders Q-tip for 2060 s. Rinse in
cold water.
base metal and width of the diffusion zone
(white area), the formation of a typical
needle-like structure of Ti-Zr-Cu solid so-
lutions, a thin Ti
2
Cu intermetallic layer
along the interface, and grains of TiZrNi
phase in the joint metal matrix. The struc-
ture of the joint metal matrix is not as clear
as other characteristics, but at least we can
be sure that there are no defects such as
pores or cracks.
References
1. Kovalenko, V. S. 1981. Metallo-
graphic Reagents, Reference Book, Metal-
lurgy, Moscow, p. 120.
2. Baeslack, W. A., McQuay, P. A., Lee,
D. S., and Fletcher, E. D. 1993. Metallog-
raphy of gamma titanium aluminides. Ma-
terials Characterization (31): 4, 197207.
27 WELDING JOURNAL
Fig. 1 Microstructure of titanium joint brazed with BTi-5 filler metal. Etched 30 s with
HF 25 mL, H
2
O 100 mL (Etchant #5 in Table 1).
This column is written sequentially by
TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E.
SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and
Shapiro are members of and Kay is an ad-
visor to the C3 Committee on Brazing and
Soldering. All three have contributed to the
5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook.
Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently
serves as a BSMC vice chair and owns his
own consulting business.
Shapiro (ashapiro@titanium-braz-
ing.com) is brazing products manager at Ti-
tanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Kay (Dan@kaybrazing.com), with 40
years of experience in the industry, operates
his own brazing training and consulting
business.
Readers are requested to post their ques-
tions for use in this column on the Brazing
Forum section of the BSMC website
www.brazingandsoldering.com.
PRODUCT & PRINT
SPOTLIGHT
Soldering Robot Available
with Safety Guard
A wraparound safety guard for the
companys G Series soldering robot has
been added thanks to customer feedback.
A Keyence light curtain is used to acti-
vate a safety net at the front of the work
cell. The robot control system integrates
into the guard to activate/deactivate the
light curtain for loading/unloading.
Promation Engineering, Inc.
www.pro-mation-inc.com
(262) 764-4832
Silver Brazing Alloy
Suitable for Any Steel
BlueBraze, a silver brazing alloy with
good flow characteristics and low melt-
ing point, is suitable for any steel, cop-
per and copper alloys, nickel and nickel
alloys, and can be applied to any brazing
process as well as induction heating. In
addition, its silver content is reduced, but
it offers the same properties and con-
forms to RoHS. The product offers cost
reduction through reduced silver content
and more rods per kilogram due to a
lower density of substitute metals.
Umicore
www.umicore.de
+32 2 227 71 11
Book Presents Soldering
Techniques for Jewelry
The Art of Soldering for Jewelry Mak-
ers is a comprehensive step-by-step guide
to soldering. It presents a collection of
soldering techniques applied across a va-
riety of precious metals. The book fea-
tures instructions for jewelers of all lev-
els and includes pre- and postsoldering
techniques, safety procedures, essential
equipment and materials required, along
with tips and tricks of the trade from
leading jewelers. Also highlighted are fif-
teen jewelry projects, including rings,
necklaces, chains, earrings, bangles, and
others.
Wing Mun Devenney
wingmun@ispymagpie.co.uk
Soldering Iron Approved
for Battle Damage Repair
The MCH-100-A battery-powered,
portable heat gun, has recently been ap-
proved by the United States Army Avion-
ics for its battle damage assessment re-
pair kit. The kit features a lightweight,
battery-powered, self-contained heat
gun; battery-powered soldering iron;
Emphasis on Brazing and Soldering
USB-Powered Soldering Iron
Heats Quickly to 480C
The USB-powered soldering iron by MegaPower, which
the company will stock, is designed for fast repairs in the
field and lab for fine-pitch SMT components. It is powered
by the USB port of a PC/laptop or alternatively with a 9-V
battery. The iron achieves 480C in 20 s and has a low-power
consumption. It also features a professional-grade solder-
ing tip, bright white LED light to illuminate the working
area, safety on/off switch, energy efficiency, and protective
cap.
Premier Farnell
www.premierfarnell.com
+44 (0) 20 7851 4100
FEBRUARY 2014 28
29 WELDING JOURNAL
power supply using BB390 military ap-
proved batteries; and heavy-duty carry-
ing case with shoulder strap. Numerous
heat gun nozzle accessories are available
for all hot air tool applications in the
field.
Malcom Co., Inc.
www.malcom.com
(800) 289-7505
Catalog Highlights
Welding Protection
Products
The WE BUILD-themed 2014 cat-
alog of welding and cutting products pro-
vides specifications and comparisons on
GMAW, GTAW, and SMAW machines
and GTAW torches. The 84-page, full-
color catalog features a newly expanded
metal cutting offering, engine-driven
generators, fume extractors, and more.
It also highlights Arc Armor welding
protection and product information on
filler metals including tubular, alu-
minum, and solid wires, as well as cov-
ered electrodes.
Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
www.millerwelds.com
(800) 426-4553
Lower-Temperature Active
Solder Alloy Developed
S-Bond 140, a lower-temperature
active solder that melts from 135 to
140C, is formulated with a bismuth-tin
(Bi-Sn) eutectic base composition, which
is then alloyed with active elements and
rare earths. The resulting active solder
bonds a range of materials without the
requirements of flux or preplating. Ac-
cording to Dr. Smith, company president,
the solder is finding applications in glass-
metal seals in electronic packages for the
avionics industry and bonding LED pack-
ages to heat pipes along with vapor cham-
bers to protect the thermally sensitive
phase change fluids from damaging the
devices when solder bonding.
S-Bond Technologies
www.s-bond.com
(215) 631-7114
Solder Inspection
System Made to Decrease
Failure Rates
The Sherlock-300F, a benchtop auto-
mated optical inspection system, pro-
vides comprehensive defect coverage on
densely populated circuit boards. Assem-
blies are fed into the machine on a built-
in conveyor, eliminating the drawer de-
sign of other benchtop systems, minimiz-
ing machine footprint, and allowing the
systems large display to be positioned
1-800-245-3186
www.bugo.com
One Powerful Drive Unit...
Dozens of Accessories...
Thousands of Applications!!!
The Modular Drive System is the only American made travel carriage.
*MDS as shown with hard coated, heavy duty anodized rail.
MODULAR DRIVE
SYSTEM

directly in front of the user. All program
setup and operation is done on the dis-
play using multitouch gestures, which is
responsive even through gloves. The sys-
tem can be used after stencil printing for
2D solder paste inspection, after place-
ment for component presence, place-
ment and value verification, and after re-
flow or wave soldering for solder joint
and final assembly inspection. The soft-
ware automatically adjusts for board
warp and flexible substrates.
Manncorp
www.manncorp.com
(800) 745-6266
Welding Book Includes
Graphic Novel Stories
Operation: ARC features graphic
novel stories aimed at young people, be-
ginners, and the technically interested
reader; technical articles that inform
readers on the complex knowledge, ca-
pabilities, and innovations of the world
of welding; and testimonials from peo-
ple who have made welding their profes-
FEBRUARY 2014 30
WORK
SMART
Model 200 Positioner

Model 1200 Pipemate

RT RT R A M S
K R O W

T
K

RT RT A M S

TT

sion and life passion. The nearly 90-page
book, available in English and German,
can be ordered from the information
below.
Fronius
www.fronius.com
(810) 220-4414
Reflow Soldering Systems
Fans Help Reduce
Operating Costs
The Hotflow 4/26 reflow soldering
system offers a process length of more
than 5 m split into 26 heating zones and
4 cooling zones. The energy-saving sys-
tem has fan motors that reduce power
consumption and a system that reduces
consumption of N
2
by 20%. A shorter re-
flow system, the Hotflow 4/08, is also
available. The Ecoselect 4, a stand-alone
soldering system developed for midsized
production volumes, can be loaded/un-
loaded manually or by transfer to a fol-
lowing system. The Ecocell, useful for
larger batch sizes, features a dip module
and multinozzles. It is equipped with two
solder baths and supports product
changes.
Kurtz Ersa
www.ersa.com
(800) 363-3772
Liquid Flux Leaves Low
Postprocess Residues
NC277 is a VOC-free liquid flux that
is electrically safe as an alcohol-based
flux and has a medium residue that is suit-
able for long thermal demands. The
halide-free, environmentally safe liquid
flux can withstand the high thermal pre-
heats required for palletized selective
soldering. Also, it provides a broad acti-
vation range, proving to be a good flux
for a variety of
process parame-
ters and applica-
tions, including
lead-free wave
soldering with
tin-silver-copper,
tin-silver, tin-cop-
per, and other al-
loys. In addition,
the liquid flux of-
fers low post-
process residues and passes the IPC SIR
2.6.3.7 test in an air-dried state.
AIM
www.aimsolder.com
(800) 225-5246
Revised Guide Features
Filler Metal Selector
The revised 31st edition of the Pocket
Welding Guide is in full color. Featured
are overviews of common arc welding
processes, examples of good and bad
weld beads, causes and cures of common
welding problems, welding symbols,
guidelines for the identification of met-
als and calculating filler metal consump-
tion, oven storage and reconditioning of
filler metals, shielding gases and their
uses, AWS filler metal classifications and
comparative indices, and welding param-
eters. Included is a newly revised section
of filler metals, including the latest metal
cored wires, with operating ranges, filler
metal selector guide for welding ASTM
steels, troubleshooting guides for semi-
31 WELDING JOURNAL
automatic wire and equipment, welding
terms and definitions, metric conversion
tables, and more. The 184-page, 4 7-in.
guide, price $7, can be ordered from the
information below.
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
www.welding.org
(800) 332-9448
Solder Paste Eliminates
False Failures
A Pb-free solder
paste, Indium
8.9HF1-P, com-
bines stencil print-
ing performance
using a halogen-
free oxidation bar-
rier technology
with optimized no-
clean residues for
enhanced probe
testing. The paste
helps eliminate
false failures and
gives high first-
pass yields. It provides high transfer ef-
ficiency, consistent print performance,
and its response-to-pause lessens the
need for frequent understencil wiping.
Indium Corp.
www.indium.com
(315) 853-4900
Mobile App Offers Cutting
Equipment Catalogs
The companys
new mobile applica-
tion, designed to be
a practical and time-
saving tool, provides
welders of all skill
levels with current
welding and cutting
information. The in-
teractive bookshelf
features the ability
to view the companys catalogs or prod-
uct literature offline, with no Internet
connection required. When connected to
the Internet, the app syncs with the com-
panys online database to retrieve up-
dates. It is available through the Apple
iTunes App Store.
The Lincoln Electric Co.
www.lincolnelectric.com
(888) 935-3876
FEBRUARY 2014 32
6th International Brazing & Soldering Conference
Long Beach, Calif. April 1922, 2015
The American Welding Society and ASM International are again organizing the
four-day International Brazing & Soldering Conference. Every three years, IBSC
brings together scientists and engineers involved in the research, development,
and application of brazing and soldering. Parallel sessions allow presentation of
the latest advances in brazing and soldering technologies and will be organized
to maximize interaction between the two disciplines.
Brazing and soldering professionals are invited to submit abstracts of 150 to 200 words
describing original, previously unpublished work for consideration. The work may pertain
to current research, actual or potential applications, or new developments. Commer-
cialism must be avoided to maintain the high level of technical quality and integrity of
the IBSC conference series. Below are some of the topical areas covered at IBSC:
Aerospace, Automotive & Structural HVAC&R systems Power & Electrical Equipment
Ceramic/Glass to Metal Joining Joint Reliability Sensors/Micro-Electronics Chemical & Petroleum
Production Lead-Free Solders Solder Joining Methods Composite Materials Light Metals
Special/Advanced Brazing Processes Corrosion of Brazed Joints Materials & Process
Design/Control Structural Solder Applications Electronic Packaging Medical Test Methods &
Evaluation Filler Metal Properties Mining & Heavy Equipment Thermal Management Fluxes &
Atmospheres Modeling Furnace & Vacuum Brazing Nanomaterials
Conference proceedings will be published
and videotaped to capture these high-
quality technical presentations for later
reference. All authors of accepted work
will be required to prepare a full manu-
script for this publication. Abstracts and
manuscripts must be submitted in English.
Before submitting your abstract, we ask
that you carefully consider your ability to
present your work at the conference.
Speakers are required to pay a (reduced)
conference registration fee, and are totally
responsible for their travel, housing and
any related expenses.
Please submit your work for consideration
at www.asminternational.org/ibsc by
Aug. 1, 2014.

Metallurgical know-how for the best welding results.
As a world leading provider of ller metals voestalpine Bhler
is now an integrated unit of the steel producer voestalpine.
The three brands provide the deepest portfolio of ller metal solutions
and the most competent technical support in the market for Joint
Welding, Repair & Maintenance and Brazing applications.

As a world leading provider of ller metals voestalpine Bhler
elding, Repair & Maintenance and Brazing applications.

As a world leading provider of ller metals voestalpine Bhler Welding

Join the highest level of welding performance
www.voestalpine.com/welding
Bhler Welding
Welding, Repair & Maintenance and Brazing applications.

Join the highest level of welding performance
.voestalpine.com/welding
UTP Maintenance elding

Fontargen Brazing

FEBRUARY 2014 34
T
he word positioner is a loose des-
ignation for any type of equipment
that manipulates a part into a cor-
rect position for various operations or
procedures. Tilt/rotate, head and tail-
stocks, floor turntables, and turning rolls
are all types of positioners that can be
used depending on the part size, project
constraints, and process requirements.
Many factors in addition to the parts
weight must be considered before choos-
ing the correct positioner for the job. Se-
quence of operations, welding process,
accessibility, and safety are just a few
items that must be addressed before the
actual sizing is done. Some or all of these
considerations may drive the final size
and design of the positioner required to
correctly complete the job at hand.
Items to Consider
The sequence and actual operations
required must first be considered. What
positions and how many different orien-
tations will be required to present the part
in the proper orientation to perform the
required jobs? How the part is fastened
to the table and even the fixture design
must also be considered to allow the op-
erator to perform the operations essen-
tial to a specific part. Understanding final
expectations and process limitations may
be the most critical information in deter-
mining the correct positioner for each
specific application; some positioners
may offer unique advantages in some
areas with downfalls in others. These pos-
sible advantages and disadvantages must
be deliberated and understood to ensure
the best choice for the final positioner
design.
The welding process can also drive the
final positioner choice and the fixture de-
sign. Processes such as gas metal arc
(GMA) and gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) may require less precise joint
placement, due to the ability of the welder
to perform some less critical welds out of
position, while submerged arc welding
(SAW) requires all joints to be properly
positioned due to larger weld pools and
the need to keep the weld pool fully sub-
merged under loose granular flux. Weld-
ing may not be the only process that must
be considered. Grinding, machining, final
assembly, painting, and blasting are sev-
eral processes that can be performed on
a positioner and will affect the final se-
lection. Any reduced handling or time be-
tween operations can improve efficien-
cies and increase quality during the man-
ufacturing process.
Accessibility must also be considered;
how the operator, robot, or manipulator
accesses the required areas of the part is
Tips for Selecting a
Positioner
CLIFF WHITE (whitec@koike.com) is
senior sales engineering, Positioner
Product Line, Koike Aronson, Arcade, N.Y.
Theres a lot more than just the weight of
the workpiece to consider when
choosing a positioner
BY CLIFF WHITE
Fig. 1 Tilt-rotate positioners offer high
tilt and roational torques for overhung
and accentric loads and are available in
many capacities.
35 WELDING JOURNAL
critical for each process. Interference
with the positioner, the fixturing, or even
the component itself must all be analyzed
to ensure sufficient clearances to perform
the desired task. Although off-the-shelf
positioners may suffice for simple proj-
ects, many jobs require specially engi-
neered products to meet specific needs.
How and where the part is held is directly
related to where and what specifically
needs to be accomplished. Proper fixtur-
ing and part attachment to the positioner
will avoid interference and quality issues.
Safety is another contributing factor
in the selection of a positioner. Manipu-
lating the part to a safe position so the
operator can easily reach the required
areas eliminates the need for ladders and
stands. Providing ergonomic working po-
sitions provides not only safer working
conditions but happier operators, greatly
reducing manufacturing accidents and in-
juries while increasing cycle times and
quality. Accounting for the correct swing
clearances and possible interference
points reduces the chance of collision
with the floor or other objects, which can
cause damage to the part or machine as
well as being hazardous to surrounding
personnel.
Advantages and
Disadvantages by
Positioner Type
There are many designs and special
options for positioners to ensure that all
of the requirements are met. Each design
has its own advantages and disadvantages
and must be selected based on each indi-
vidual application.
Tilt-Rotate
A basic tilt-rotate type positioner typ-
ically provides powered tilt and rotation
to manipulate the workpiece Fig. 1.
Advantages of using these tilt-rotate type
positioners include a wide range of ca-
pacities, high tilt and rotational torques
for overhung and eccentric loads and
large swing clearances for manipulating
parts into the desired position. Disadvan-
tages can be high table flat heights and
larger machines required for excessive
overhung loads due to the part only being
supported by one end. Power elevating
models can be used to lower work heights,
but due to machine design may still re-
main out of the workers reach.
Head and Tailstock
Head and tailstock positioners offer
the advantage of supporting the part from
both ends Fig. 2. This allows the ma-
chines to split the load and also reduce
the effects of a large overhung load, re-
ducing the machine capacity required.
The part remains parallel to the floor,
keeping the work height as low as possi-
ble; power elevating models can lower the
work height even further while still allow-
ing the part to be lifted and rotated for
additional processes. The disadvantages
may include the limited positions that can
be obtained as the part must remain at-
tached to both the head and tailstock
(parallel to the floor) allowing the part
to only be rolled, with no tilt functional-
ity available.
Turntable
Floor turntables include a powered ro-
tating table that remains parallel to the
floor. Advantages include a low working
height, large table diameter capabilities,
Fig. 2 Head and tailstock positioners
support the part from both ends, split-
ting the load.
Fig. 3 Tilting models of turning rolls
can be used for applications beyond just
round vessels in the flat position.
2
3
and reduced cost due to limited mechan-
ical components. The disadvantage would
be limited part mobility; with no tilt or el-
evation capabilities, the load can only be
rotated with the main work plate and part
remaining parallel to the floor.
Turning Rolls
While turning rolls are primarily used
for round vessels in the flat position, ele-
vating and tilting (Fig. 3) models can be
used for special applications as well as
false rings for rotating square parts. The
main limitation of using turning rolls
would be the need for basically concen-
tric parts. With friction between the
wheels and the workpiece providing the
rotating power, large eccentric loads may
slip requiring a more rigid connection as
in a head and tailstock positioner.
Special engineered products and po-
sitioner options are almost always utilized
in the final positioner design. Through-
holes, special tables, and PLC controls
are just a few solutions that can be used
in the design of a special positioner ap-
plication. Several features of standard po-
sitioners can be used together to make
specialty positioners such as skyhooks
(Fig. 4) and drop centers. These machines
are a combination of several axes and
components providing specific arrange-
ments of tilt and rotation in one machine
for a specific part or application.
Bringing It Together
Once the sequence of operation,
process, accessibility issues, and safety
concerns have been identified and ad-
dressed, the actual positioner design re-
quired to accomplish the job will become
apparent. With an acceptable machine
design established, the actual weight of
the part and the fixturing, along with the
center of gravity locations, will determine
the capacity required of the determined
positioner model.
FEBRUARY 2014 36
Fig. 4 An example of a skyhook positioner.
FEBRUARY 2014 38
How did you come to work for
Lincoln Electric?
Im sure youve heard the old adage Its
better to be lucky than good, and in my
case thats exactly what the situation was. I
grew up in the Cleveland suburb of May-
field Heights and a next-door neighbor and
family friend was a longtime Lincoln Elec-
tric employee who worked in the mainte-
nance department of our consumables fac-
tory. He introduced and recommended me
to the company, and as a result, I was of-
fered a summer job between my freshman
and sophomore year at Purdue University.
I ended up working in the factory for three
summers while attending Purdue. After
graduating with an industrial engineering
degree, I was offered a full-time job in our
technical sales training program.
What were the positions you
held with Lincoln prior to
becoming CEO? How did they
prepare you to lead the
company?
I started my full-time career in May
1972 when I joined the engineering train-
ing program. Just as we do now, we hired
engineers for two paths, one for the engi-
neering curriculum, which is focused on
either R&D, plant engineering, or the
manufacturing engineering side of our
business, or the other path in technical
sales. I felt my skills and personality were
better suited to technical sales, so that was
the curriculum and path I chose.
After a one-year training program in
Cleveland, I was assigned to a field office
in Indianapolis. I then spent the next 20-
plus years in various roles within our sales
organization. I moved from Indianapolis
to Ft. Wayne, Ind., to Chicago, Ill., in each
case taking on greater levels of responsi-
bility, calling on larger accounts, and tak-
ing on more important strategic responsi-
bilities within the company.
(From there, Stropki had stints as a dis-
trict sales manager, national sales manager
for Canada, vice president of sales of the
Cleveland company, which included the
U.S. and Canadian sales organizations,
then VP of sales with international and do-
mestic responsibilities. In 1996, he became
president of the North American company,
then continued to advance until achieving
his final position, executive chairman.)
Did you have a mentor in the
company? Who was that
person and how did he/she
help you?
I wouldnt say a mentor; I would say
several mentors. I dont think any one in-
dividual ever shapes another individuals
career by him or herself. Its a matter of
a number of people that you teach and
who teach you, and you have the oppor-
tunity to learn from in either your per-
sonal or business experience.
My father was not a businessman; he
was a construction worker and member of
the Operating Engineers Union. He taught
Profile: John Stropki
The former Lincoln Electric executive chairman shares his business
philosophy and thoughts regarding the future of welding
John M. Stropki
John M. Stropki retired as executive chairman and member
of the Board of Directors of The Lincoln Electric Co. at the end
of 2013. For the final eight and a half years of his 41year
career with the company, he served as CEO. Stropki shared
the story of his career with the Welding Journal.
BUSINESS BRIEFS
39 WELDING JOURNAL
me the value of hard work and of develop-
ing personal relationships. He showed me
that if you worked hard, treated people
fairly, and developed good networks, you
could succeed in any walk of life.
My first boss was a gentleman named
Roy Martin. It was really my first expo-
sure working for somebody who had a long
professional career. He helped to shape
the early elements of my business philos-
ophy, driven around the Lincoln business
philosophy and a strong sense of business
ethics.
I would say there were three individu-
als later in my career, starting with Don
Hastings, who hired me and also served as
our chairman and chief executive officer;
Fred Mackenbach, who was president of
our U.S. company; and Paul Beddia, who
was our vice president of sales and who gave
me my first management role in Columbus.
Each of them were Lincoln Electric ca-
reer veterans theyd started and finished
their careers at Lincoln, a great model to
follow. They all had a common element to
their business philosophy, but they also all
had different ideas and philosophies.
As Ive said to many people that Ive
worked with over the years, you need to
learn from every person you come into
contact with, and you should be able to
take the good things that they do and de-
cide whether they will work for you and
discard those elements that wont fit your
ideals or style. You shouldnt try to copy
any single individual; instead, shape your
own business philosophy around the suc-
cess of others, but have a sense of inde-
pendence and creativity in developing
your own ideas.
Do you have a particular
business philosophy? Please
provide a brief explanation.
John C. and James F. Lincoln were the
driving force behind the growth of the
company and the development of a man-
agement philosophy. They had two very
important business philosophies. The first
was they believed the company needed to
have a constant focus on the customer,
and that if we did everything we could do
to make our customers successful, then
the other two stakeholders in the com-
pany, the employees and the sharehold-
ers, would also be rewarded. The fact that
I spent the early stages of my career in the
sales organization really allowed me to
hone that philosophy and to live by it. I
worked very hard in every role I had with
Lincoln Electric to be sure the decisions
I made or that we made were the right de-
cisions for our customers, and in doing so,
I think our employees and shareholders
have been really rewarded.
James F. Lincoln also developed the
business philosophy and its the model
that drives the organization today that
the actual is limited, but the possible is
immense. If you walk into our corporate
headquarters today, youll see that ban-
ner over the entryway of the company and
its been there since the factory was built
back in the early 1950s. That philosophy
really drives people, myself included, to
recognize that we cant do everything, but
we can do many things, and if we take ad-
vantage of all the opportunities that are
there for us and really focus on going the
extra mile to serve the customer, then
were going to be very successful and were
going to outpace the competition by a
wide margin, and I think weve demon-
strated that for more than 115 years.
What traits do you think are
important for an executive to
possess in order to be
successful and why?
Its a clich but I truly believe it: You
have to lead by example. I would never
ask somebody to do something I would-
nt do or havent done myself. If you are
passing down specific actions or respon-
sibilities, you have to be prepared to do
the same things, or you should have done
the same things as part of your career.
I also believe its important to get as
much information as possible first hand.
When I took over the responsibilities as
president of the Cleveland company, I had
zero manufacturing experience. Id been
on a lot of shop floors visiting customers
but I didnt know anything about the ele-
ments of making a shop floor work, so I
spent a lot of time out walking the shop
floor and talking to as many people as I
could find to talk to, to get their ideas and
impressions, either good, bad, or ugly.
That input from managers and shop-floor
personnel helped me make day-to-day de-
cisions and shape our strategy long term.
I had the same philosophy as far as cus-
tomers were concerned. (Stropki added
that he spent a lot of time face to face talk-
ing and listening to customers to find out
what the company could do to make them
more succesSful.)
What do you believe have been
some of your greatest
accomplishments during your
years as head of the company?
This is not about me, its about we.
It is really what the management team and
the 10,000-plus employees of the company
have been able to accomplish during my
tenure. Theres no one individual in any
company that can accomplish what we
have accomplished over the past ten years
by himself. We have a great management
team and an unbelievable workforce that
is really committed to a common objec-
tive, our 2020 Vision.
If you look at the company today,
clearly the thing that has differentiated us
over the past ten years and brought our
tremendous success has been a commit-
ment to our international expansion ef-
forts. In the early 1990s, we had four fac-
tories in four countries. Today, we have 45
factories and are producing welding prod-
ucts in 19 countries around the world. If
we had focused just on staying a U.S. com-
pany, we would have been subject to the
GDP fluctuations within the U.S. econ-
omy over the past many years, and would
have never really had a chance to capture
the growth, and more importantly, to serv-
ice our U.S. customers that were also glob-
alizing in places such as China, India,
Brazil, and Russia. So I would say that
would be the number-one theme.
Secondly, weve built an exceptionally
strong global management team here.
Going back 20 years, we had a very expe-
rienced North American team, but the is-
sues we faced and the opportunities we
had around the world were much differ-
ent. Building a team that had international
business experience and the appetite to
accept the risks and challenges associated
with growth opportunities on an interna-
tional footprint clearly drove the great
success weve had.
Lastly, we have maintained our com-
mitment to Cleveland and to our Cleve-
land company. Our Cleveland operation
is still our largest and most profitable busi-
ness, we employ the largest number of
people here in Cleveland, and weve taken
a factory that over the years had been un-
derinvested in, and these past ten-plus
years we have substantially upgraded it
into a world-class, globally competitive
manufacturing facility by investing in new
machine tools, by employing new business
processes like Six Sigma and lean manu-
facturing, by focusing on our environmen-
tal, health, and safety elements, and by
creating a safe workplace and a strong,
positive attitude within the workforce.
What is the biggest change
youve seen in manufacturing
and/or welding during your
tenure at Lincoln?
Globalization is the number one
change. Had we stayed as a strictly North
American-focused business, I think we
would have had a much different result
and face a much different future. By
reaching out globally, weve faced new
competitors and experienced many new
opportunities, and it has given us the abil-
ity to respond to the strength of some of
those competitors from both a defensive
and an offensive basis, and weve captured
tremendous new opportunities.
I recently read a survey of Fortune 500
CEOs asking what they view as their num-
ber-one challenge. There was a very strong
consensus that it was finding growth op-
portunities for their companies. All share-
holders want to see improved results
within the company, but they also want to
be sure the company has strong, long-term
growth opportunities. If you look just at
the U.S. economy over the course of the
last four or five years, weve had fairly stag-
nant GDP growth; its been positive, but
its been fairly low, 12%. But if you look
at the emerging-market growth opportu-
nities, you hear about slowdowns in
China where its GDP is only going to grow
at 77.5%. So I would say the companies
that have recognized and built a strategy
around the opportunities for growth in the
international markets are the ones that
are and will be more successful and those
that havent will be less over the long term.
As an example, one of the best metrics
for how the welding industry is doing
around the world is the production of
steel. If steel production is going up, gen-
erally the demand for welding products is
going up, and if its not going up, then de-
mand is not going up. If you look at the
data from around the world and see where
steel is being consumed today, more than
50% of the steel in the world is being con-
sumed in China. So if you dont partici-
pate in the Chinese market, youre abdi-
cating 50% of the market for welding
products to your competitors.
In just the past several weeks, Ive trav-
eled to India and Thailand and visited sev-
eral Lincoln Electric customers at their
new, large, and very busy facilities. These
companies are all buying Lincoln Electric
products, some produced in Cleveland
and some produced in one or more of our
other factories around the world. Had we
not globalized our sales and marketing
footprint and our manufacturing foot-
print, we would not have the opportunity
to service those long-term U.S. customers
as theyve reached out into the global mar-
ketplaces, so again, globalization is the
major change.
Today, there is a lot of discussion about
the re-shoring of U.S. manufacturing
and clearly there is some of that, but its
surely not of the magnitude of the ongo-
ing investments that were seeing U.S.
companies make in the emerging markets
around the world. A good testimonial of
that is that recently the Commerce De-
partment released data on the U.S. trade
deficit. Our trade deficit was up 8% in the
month of September, and the deficit with
China hit $31 billion, an all-time high. The
idea that U.S. manufacturing is going to
outpace the growth of the opportunities
in the global marketplace is just not real-
ity from my perspective, and those com-
panies that refuse to expand globally and
find ways to take advantage of the oppor-
tunities it presents will experience a much
slower growth trajectory than those that
truly embrace the global marketplace.
What do you see as the
greatest need in
manufacturing/welding today?
Its clearly automation. Traveling
around the world, we see much greater
use of automation in the international
marketplaces, particularly places like Ger-
many and Japan where they have very
high-cost labor and shortages of skilled
labor. And if you correlate where U.S.
manufacturing lies in terms of automation
as compared to those regions of the world,
were very much in the same situation.
Every fabricator that you talk to today
talks about a shortage of good-quality,
skilled labor, and welding is probably
highlighted as the number one shortfall.
Automation can solve that problem for
most companies. Its inexpensive, it can
improve quality, and it can take workers
out of challenging environments. I think
well see tremendous growth in automa-
tion in the years to come, which will help
keep the United States more successful
and competitive on a global footprint.
What changes do you see
happening with welding in the
next ten years? Where do you
think the industry is heading?
Again, in terms of welding, its the
move toward automation. In terms of the
industry, consolidation will continue. One
thing that will drive consolidation is the
R&D requirements to keep up with the
rapidly changing industry new kinds of
steels being developed, greater use of
electronics, power-source development.
You must be able to service customers on
a global footprint in order to grow your
business long term. Some of the smaller
private companies that have been led by
family entrepreneurs are not going to have
the capital or the appetite to risk their per-
sonal capital to expand internationally, so
these issues will drive consolidation in the
business. Lincoln has made 15 or 20 ac-
quisitions over the past ten years, the ma-
jority of which were smaller, privately
held, family-run companies. They all had
great products or significant market
shares in small geographies, but they did-
nt have the appetite or the capital to ex-
pand beyond those traditional strengths.
By becoming part of the Lincoln Electric
portfolio, those companies can grow, and
the employees within those companies can
have greater growth opportunities than
would be possible with other smaller, pri-
vate companies.
What is next for you?
Im currently on two outside public
company boards, and I will probably join
a third in the not-too-distant future. I
think that will give me ongoing exposure
to the business world and plenty of oppor-
tunities to stay engaged in the business
community, not just here in Cleveland but
also on a global basis. But I dont want to
get overcommitted. I want to see what re-
tirement is really like. Ive got four won-
derful grandchildren who I want to watch
grow up, and hopefully I can contribute
to the shaping of their personal and busi-
ness philosophies. Im going to work on
my golf game a little bit, travel with my
wife, and just see what comes after that.
How does it feel to be retiring
after all these years?
I have mixed emotions, being involved
and deeply engaged in a company for 44
years. Lincoln has been a huge part of my
life and many of my best friends are part
of the Lincoln family.
But I also feel very comfortable and I
think the timing is perfect. Weve worked
very hard to have an appropriate succes-
sion plan in place. I have tremendous con-
fidence in Chris Mapes, who is my succes-
sor, and the team thats behind him to con-
tinue to do the things that are embedded
in the philosophy of The Lincoln Electric
Co. Weve got great growth opportunities
ahead of us. Our shareholders have been
richly rewarded in the growth that we have
had over the last ten years. Our share price
has gone from $13 to $72, our market cap
has grown from roughly $1 billion to al-
most $6 billion, our dividend has been in-
creased from $0.30/share to $0.92/share,
and I think we have a lot of momentum
behind us. I think its time for an old guy
like me to get out of the way and let these
young, energetic, and talented people take
the company to the next level. Ill continue
to remain a large shareholder of the com-
pany and benefit from the success that
theyre going to have in the future.
FEBRUARY 2014 40
I think well see tremendous growth in automation in the years to come, which
will keep the United States more competitive on the global footprint.
Let us show you
the ALM advantage
Call 800-544-5438
or visit
www.almmh.com
Improved weld quality
Simplified tool access
Consistent repeatable assembly procedures
Higher productivity and reduced consumables
Proper ergonomics with reduced operator
fatigue and injury risk
Fixed or Adjustable base Positioners can
boost your throughput 35% or more
Higher throughput
and
PROFITS
The proper positioner will offer you a
number of advantages:
Invest to improve
productivity,
quality
and safety
MHL-2P -
Headstock/Tailstock
Positioner with 15,000 lbs. capacity
and 10 adjustable tailstock
FEBRUARY 2014 42
W
eld positioners come in a variety
of shapes and sizes built to cre-
ate the best possible output in the
workplace when it comes to welding.
Their purpose is to position the product
to make a welding job much easier. They
also increase safety in the workplace when
dealing with heavy machinery. Weld posi-
tioners arent only built for and utilized
in the heavy machinery trade, but also for
applications in the automotive, heavy con-
struction, oil and pipe, and defense indus-
tries, among others. Weld positioners are
in high demand in the agricultural indus-
try as well. Welding positioners for gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) applications
are common in the agricultural or equip-
ment manufacturing fields.
Welding is possibly the most complex
manufacturing process and may be the
least understood. This has led to a short-
age of educated employees in this field.
For instance, the need for welders with
experience in the Metro-Detroit area is
very high. Positioners help to make the
welders you do have more productive. For
manual welding, it creates a sturdy base
for the welder to work at and places the
weldment at the optimum angle for com-
fort and accessibility. Therefore, the
welder can accomplish the task much
more quickly. In addition, it saves space
in the work area.
Positioners also provide quite a few
benefits for a company with regard to au-
tomation. They offer an avenue that is
very beneficial because automated weld-
ing can improve welding quality and in-
crease the overall output. Automation en-
sures consistency so that every joint is
properly and securely welded at the same
rate. While there is an initial money in-
vestment that goes along with automated
welding, in the long run, a company can
save a lot of money and time by making
the investment.
First of all, you need enough volume
in product accompanied by quality weld-
ing; its a combination of these, explained
Reg Kelley, president of Easom Automa-
tion, Inc. Investments in robotic welding
positioners can be justified in the long run
if you have the volume and needs to af-
ford the equipment and the robotics.
Types of Positioners
Since weld positioners have become a
recognizable tool in workplaces to in-
crease productivity, positioner manufac-
turers have developed a variety of designs
to help accomplish the job or task at hand,
such as sliding tailstock trunnions, ferris
wheel positioners, five-axis positioners,
L-hook positioners, and dual trunnion
turntables.
Sliding tailstock trunnions (Fig. 1)
offer a floor-mounted headstock utilizing
precision-bearing, high-quality alloy pin-
ion and large tool mounting plates. Mul-
tiple payloads are accommodated quickly
and precisely by means of adjusting the
tailstock mount to a servo-driven rack and
pinion slide. These positioners are coor-
dinated with a robot by means of the
robots auxiliary axis.
Ferris wheel positioners (Fig. 2) come
ready to integrate with the robot of your
choice. Ferris wheel positioners have a 16-
ft-long horizontal exchange axis to mini-
mize station footprint while accommodat-
ing longer parts. A metal arc screen di-
vider creates a barrier that safeguards the
operator from arc flash. Ferris wheel po-
sitioners are very versatile as they can han-
dle longer parts while requiring a lesser
amount of floor space than other work-
holding methods.
Five-axis positioners (Fig. 3) provide
an ergonomically friendly positioner
height. They give you the flexibility to ro-
tate your work, providing access to diffi-
cult-to-reach areas. With a five-axis posi-
tioner, an automated project can be
welded in the 1F position instead of being
welded horizontally and having the weld
spread, which results in a weld that isnt
as solid as a weld performed in the 1F
position.
A drop center positioner (Fig. 4) can
handle demanding jobs that most other
positioners cant, such as extremely heavy
and long parts. While commonly used in
the agricultural industry for GMAW ap-
plications, drop center positioners have
proven to be reliable for use on any kind
of weld in any industry.
L-hook positioners (Fig. 5) are two-
axis positioners that utilize a robust, four-
point contact with a ball radial bearing
and pinion with 360-deg rotation on both
the main and the table axis. L-hook posi-
tioners are mostly used for agricultural
equipment. Cab assemblies are put on
L-hooks because of the angle and range
they provide for the product to be GMA
welded. In the agriculture industry, L-
hook positioners are mostly used for
GMAW because agricultural equipment
has heavier parts and needs larger ma-
chines for bigger jobs.
The dual trunnion turntable positioner
(H Positioner) (Fig. 6) provides an er-
gonomic positioner height. With this type
of positioner, excessive machine evalua-
tion is not required and robot risers are
significantly reduced. Dual trunnion
turntables are primarily used for GMAW
of car and truck frames in the automotive
industry.
The production of weld positioners at
Easom Automation and other like-
What Can a Welding
Positioner Do for You?
DAVID HEINRICH II
(djheinrich@easomeng.com) is part of
the sales and marketing team,
Easom Automation Systems, Inc.,
Madison Heights, Mich.
The types of welding positioners and
their uses are detailed
BY DAVID HEINRICH II
43 WELDING JOURNAL
minded businesses expanded their busi-
ness and created a progression between
other businesses to help create better re-
lationships. Weve been able to grow a
standard product line of headstocks, tail-
stocks, and other combinations of multi-
axis weld positioners. Its been one of our
most rewarding efforts, Kelly said.
Weld positioners have proven to be a
productive investment for any company
seeking more efficient routes in their weld-
ing practices. Since weld positioners have
become recognizable tools in todays work-
places, manufacturers have developed dif-
ferent variations to accompany manual or
automated welding tasks. While auto-
mated welding can be a costly investment
for businesses, it can save money in the
long run because of the efficiency and
punctuality of every weld on the path to
accomplishing a welding goal.
Fig. 1 Sliding tailstock trunnions can accommodate mul-
tiple payloads.
Fig. 3 Five-axis positioners provide access to difficult-to-
reach areas.
Fig. 4 While commonly used in the agriculture industry,
drop center positioners can be useful wherever theres a
need to handle heavy, long parts.
Fig. 5 L-hook positioners offer 360-deg rotation on both
the main and table axis.
Fig. 6 A common application for dual trunnion turntable
positioners is to weld car and truck frames.
Fig. 2 Ferris-wheel-type positioners can handle long
parts.
BRAZING & SOLDERING TODAY
FEBRUARY 2014 44
Labyrinth Seals
To reduce leakage flows in turbo ma-
chines, tight operational clearances be-
tween stator and rotor parts are desir-
able. With reduced clearances, the risk of
rub contact increases. In such situations,
the stator is fitted with an abradable
structure or coating that minimizes dam-
age to the rotor when such rub contact
occurs.
A popular abradable structure is
metallic honeycomb, which derives its
abradability from a low structural den-
sity, typically in the range of 8 to 20% of
the bulk alloy density. Honeycomb seal
lands are always used as part of a
labyrinth seal, as schematically shown in
Fig. 1. Seal fins on the rotor together with
the stator wall form cavities. A gas flow is
accelerated as it enters into the labyrinth
from the high-pressure side through an
annular gap (A). Subsequently, the flow
area cross section increases dramatically
as the flow enters the cavity (B) causing
it to dissipate flow energy through a re-
duction of speed and pressure in a turbu-
lent flow. A series of such events, creat-
ing a tortuous path for the gas flow,
allows it to maintain a sizable pressure
difference across the labyrinth seal, al-
though a certain amount of leakage flow
is inevitable.
The amount of leakage flow, however,
depends on the size of the clearance C.
Small operational clearances can only be
designed if the stator wall is lined with a
structure that can easily be cut by the ro-
tating seal teeth without damaging or
overheating them Fig. 2.
Engine Seal Locations
In a gas turbine engine, there is a large
number of locations that require sealing
against leakage flows. Honeycombs are
used in both compressor sealing as well as
turbine sealing applications.
However, air seals in low-pressure tur-
bine (LPT) modules remain a domain of
honeycomb as abradable seals. Typical
five-stage, low-pressure aero engine tur-
bine modules have ten gas path seal loca-
tions over shrouded blades and vanes, so
Selecting Materials for Brazing a
Honeycomb in Turbine Engines
DIETER SPORER
(dieter.sporer@sulzer.com) is with
Sulzer Metco Management AG,
Winterthur, Switzerland. DIENTJE
FORTUNA (deni.fortuna@sulzer.com) is
with Sulzer Metco (U.S.), Inc., Troy, Mich.
Based on a paper presented at IBSC 2012,
5th International Brazing and Soldering
Conference, April 2225, Las Vegas, Nev.
Increasing aircraft turbine engine
efficiency involves higher operating
temperatures that introduce a number
of engine manufacturing concerns
BY DIETER SPORER AND
DIENTJE FORTUNA
Fig. 1 Laybrinth seal schematic.
Fig. 2 Stepped layyrinth seal with
honeycomb seal lands.
45 WELDING JOURNAL
called outer and inner air seals, and three
inter-stage seals, all using honeycomb
lands to minimize clearances and leakage
flows thereby improving module and
overall engine efficiency.
Figure 3 shows the honeycomb lined
interstage seals and knife edges coated
with an abrasive, thermally sprayed alu-
mina/titania, to further reduce the wear
of the rotor parts during rub incursions.
To improve overall engine thermal ef-
ficiencies, there is an ongoing effort to
push turbine entry temperatures to
higher values. First and foremost, this af-
fects the high-pressure turbine (HPT)
hardware, but with increased tempera-
tures there, the LPT stages and their air
seals see steadily increasing tempera-
tures as well. Typically, the first LPT
stages of modern engine designs today
see temperatures of up to 1100C (2010
F) on take-off conditions. Later stages
will see lower temperature loading, typi-
cally down to 600C (1110F). The seals
must withstand these temperatures for
extended periods of time and under
highly cyclic loading conditions. There-
fore, apart from good abradability of the
honeycomb seal lands, they must show
adequate oxidation and hot gas corrosion
resistance to survive the aggressive serv-
ice environment.
Honeycomb and Seal
Component Manufacture
Seal honeycomb is manufactured
from thin metallic foil, typically 75 to 150
m (0.003 to 0.006 in.) thick, which is cor-
rugated and then laser spot welded in the
nodes, to hold adjacent corrugated strip
walls together, forming hexagonal cells.
The welded honeycomb structure can be
cut and shaped to fit backing members
onto which the honeycomb is first tack
welded and then joined by means of braz-
ing. Welded honeycomb can also be
formed into rings that are then brazed to
turbine components to form integral ring
seal faces such as interstage seals. To pro-
vide inner air seals, honeycomb segments
are brazed to the shrouds of the nozzle
guide vanes while outer air seals are often
provided by brazing honeycomb lands to
sheet metal segments that are then in-
serted into holder structures of the LPT
casing. Such a brazed outer seal segment
is shown in Fig. 4.
Honeycomb Materials
Seal honeycomb for application in en-
gine compressors is frequently made
from stainless steel foil. However, for the
temperatures encountered in the turbine
section, more heat- and oxidation-resist-
ant materials have to be used. The mate-
rials are typically nickel-based alloys with
high chromium alloying content.
For enhanced oxidation resistance,
Haynes 214, which is a material often
used, shows a high alloying content of
aluminum. The most popular alloys for
turbine seal honeycomb applications are
Hastelloy X and Haynes 214. Ni-
monic 86 is used in some specialty ap-
plications. Two iron-based materials,
having a high concentration of aluminum
and additions of rare earth metal (Y, Hf,
and Zr) or oxide (Y
2
O
3
), are generally
referred to as FeCrAlYs. Of these iron-
based materials, MI2100 composition is
already in commercial use in gas turbine
engine sealing applications, the yttria dis-
persion-strengthened FeCrAlY material,
MI 2200, remains an experimental alloy.
Braze Filler Materials
To accommodate the high service tem-
peratures, turbine side-seal honeycomb
is typically brazed with nickel- or cobalt-
based braze filler material (BFM) pro-
viding high initial as well as high remelt
temperatures. Table 1 gives an overview
of common braze filler compositions.
Requirements for Brazing
Seal Honeycomb
The brazing of the honeycomb to a
carrier structure does not only need to
join these two elements together but also
needs to reinforce the honeycomb struc-
ture itself. This is achieved by filling the
gaps between adjacent honeycomb walls
with braze filler material using capillary
action and forming fillets at the base of
the honeycomb. However, it is not desir-
able that the BFM travels up the entire
honeycomb height. Typical specifications
will limit the height of the fillet or how
high the braze can climb up the faces of
each cell. Filling of the nodes is typically
also required to reach a certain minimum
percentage of the honeycomb height, for
Fig. 4 Stepped outer air seal segment
with brazed on seal honeycomb of 1.59-
mm (
1
16-in.) cell size.
Fig. 3 Honeycomb-lined interstage
seals and abrasive-coated seal teeth.
Table 1 Chemical Composition and Liquidus Temperature of Braze Filler Metals
Braze Ni Cr Si B Others Liquidus
AMS 4777 Bal. 7 4.5 3.0 3 Fe 1000C
1830F
AMS 4778 Bal. 4.5 3.2 1040C
1900F
AMS 4779 Bal. 3.5 2.0 1065C
1950F
FEBRUARY 2014 46
example, 80% minimum or d/e > 0.8 (Fig.
5) to ensure proper seal integrity and
avoid honeycomb degradation through
aerodynamically induced fatigue.
While in a liquid state, the BFM will
not only wet the nodal walls and base but
also penetrate the backing member and
create a braze diffused zone that may
contain undesirable phases such as
chrome borides (Cr
x
B
y
) or silicides. Sim-
ilarly, the liquid BFM may also alter the
chemistry of the thin honeycomb cell
walls by in-diffusion of elements from the
braze filler into the honeycomb material
or diluting the concentration of certain
honeycomb material alloying elements by
out-diffusion into the braze composition.
By comparing the chemistries of the
braze fillers and the honeycomb materi-
als, it becomes evident that there is a high
potential for diffusion processes based on
the significant differences in chemical
composition and large concentration gra-
dients resulting from these.
Oxidation of Plain and
Brazed Honeycomb
Oxidation Resistance
of Plain Foil
To provide seals that can withstand
higher temperatures, first and foremost,
the honeycomb material itself needs to be
resistant to high-temperature oxidation
and corrosion. To determine a base
metals capability, a simple air oxidation
test at 1100C was carried out. The oxi-
dation resistance was measured using the
sample weight change per unit surface
area after 24 h of exposure as a yardstick.
Two performance classes were clearly re-
vealed through the testing. The differ-
ence between the classes lies in the self-
protection mechanism of the different
materials. Nimonic 86, Inconel 617,
and Hastelloy X primarily form chro-
mia (Cr
2
O
3
) surface oxide layers. How-
ever, these layers are not stable and
therefore not protective at the selected
test temperature. The MI 2100/2200 and
Haynes 214, all containing a high per-
centage of aluminum, tend to form Al
2
O
3
surface oxide layers that are stable and
protective even at 1100C.
Weight change in the processed sam-
ples is a measure of the oxidation process
occurring to the engine components.
Overall, the weight change is very small
for the alumina formers compared to the
results for the chromia formers in air ox-
idation at 1100C.
The oxide layers on the FeCrAlY foil
samples are thin and well adhered. The
materials MI 2100 and MI 2200 tend to
form fine-grained -Al
2
O
3
layers and
only partly Cr-rich oxide phases, while
Haynes 214 shows a higher degree of
less desirable NiCr
2
O
4
spinel oxides and
coarse chromia embedded in the alumina
(Refs. 1, 2). Apart from that, no signifi-
cant internal oxidation of the foil materi-
als was observed for the tests that were
performed.
Thickness Effects
As the oxidation resistance of the hon-
eycomb foil materials with high alu-
minum content relies on the formation of
Al
2
O
3
, with Cr
2
O
3
being a lot less resist-
ant at high temperature, the amount of
available matrix aluminum plays an emi-
nent role. The formation of protective
alumina requires aluminum from the ma-
trix and as the protective oxide grows in
thickness or needs to be replaced after
having spalled off, matrix aluminum will
be consumed. Once the aluminum con-
centration in the matrix falls below a cer-
tain critical level, formation of Al
2
O
3
at
the surface is no longer guaranteed and
Fig. 5 Designations of geometrical characteristics of brazed honeycomb. Section
through nodal walls (schematic).
Fig. 6 Condition of nickel-based seal honeycomb as returned from engine service.
Cell size is 1.59 mm (
1
16 in.).
47 WELDING JOURNAL
the oxidation mode changes drastically
toward significantly higher oxidation
rates, which, at high temperatures, can
lead to accelerated or catastrophic oxida-
tion failure, called break-away oxidation.
One solution for this type of failure is
to increase the thickness of the honey-
comb foil. The additional thickness will
hold up to the depletion of aluminum for
a longer period of time increasing the
time to failure. Designers need to take
these effects into consideration when de-
signing honeycomb seals for use at ex-
treme temperatures, even if the thicker
foil material will increase the structural
density of the honeycomb and compro-
mise its abradability.
Oxidation of Brazed
Honeycomb
Figure 6 shows an enlarged top view
onto a honeycomb seal face as it is re-
turned from engine service. A preferred
oxidation attack is observed at the nodal
walls as indicated with arrows. In the as-
brazed condition, this would have been a
free surface entirely composed of braze
filler material, created by the BFM climb-
ing up the nodal joints during the brazing
operation. The oxidation of the BFM
penetrates the nodal joint to a certain de-
gree, thereby reducing the wall thickness
of the neighboring single foil wall. With
the reduced thickness, the cell wall has
little chance of surviving further oxida-
tion and/or mechanical loading and will
ultimately fail by cracking, as is seen in
the lower right-hand corner of Fig. 6.
It is difficult to say whether the ulti-
mate failure of the honeycomb is caused
by mechanical/aerodynamic loading of
the weakened structure or further oxida-
tion. However, what becomes apparent
from Fig. 6 is the fact that the failure
mechanism is induced by preferred oxi-
dation of excess braze filler metal.
Compared to the single foil walls of
the honeycomb structure in Fig. 6, the
double walls look relatively healthy with
less internal oxidation compared to the
thinner sections. This may be due to the
thickness effect discussed above. In any
case, it leads to the nodal walls surviving
the service exposure much better than
the single walls, which can ultimately lead
to the nodal walls being the only part of
the seal structure to remain intact, an ef-
fect that is called tombstoning.
The strong oxidation of the BFM at
the nodal joints is quite easily repeated in
laboratory air oxidation experiments, as
can be seen in Fig. 7. In the case shown
there, it is clear that the failure of isolated
single walls was caused by oxidation only,
as there was no mechanical loading of the
honeycomb in the 65-h accelerated
isothermal oxidation test at 1160C
(2120F). Note that the structure shown
in Fig. 7 has nodal areas that are well
filled with braze (node side Type A),
while in some places there is little to no
excess braze (node Type B). The Type B
nodes survive the fairly heavy oxidation
treatment very well, while the overfilled
Type A sides of the nodes all show signif-
icant oxidation attack, obviously originat-
ing from free surfaces of the BFM.
Therefore, precise metering of the
amount of braze filler metal added in the
joining process becomes important in
avoiding excessive BFM in the brazed
structure, which promotes oxidation at-
tack. The fact that there is preferred oxi-
dation starting at the free braze filler sur-
faces at high temperatures does not come
as a surprise as the chemical composi-
tions of the standard braze fillers (Table
1) are optimized for melting characteris-
tics and not necessarily for high-temper-
ature oxidation resistance.
Even when the amount of excess braze
at the nodal joints is limited to a minimum,
detrimental effects from the braze filler
can still be observed, especially for Fe-
CrAlY-type honeycomb. By preplacing
thin braze filler metal in the form of amor-
phous foil inside the nodal walls of honey-
comb, a brazed structure can be produced
showing little excess BFM at the nodes. In
the oxidation testing of a honeycomb
structure similar to MI2200 brazed with
Fig. 7 Apperance of FeCrAlY honey-
comb with sized at 1.59-mm (
1
16-in.) cells
size . Top As-brazed; bottom after
air oxidation at 1160C (2120F) over 65
hours.
Fig. 9 MI 2100 and Haynes 214 hon-
eycomb brazed with AMS 4783 powder
braze filler material and subsequently
subjected to cyclic oxidation at 900C
(1650F) in burner gas.
Fig. 8 Honeycomb with preplaced
braze filler material in the form of thin
braze tape.
FEBRUARY 2014 48
BNi-5a amorphous foil, it becomes appar-
ent that the oxidation resistance of the
nodes suffers from the preplaced braze
foil. The impression is that the BFM poi-
soned the composition by in-diffusion of
undesirable elements or by diluting the
aluminum concentration locally.
With the need for more precise me-
tering of the BFM, methods other than
filling the honeycomb with braze powder
need to be applied. One such method is
the use of braze tape. Braze tape con-
taining the common BFMs is available in
a variety of thicknesses and therefore
braze filler amounts can be controlled
per unit surface area and is preplaced in
the honeycomb structure, as shown in
Fig. 8. Another method of predetermin-
ing the amount of braze filler more pre-
cisely is the use of all-metallic braze foil,
which can also be preplaced in the hon-
eycomb structure (Brazcor honey-
comb) as discussed above. However,
using metallic braze foil significantly
adds to cost and the complexity of manu-
facture so that the use of braze tape be-
comes the preferred method and increas-
ingly popular.
Fatigue Cracking
Another degradation mechanism ob-
served for brazed honeycomb is fatigue
cracking in situations where mechanical
loading and oxidation are superimposed
such as in cyclic oxidation or burner rig
testing. Figure 9 shows Haynes 214 and
MI 2100 honeycomb after cyclic oxida-
tion at 900C (1650F) over 200 h. Both
honeycombs were brazed with AMS 4783
BFM, which was selected for its high
melting temperature to produce a high-
temperature seal. While the combination
MI 2100/AMS 4783 seemed to survive the
cyclic oxidation well, the combination
Haynes 214/AMS 4783 showed signifi-
cant deterioration in the structure and
formation of cracks in the honeycomb
wall metal. At higher magnification of the
Haynes 214 honeycomb, several fea-
tures became apparent Fig. 10. First of
all, a thick surface oxide layer could be
observed in parallel with a fair amount of
internal oxidation along cracks that had
formed and obviously propagated along
grain boundaries of the coarsened struc-
ture of the honeycomb material.
Secondly, a high number of spherical
and needle-shaped precipitates were
seen. It is worth noting that similar fea-
tures were not observed for the unbrazed
material in air or burner gas oxidation,
which leads to the assumption that their
occurrence is linked to the brazing of the
structure.
Clearly, the above example shows
combining a material that reflects good
high-temperature oxidation resistance
(Haynes 214) with a braze material of
sufficiently high melting temperature
(AMS 4783) does not automatically pro-
duce a well-performing high-tempera-
ture seal. The pairing MI 2100 and AMS
4783 resulted in a much more stable seal
configuration that shows good perform-
ance at up to 1100C and only starts to de-
teriorate at 1200C (2190 F) by a mech-
anism initiated by diffusion of silicon
from the braze filler into the honeycomb
material (Ref. 3).
Summary
The performance of honeycomb
structures made from alumina-forming,
high-temperature-resistant NiCrAl, and
FeCrAlY materials is significantly im-
pacted by the presence of less oxidation-
resistant braze filler materials necessary
to join the abradable honeycomb to a
supporting structure. Several failure
mechanisms are observed that can be
summarized as BFM-induced oxidation
and/or braze filler oxidation-induced fa-
tigue of seal honeycomb. Therefore, the
need exists to develop braze filler materi-
als with much improved oxidation resist-
ance to provide honeycomb seal lands for
use in turbine labyrinth seals at operating
peak temperatures above 1100C.
Conclusions
To improve the thermal efficiency of
jet engines, there is a trend toward higher
turbine entry temperatures while reduc-
ing the cooling effort. This leads to ever-
increasing temperatures that honeycomb
seals in the low-pressure turbine module
of modern engines will have to withstand.
While metallic foil alloy materials that
can withstand a turbine hot gas environ-
ment at temperatures in excess of 1100C
are available, suitable braze filler materi-
als to join seal-type honeycomb fabri-
cated from these high-temperature-re-
sisting materials are not. Various degra-
dation mechanisms of brazed seals at
high temperature, all directly or indi-
rectly linked to the presence of braze
fillers with fairly limited high-tempera-
ture oxidation and hot gas corrosion re-
sistance, can be detected. These can be
summarized as braze filler metal-induced
oxidation failure or braze filler oxidation-
induced fatigue failure. Clearly, there is a
need for more oxidation-resistant brazes
for joining ultrahigh-temperature seal
honeycomb.
When designing honeycomb seals for
use at extreme temperatures, the influ-
ences of honeycomb wall thickness on the
seal lifetime as well as compatibility of
braze filler and honeycomb material
need to be taken into consideration. Min-
imizing the amount of excess braze filler
covering the seal structure must also be
achieved to provide sufficient durability
of the seals in high-temperature service.
References
1. Smarsly, W., et al. 2005. Advanced
high temperature turbine seals materials
and designs. Materials Science Forum,
Vols. 492, 493, pp. 2126.
2. Sporer, D. R., and Shiembob, L. T.
2004. Alloy selection for honeycomb gas
path seal systems. ASME Turbo Expo,
Vienna, Austria, June. Paper number
GT2004-53115.
3. Potter, D. J., Chai, Y. W., and Tat-
lock, G. J. 2009. Improvements in honey-
comb abradable seals. Materials at High
Temperatures 26: 2735.
Fig. 10 Haynes 214 honeycomb at
higher magnification showing cracks
and significant deterioration in the
structure.
The Sheet Metal Welding Conference (SMWC) is the premier technical conference dedicated to bringing experts together to discuss
state of the art of welding and joining technologies for the automotive, transportation, and light manufacturing industries. SMWC also
provides important opportunities for welding engineers and researchers from manufacturers, suppliers and research institutes to network
and meet experts in the field.
SMWC XVI will emphasize recent developments in welding and joining technologies for lightweight structures. You are invited to submit
technical papers for presentation at this conference.
Topics of interest include, but not limited to:

Fusion and Braze Welding (Resistance, Arc, Laser and others)

Welding and Joining Process Simulation

Solid-State Joining

Joining of Dissimilar Materials

Fastening and Adhesive Bonding

Materials and Weldability

Hybrid Joining Methods

Non-sheet-metal automotive joining

Welding Process Monitoring and Control

Joining Tooling & Equipment

Weld Inspection and Repair
Important Deadlines:
Abstract Submission .............................................................................................. by March 31, 2014
Notification of Acceptance ..................................................................................... by April 30, 2014
Full Paper Submission............................................................................................ by August 15, 2014
DETROIT SECTION
Sheet Metal Welding Conference XVI
Recent Developments in Welding and Joining Technologies For Lightweight Structures
October 22-24, 2014 / Schoolcraft College, Livonia, Michigan
Please complete the Author Application Form and submit it along with a 100-300 word
paper abstract to smwcpaper@awsdetroit.org by March 31, 2014. If you have any
questions related to submission, please contact:
Hui-Ping Wang Jerry Gould
Technical Co-Chair, GM Global R&D Technical Co-Chair, EWI
248-275-8209 / hui-ping.wang@gm.com 614-688-5121 / jgould@ewi.org
The Author Application form is also available via http://www.awsdetroit.org.
A single complimentary admission to the conference is available for each presented paper.
Call for Papers
Chair:
Michael G. Poss ............................ General Motors
Vice Chair:
Mike Palko...........................................Ford Motors
Technical Co-Chairs:
Hui-Ping Wang .............................. General Motors
Jerry Gould...................................................... EWI
Publicity:
David M. Beneteau.................... Centerline Limited
Exhibitor Displays:
Susan Morfino ...................................... MJM Sales
www.awsdetroit.org
AUTHOR APPLICATION for SHEET METAL WELDING CONFERENCE XVI Livonia / Michigan October 22-24, 2014
Complete and email the electronic version of this form together with a technical abstract to smwcpaper@awsdetroit.org.
PLEASE PRINT:
Presenter/Author (if known) _________________________________________________________________________________________
(If there are additional authors, please submit the above information for each co-author on a separate sheet.)

Company or Organization: ____________________________________________ Email: ______________________________________
Title or Position: ________________________________ Phone: ____________________ Fax: _____________________________
Mailing Address: ____________________________________________________ City/State/Zip: _______________________________
PROPOSED TITLE: (10 words or less)
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
8y suor|ll|rg a paper lor preserlal|or al lre 3reel Vela| we|d|rg Corlererce, lre aulror(s) grarl a ror-exc|us|ve ||cerse lo lre Arer|car we|d|rg
Society-Detroit Section to publish and distribute the paper as part of the Conference Proceedings.
P|ease lype your lecrr|ca| aoslracl |r a douo|e-spaced lorral ard ro rore lrar 300 Words. Tre aoslracl l||e srou|d oe serl logelrer W|lr lre aulror
application form to smwcpaper@awsdetroit.org.
DETROIT SECTION

DETROIT SECTION

Sheet Met
The Sheet Metal Welding Conference (SMWC) is the premier tec
state of the art of welding and joining technologies for the automot
provides important opportunities for welding engineers and resea

Call
ta Sheet Metal
elding Conference (SMWC) is the premier tec
state of the art of welding and joining technologies for the automot
Call

l for P l for Pape ap
al Welding Conference XVI
elding Conference (SMWC) is the premier technical conference dedicated to bringing experts together to discuss
state of the art of welding and joining technologies for the automotive, transportation, and light manufacturing industries. SMWC also

ers
al Welding Conference XVI
hnical conference dedicated to bringing experts together to discuss
ive, transportation, and light manufacturing industries. SMWC also
rchers from manufacturers, suppliers and research institutes to network

hnical conference dedicated to bringing experts together to discuss
ive, transportation, and light manufacturing industries. SMWC also

SMWC XVI will emphasize recent developments in welding and j

SMWC XVI will emphasize recent developments in welding and j

SMWC XVI will emphasize recent developments in welding and joining technologies for lightweight structures.

ogies for lightweight structures. Yo You a
Welding and Joining Process Simulation
oining of Dissimilar Materia
Materials and Weldability
Non-sheet-metal automotive
oining To Tooling & Equipmen

ou are invited to submit
elding and Joining Process Simulation
Joining of Dissimilar Materials
Non-sheet-metal automotive joining
ooling & Equipment

Chair:
Michael G. Poss ............................
Vice Chair:
Mike Palko

............................ General Motors
Ford Motors

orm and submit it along with a
oit.org by March 31, 2014. If you have any
contact:
oining To Tooling & Equipmen
................ by March 31, 2014
................ by April 30, 2014
................ by August 15, 2014

Application Form and submit it along with a 100-300 word
by March 31, 2014. If you have any
ooling & Equipment
March 31, 2014
April 30, 2014
August 15, 2014

AUTHOR APPLICA
Mike Palko...........................................
Technical Co-Chairs:
Hui-Ping Wang ..............................
Jerry Gould......................................................
Publicity:
David M. Beneteau....................
Exhibitor Displays:
Susan Morfino ......................................

AT CATION for SHEET TA METAL WELDING CONFERENCE
...........................................Ford Motors
.............................. General Motors
...................................................... EWI
.................... Centerline Limited
...................................... MJM Sales

WELDING CONFERENCE XVI Livonia / Michigan October 22-24, 2014

abstract to smwcpaper@awsdetroit.org
XVI Livonia / Michigan October 22-24, 2014
Jerry Gould
Te Technical Co-Chair
614-688-5121 / jgould@ewi.org
able via w. http://www.awsdetroit
conference is available for eac

smwcpaper@awsdetroit.org.
XVI Livonia / Michigan October 22-24, 2014
r, r, EWI
jgould@ewi.org
.awsdetroit.org.
single complimentary admission to the conference is available for each presented paper.

___________________________
ation for each co-author on a sep
: ______________________________________
___ Fax: _____________________________
State/Zip: _______________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
(If there are additional authors, please submit the above information for each co-author on a separate sheet.)
______________________________________
_____________________________
_______________________________

________________________
________________________
l a ror-exc|us|ve ||cerse lo lre Are
aoslracl l||e srou|d oe serl logelrer

______________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
er|car we|d|rg
W|lr lre aulror
FEBRUARY 2014 50
V
acuum aluminum brazing is a care-
ful balance of time, temperature,
and vacuum level. These parame-
ters are controlled to maintain the fun-
damental brazing success parameters
load the parts, heat the parts, get the
braze joints clean, melt the braze filler,
and get the parts out. This is done in a
specific work environment, utilizing
sophisticated controls to ensure fast
pumping, low parts per million (PPM) of
oxygen, and exceptional temperature
uniformity combined in one synergisti-
cally designed vacuum furnace system.
As detailed in the below text, vacuum
aluminum brazing is described along
with braze joint fundamentals, furnace
characteristics, and maintenance tips.
Introduction
Brazing Definition
The American Welding Society
defines brazing as follows (Ref. 1):
A group of welding processes that
produces coalescence of materials by
heating them to the brazing temperature
in the presence of a filler metal having a
liquidus above 840F
(450C) and below the
solidus of the base
metal. The filler metal
is distributed between
the closely fitted fay-
ing surfaces of the
joint by capillary
action.
The solidus is the
highest temperature
at which the metal is
completely solid; the
temperature at which
melting starts. The liq-
uidus is the lowest
temperature at which
the metal is complete-
ly liquid; the tempera-
ture at which solidifi-
cation starts.
Types of Aluminum Brazing
Aluminum brazing can be done with
or without flux, and includes many dif-
ferent methods for creating the bond.
In flux brazing, the flux flows into the
joint and is displaced by the liquidus
filler metal entering the joint to remove
oxides on the part to create a strong,
solid braze. Flux comes in several differ-
ent forms paste, liquid, or powder.
Some brazing rods are coated with flux
or have a flux core to apply necessary
flux during the brazing process. Flux
brazing processes include torch brazing
(manual and automatic), induction, salt
CRAIG MOLLER (craig.moller@ipsenusa.com) is the chief engineer and JIM GRANN is a senior technical manager for Ipsen, Inc.,
Cherry Valley, Ill.
Based on paper presented at IBSC 2012, 5th International Brazing and Soldering Conference, April 2225, 2012, Las Vegas, Nev.
What Matters Most in
Vacuum Aluminum Brazing
Featured are the process types,
benefits, parts, fundamentals,
and characteristics
BY CRAIG MOLLER AND
JIM GRANN
Fig. 1 Vacuum-aluminum-brazed radiator. (Photo courtesy
of API Tech.)
51 WELDING JOURNAL
bath (dip brazing), and controlled
atmosphere (CAB).
Brazing performed in a vacuum fur-
nace is considered fluxless brazing
because it does not use flux to create the
joint. Fluxless brazing processes can be
performed using inert gas atmospheres
or in vacuum furnaces. Such processes
include, but are not limited to, semicon-
ductor manufacturing and ceramic-to-
copper brazing; due to the cleanliness of
the vacuum environment, flux is not
needed. Magnesium is used as an addi-
tive, or getter, in the vacuum aluminum
brazing process.
Vacuum Aluminum
Brazing
Benefits
Brazing has many advantages when
compared to other metal-joining
processes. Given that brazing does not
melt the base metal of the joint, it allows
for more precise control of tolerances
and provides a clean joint with no need
for additional finishing. The meniscus
(crescent shape) formed by the filler
metal in the brazed joint is ideally
shaped for reducing stress concentra-
tions and improving fatigue properties.
Ideal situations for brazing include
the following:
Joining parts of thin or thick cross
sections
Compact components containing
many junctions to be sealed (e.g., heat
exchangers) or deep joints with restrict-
ed access
Joining dissimilar metals such as
copper and stainless steel
Assemblies with a large number of
joints.
Specifically, vacuum aluminum braz-
ing minimizes distortion of the part due
to uniform heating and cooling as com-
pared to a localized joining process. This
type of brazing creates a continuous her-
metically sealed bond. Components with
large surface areas and numerous joints
can be successfully brazed.
Hardening can also be accomplished
in the same furnace cycle if hardenable
alloys are utilized and the furnace sys-
tem is integrated with a forced cooling
system, reducing cycle time.
Vacuum furnace brazing offers
extremely repeatable results due to the
critical furnace parameters that are
attained with every load, that is, vacuum
levels and temperature uniformities.
Capillary joint paths (even long paths)
are effectively purged of entrapped gas
during the initial evacuation of the fur-
nace chamber, resulting in more com-
plete wetting of the joint.
Vacuum aluminum brazing is ideal
for oxidation-sensitive materials; vacu-
um brazing is considered a flux-free
process that eliminates corrosive flux
residue. Postbrazed parts are clean with
a matte gray finish. The process is rela-
tively nonpolluting and no postbraze
cleaning is necessary.
Parts
Examples of vacuum-aluminum-
brazed parts, as shown in Fig. 1, often
include heat exchangers, condensers,
and evaporators used in auto-
motive, aerospace, nuclear, and energy
industries.
Types of Furnaces
Typical vacuum aluminum brazing
furnaces are either single chamber
(batch type) or multiple chamber (semi-
continuous). Batch-type furnaces are
usually loaded horizontally, but they can
be designed for a vertical loading opera-
tion. Semicontinuous furnaces are hori-
zontally loaded and typically automated
using load carriers and external convey-
or systems.
Batch furnaces tend to be simpler in
design (one loading/unloading door)
than semicontinuous furnaces, less
expensive, and easier to maintain.
Semicontinuous furnaces have higher
production rates because of the multi-
chamber design and operate more effi-
ciently by not having to cool heating
zones or heat cooling zones.
Examples of batch type vacuum fur-
naces are shown in Fig. 2.
Vacuum Aluminum
Brazing Process
The vacuum aluminum brazing
Fig. 2 Batch vacuum aluminum brazing furnace. Fig. 3 Typical vacuum aluminum brazing cycle.
FEBRUARY 2014 52
process is usually a relatively short cycle
due to the fast pumping and heating
characteristics of the furnace, excellent
temperature uniformity at soak temper-
atures, and high thermal conductivity of
the aluminum parts being brazed. Figure
3 shows a typical vacuum aluminum
brazing cycle.
Vacuum Pumping
The vacuum pumping capacity must
be adequately sized to minimize the
pumpdown time of a new load to a deep
vacuum level, so as to initiate the heating
cycle and have adequate throughput to
keep up with the significant outgassing
that takes place during the heating cycle
due to magnesium vaporization. A deep
vacuum level is an important process
parameter because it ensures a relatively
pure environment for brazing.
Magnesium
A key component of vacuum alu-
minum brazing is the use of magnesium
as an additive to the filler metal and/or
base metal of the parts to be brazed. It is
necessary in this fluxless brazing envi-
ronment for the following reasons:
When the magnesium vaporizes
starting at around 1058F (570C), it acts
as a getter for oxygen and water vapor,
improving the purity of the brazing
vacuum.
Magnesium will also reduce the alu-
mina oxide that exists on the surface of
the aluminum to promote uniform accel-
erated wetting of the joint surfaces.
The following reactions occur during
the vacuum brazing process:
Mg + H
2
O MgO + H
2
Mg + O
2
2 MgO
Mg + Al
2
O
3
MgO + Al
Mg + N
2
Mg
3
N
2
The vaporization of the magnesium
in a vacuum environment can be seen in
Fig. 4. Also known as a mag burst, the
vaporization of magnesium produces
heavy outgassing for a short period of
time. As seen in Fig. 4, the slower the
heating rate, the smaller the magnesium
vaporization rate. Due to this gas load,
the vacuum pumps must be adequately
sized to maintain a good working vacu-
um (10
4
to 10
5
torr range).
Heating Control and
Temperature Uniformity
Second to the deep vacuum level,
precise temperature control and unifor-
mity are also important process parame-
ters. Accepted temperature uniformity
during a brazing cycle is 5F (3C) of
set point.
Aluminum brazing has a narrow win-
dow of acceptable brazing temperatures.
The governing rule for aluminum braz-
ing is that the filler metal has to liquidize
before the base metal reaches its solidus
temperature. This temperature differ-
ence may be as small as 1018F
(510C). Figure 5 shows the small
process window available for aluminum
brazing.
For example, a base metal 6061 alloy
will have a solidus temperature of
1099F (593C) and liquidus tempera-
ture of 1206F (652C). Brazing temper-
ature range would be 10491085F
(565585C) depending on the filler
metal used.
It is necessary to use a heating step at
a soak temperature just below the
solidus point of the filler metal to ensure
all the parts and joints to be brazed
reach the correct temperature at approx-
imately the same time. At this time, the
ramp to brazing temperature starts, the
filler metal begins to melt, and the capil-
lary wetting of the braze joint occurs.
Braze temperature time duration
must be kept to a minimum as the melt-
ed filler metal is vaporizing in the deep
vacuum as it is trying to wet the braze
joints. Too much loss of filler metal to
vaporization will result in poor joint wet-
ting and subsequent loss of joint strength
and sealing ability.
Fig. 4 Magnesium vaporization in vacuum vs. temperature.
Fig. 5 Temperature vs. brazing cycle steps.
53 WELDING JOURNAL
After the brazing temperature soak
duration is complete, it is followed by an
immediate vacuum cooling cycle, which
solidifies the filler metal in the braze
joints and stops the vaporization of
material.
The type of precise temperature con-
trol and uniformity needed for vacuum
aluminum brazing is achieved through
using several heating control zones
around the parts while at the same time
maintaining surface temperatures of the
heating elements as near to part temper-
ature as possible. A large delta in tem-
perature between the heating elements
and parts would result in overheating of
the parts surface, possibly above the
solidus temperature for the material as
the filler metal begins to melt.
Braze Joint
Fundamentals
Types of Braze Joints
Figures 6 and 7 show typical braze
joints used in aluminum component con-
struction. In general, the difference
between favorable and unfavorable types
of joints is the amount of overlapping
that results in a good braze joint. A
stronger braze joint has a large surface
area that is wetted by the filler metal.
Too much overlapping is detrimental to
the joint because the filler metal will not
cover the entire surface when it flows
into the joint.
Braze Joint Strength
Braze joint strength is dependent on
two primary mechanical characteristics
joint wetted surface area and the root
opening size into which the filler metal
flows. In Figs. 6 and 7, improved joint
surface area characteristics are shown.
In Fig. 8, the importance of a proper
joint root opening is illustrated.
Root openings of between 0.003 and
0.008 in. (0.08 and 2 mm) work best for
vacuum furnace brazing. Joint root
openings are controlled by the manufac-
turing tolerances of the parts to be
brazed and proper clamping (preload-
ing) of the part assemblies to be brazed.
Fixturing Parts
Part assemblies must be fixtured
properly for brazing to maintain joint
root openings, joint alignment, flow pas-
sage alignment, and overall assembly
tolerances.
Fixturing materials must be chosen
carefully due to different coefficients of
expansion for varying materials. Fixture
designs are also extremely part depend-
ent, thought out in great detail, and pro-
prietary in some cases, as they are an
integral part of the manufacturing
process.
Cleaning Parts
Along with good joint design and fix-
turing, brazing requires part assemblies
to be cleaned properly prior to assembly,
and then handled with care so as not to
introduce contamination prior to the
brazing cycle. All grease, oil, and partic-
ulates must be cleaned off the base and
filler metal surfaces. Assemblers must be
careful not to transfer oils from their
skin to these surfaces when stacking the
parts together. Typical cleaning method
types are vapor degreasing, hydrocarbon
wash, aqueous washing, acid etching,
and vacuum deoiling.
Fig. 6 Illustrations of lap joints (Ref. 2).
Fig. 7 Examples of T joints (Ref. 2).
Fig. 8 Braze joint strength vs. joint root opening (Ref. 3). Fig. 9 Large diffusion pump on a vacuum aluminum braz-
ing furnace.
FEBRUARY 2014 54
Vacuum Aluminum
Brazing Furnace
Characteristics
Vacuum Pumping System
As noted previously, one of the key
process parameters in vacuum aluminum
brazing is a deep vacuum level and ade-
quate pumping throughput to keep up
with the significant outgassing that takes
place during the heating cycle due to
magnesium vaporization. Typical vacu-
um aluminum brazing furnaces have
large diffusion pumps and backing
pumps to accomplish these require-
ments. Figure 9 shows typical pumping
arrangements for these furnaces.
The pumping capacity required for a
given aluminum brazing furnace is
dependent on the load, specifically the
load surface area being brazed. The larg-
er the load surface area, the larger the
pumping capacity required. Due to the
fact that most of the magnesium vapor-
ization occurs in the 10
4
to 10
5
torr
range, it is the diffusion pump(s) that
must handle the gas load during the mag
burst with adequate backing pumps.
To facilitate the vacuum pumping in
the furnace, the cooling jacket around
the vacuum vessel is run at higher than
ambient temperatures. This warm wall
design helps prevent condensation of
water vapor inside the vessel when the
door is open for loading/unloading.
Water vapor is the enemy of alu-
minum brazing. It both slows
pumping speed and breaks down,
releasing oxygen into the furnace.
The warm wall design has also
proven to lessen the bonding
strength of the magnesium oxide
that forms during the brazing
process and ultimately condenses
on the inner wall of the chamber,
making it easier to mechanically
clean.
A vacuum aluminum brazing
furnace must maintain a low leak-
up rate to avoid outside atmos-
phere from entering the furnace
during the brazing cycle. The quality of
the vacuum contains a low PPM of oxy-
gen throughout the brazing cycle.
Good design practices for vacuum
chambers that have a low leak-up rate
typically include minimal use of pipe
thread joints, use of a 63 microfinish or
better on sealing surfaces for O-rings,
and use of the correct O-ring material
for the temperature of the sealing area.
Heating Elements
Other important process parameters
are precise temperature control and
temperature uniformity. Placing the
sensing junctions of the thermocouples
near the heating elements results in
faster and more accurate control of the
process parameters.
Exceptional temperature uniformity
5F (3C) is accomplished by utilizing
many heating control zones arranged
within the hot zone. The wideband
design provides a substantial radiating
surface to the process parts, which facil-
itates faster heating and better tempera-
ture uniformities.
Batch-type vacuum aluminum braz-
ing furnaces that contain 10 to 20 indi-
vidually controlled heating zones are
common. The heating element surface
area as a percentage to load surface area
is important. The larger the surface area
of the heating elements, the lower the
watt density is on that surface, resulting
in element temperatures that are only
slightly above the load temperature at
steady-state soaking conditions. This is
important to ensure the outside surface
Fig. 10 Wide band heating element. Fig. 11 New vacuum aluminum brazing furnace.
Fig. 12 Four-year-old vacuum aluminum braz-
ing furnace (normal).
55 WELDING JOURNAL
of the load does not get overheated. See
Fig. 10 representing a typical heating
element for a vacuum aluminum brazing
furnace.
Vacuum furnaces that can process
two loads side by side will also utilize
center heating element banks between
the two loads. This design allows for the
even heating of all surfaces on dual
workloads.
Vacuum Aluminum
Brazing Furnace
Maintenance
The majority of maintenance time
spent on a vacuum aluminum brazing
furnace is devoted to cleaning magne-
sium oxide deposits that form inside the
chamber and hot zone during the braz-
ing process. Figures 11 and 12 show
before and after photos of a typical vac-
uum aluminum brazing furnace.
Magnesium oxide deposits tend to
retain water vapor. Excess retention of
water vapor will slow down the vacuum
pumping characteristics of the furnace.
At some point in time, the magnesium
oxide will build up to a degree that
negates the furnaces ability to pump in
accordance to acceptable parameters
and may prevent the required vacuum
levels from being achieved for quality
brazing. This is the point at which the
magnesium oxide needs to be removed
from the furnace system.
Mechanical cleaning is the usual
method for removing the magnesium
oxide. Scraping of the magnesium oxide
from chamber walls and hot zone shields
must be done with nonferrous scrapers
so as not to create a spark that would
ignite the fast-burning oxide. If the mag-
nesium oxide buildup is too heavy and
hard to scrape off, an air burnout cycle
may have to be used to help crack apart
the large oxide clusters. After the major-
ity of the oxide is removed from the fur-
nace chamber and hot zone, a normal
vacuum burnout is done to further con-
dition the furnace prior to placing the
furnace back into production.
Cleaning of the diffusion pump(s) on
the furnace should be done following the
specific instructions of the furnace man-
ufacturer.
Other maintenance activities include
changing vacuum pump oils every two to
six months, replacing dynamic seals
(such as door and poppet valve seals)
every year, and replacing jack panel
(work thermocouple) parts every year.
Control thermocouple replacement
should follow applicable guidelines.
Vacuum sensing gauges need to be
replaced, cleaned, or rebuilt as required.
Conclusions
As for what matters most in vacuum
aluminum brazing, the key process
parameters are as follows:
Deep vacuum levels, precise tem-
perature control, and excellent tempera-
ture uniformity all provided by optimum
furnace design and controls
Keys to successful part brazing
include proper joint design with regard
to joint surface area and joint root open-
ings, cleanliness of the parts, and correct
fixturing the part assemblies
Following a routine furnace main-
tenance program will allow repeatable,
quality brazing results over time.
References
1. Brazing Handbook. 1991. American
Welding Society, Miami, Fla., pg. xvii.
2. DIN 65169 (1/10/1986). Aerospace;
brazing and high-temperature brazing of
components; directions for design.
3. Brazing Handbook. 1991. American
Welding Society, Miami, Fla., pg. 6.
4. Patrick McKenna, director of aero-
space business development, California
Brazing, Newark, Calif.
Positioners
Manipulators
Turning Rolls
Sales, Lease, Rental
1-866-733-3272 reddarc.com
FEBRUARY 2014 56
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Surface Tension and Density of
Liquid Solders, Brazing Alloys in
the In-Sn-Zn System
The surface tension and density of
liquid In-Sn-Zn alloys with 5, 10, 14, 20,
35, 50, 75 at.-% zinc content, and various
Sn:In ratios, were measured at the
Institute of Metallurgy and Materials
Science, Krakow, Poland (Ref. 1).
Surface tension measurements were also
performed in a wide temperature range
of 5001150 K using the method of max-
imum pressure in gas bubbles.
Density decreases linearly from 500
to 1150 K for all alloy compositions.
Linear dependence of surface tension on
temperature was also observed with a
negative gradient d/dT. Generally,
there was observed an increase of sur-
face tension with increasing zinc content.
Only two exceptions were found
alloys containing 5 at.-% of Zn at Sn:In
= 1 and Sn:In = 24. These alloys, there-
fore, seem to be most suitable for practi-
cal applications in brazing or soldering.
However, in comparison with the Sn-Pb
eutectic solder, surface tension values of
In-Sn-Zn alloys are higher, about 60
mN/m.
A difference in composition of the
surface phase and bulk alloy was also
found at 673 and 973 K. The surface of
liquid alloys is enriched with tin for all
In-Sn-Zn alloys. It is enriched with indi-
um for alloys containing >10 at.-% of
zinc.
Predicting Thermal Conductivity of
Lead-Free Solders, Intermetallics
Lead-free solders of the Sn-Ag-Cu
system are replacing Sn-Pb solders in
electronics. A new method of calculating
thermal conductivity for tin-based sol-
ders was developed and experimentally
tested at Northwestern University,
Evanston, Ill. This method is based upon
the fact that heat and electrical transport
both involve free electrons. Therefore,
the Wiedemann-Franz-Lorenz (WFL)
relation is presented as a possible solu-
tion to predict thermal conductivity with
known electrical conductivity (Ref. 2).
Generally, analysis of experimental
data showed that the WFL relation is
obeyed in both solder alloys and inter-
metallic compounds, especially those
matching close to the relation for tin,
with a positive deviation from the theo-
retical Lorenz number. Thus, from avail-
able electrical conductivity data, thermal
conductivity of solders and inter-
metallics can be obtained based on an
appropriate WFL relation, and vice
versa.
Several sets of thermal conductivity
data are presented in this paper, particu-
larly thermal conductivity of widely used
solders such as Sn-3.5Ag-0.7Cu, Sn-
37Pb, and intermetallics Cu
6
Sn
5
and
Cu
3
Sn. By applying the WFL relation,
the number experiments required to
determine material properties for differ-
ent solder/intermetallic interconnects
57 WELDING JOURNAL
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
can be significantly reduced, which can
lead to time and cost savings.
New Powder-Polymer Tapes and
Preforms of Nickel-Based Brazing
Filler Metals
New thermoplastic binders are being
developed and evaluated for manufac-
turing thin polymer-braze powdered
tapes of nickel-based filler metals at
Leibniz University, Hannover, and
Clausthal University of Technology,
Clausthal, Germany.
Combining thermoplastic polymers
and braze metal powder in polymer-
particle composites makes it possible to
manufacture thin tapes and preforms
suitable for the application of powdered
braze metals. The solvent-free compos-
ite tapes can be used to produce tailored
components applying thermoplastic
master forming techniques. In particu-
lar, this injection molding process pro-
vides an economical technique to pro-
duce customized braze metal preforms
in large lots (Ref. 3).
O-ring-shaped preforms were manu-
factured by mixing and injection molding
components two braze powders, B-
Ni60CrPSi-980/1020 and B-
Ni82CrSiBFe-970/1000 along with
three thermoplastic polymer binders,
polypropylene, low-density polyethyl-
ene, and high-density polyethylene. The
content of brazing metal powder in the
mixture was varied from 50 to 65 vol-%.
Brazing stainless steel parts was execut-
ed in a conveyor belt furnace or 3-kW
inductor under hydrogen, N
2
-10% H
2
, or
Ar-5% H
2
shielding atmosphere for
protection.
The examined thermoplastic polymer
binders decomposed residue-free at
temperatures below 500C and filler
metal preforms kept shape stability up to
melting. High-quality, defect-free brazed
joints were manufactured both by fur-
nace and induction brazing.
BaO-CaO-SiO
2
Glass-Ceramic
Sealants for Joining Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell Stacks
A barium-calcium silicate glass-
ceramic reinforced with 13 wt-% of yttri-
um-stabilized ZrO
2
fibers was prepared
and tested as the joining material for
planar solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
stacks at Forschungszentrum Juelich,
Germany. Among the several properties
needed as joining material, the most
important requirements are to hermeti-
cally seal, electrically insulate the parts,
and withstand any stresses provoked by
the present coefficient of thermal expan-
sion mismatch due to thermal gradients
that appear during operation.
A wide range of glass compositions
was analyzed, optimized, and submitted
to small-scale joining tests as well as
stack tests (Ref. 4). The resulting glass-
ceramic composition BaO 48 wt-%, CaO
6.1 wt-%, SiO
2
29.8 wt-%, and 13 wt-%
of YSZ fibers provided SOFC stacks
with the lowest gas leakage rates ever
achieved. It was possible to successively
Aerospace Grade
Brazing & Welding
Alloys
Aerospace Grade
Brazing & Welding
Alloys
Aimtek is proud to offer a variety of value-added services from
custom labeling, to specialized packaging, to parameter
development and application assistance. Our technical Engineering
Department and knowledgeable staff will help meet your standard
and custom requirements from concept to production.
We understand that a small request can make a big difference.
Powder and Paste
Wire and Foil
Rings and Preforms
Cut Length Rods
IN STOCK and waiting for you!
FEBRUARY 2014 58
assemble several identical stacks of the
kW range using this glass-ceramic com-
posite sealant.
The tensile strength of Crofer 22APU
alloy butt joints joined with BaO-CaO-
SiO
2
-YSZ composite glass-ceramic
material was about 3 N/mm
2
as joined,
about 4 N/mm
2
after aging at 800C for
500 h, and 30 thermal cycles RT-750C.
Another promising composition was the
same glass-ceramic reinforced with 20
wt-% of silver particles, and it exhibited
tensile strength above 5 N/mm
2
, while
aging decreased the strength of such
joints.
New Nickel-Tantalum Brazing Alloy
for Joining Ceramic Joints Stable
above 1000C
Ceramic materials are widely used for
high-temperature applications, but it is
still a challenge to produce ceramic-
ceramic or ceramic-metal joints stable at
temperatures above 1000C using metal-
lic brazes. A potential Ni-38 at.-% Ta
brazing filler metal for high-temperature
applications (>1000C) was developed
and evaluated at the Fraunhofer
Institute for Ceramic Technologies and
Systems, Dresden, Germany.
This Ta-Ni eutectic alloy was used for
brazing alumina and SiC samples (Ref.
5). The melting temperature of the
above composition is 1395C; therefore,
brazing in a vacuum furnace was execut-
ed at 14101600C. TiH
2
powder in the
amount of 1020 wt-% was added to pro-
mote wetting of the braze on ceramic
materials. After dissolution of titanium
in the Ta-Ni alloy during brazing, the
solidus temperature of formed Ta-Ni-Ti
went down to 1230C. A thin brittle
intermetallic layer at the interface with
cracks was found. However, bending
strength of brazed joints at 1400C was
satisfactory 5070 MPa for alumina
brazed joints and 200 MPa for silicon
carbide brazed joints. Their strength
increased by increasing brazing tempera-
ture to 1480C.
Bio-Compatible, Titanium-Cobalt-
Based Active Brazing Coating of
Medical Implants
Owing to their outstanding mechani-
cal properties, wear and corrosion resist-
ance, as well as inert behavior, high-
performance alumina and zirconia
ceramics are currently in extensive use as
medical implants. However, these inert
ceramics do not form a chemical bond
to the bone tissue, so their use is still
limited.
A promising approach was evaluated
in RWTH Aachen University, Surface
Engineering Institute, Germany, to func-
tionalize ceramic surfaces via a coating
using high-vacuum active brazing and
producing biocompatible surfaces on an
alumina substrate (Ref. 6).
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
59 WELDING JOURNAL
Eight biocompatible Ti-Co-based
active brazing alloys were developed,
including Ti-22.6Co-2.5Si, Ti-20Co-7Cr,
and Ti-13.7Co-2.5Ni (at.-%). The braz-
ing temperature was 1200C, holding for
40 min. These alloys were analyzed with
regard to the melting behavior and their
wettability on an alumina surface.
Contact angles on alumina varied from
41.5 deg for Ti-22.6Co-2.5Si to 49 deg
for Ti-13.7Co-2.5Ni alloy. In addition, all
three alloys exhibited moderate hard-
ness that can prevent cracking of the
coating during cooling. Moreover, cell
viability (life-death staining) was per-
formed using mouse L929 fibroblast
cells to make a first statement about the
cytocompatible behavior of these new
materials.
Successful results were achieved, and
three brazing alloys were chosen as
prospective materials for the deposition
of biocompatible coating in manufactur-
ing hip prostheses.
Friction Surfacing of Steel by
Soldering and Production of
Press Fit/Pressure-Soldered Joints
Friction surfacing by soldering
(FSbS), as a method to deposit thin lay-
ers of copper, zinc, or aluminum on rota-
tion-symmetric steel components, was
developed and studied at the Dresden
University of Technology, Germany.
This method can be applied to manufac-
ture a press fit/pressure-soldered joint
(PF/PSJ) or surface finishing of steel
shafts (Ref. 7). A machine for depositing
soft coatings by FSbS was developed as
part of a cooperative project.
The range of coating thickness was
54135 microns in the case of copper,
22145 microns for aluminum, and
1150 microns for zinc. Analysis of high-
resolution scanning electron microscope
images revealed there was no mixed
crystal area for the combination of cop-
per/steel and aluminum/steel.
Meanwhile, intermetallic phases exist
between the zinc coating and steel sub-
strate. In addition, results for the PF/PSJ
with joint areas coated by FSbS showed
a comparable result as far as the optimal
rated electroplated PF/PSJ. The sol-
dered joints of friction-coated steel parts
reached 50 MPa in shear strength.
Pressureless Joining with Silver
Nanoparticles at Low Temperatures
Metallic silver has a melting point of
961C, and it can therefore be classified
as a brazing material. Joining methods
using silver at lower temperatures are
based on silver sintering. Significantly
lower sintering temperatures can be
achieved when small silver particles
and especially silver nanoparticles are
involved.
A new method was studied at
Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany,
to sinter silver at temperatures below
250C without applying pressure. In con-
trast to other approaches where
nanoparticles are used, a silver-organic
complex was used as a bulk material
(Ref. 8). It generated silver nanoparti-
cles only upon heating and shows differ-
ent phase stages. Appearance of a liquid
metal-like phase is advantageous for
pressureless processing. Added silver
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
COR-MET, INC.
12500 Grand River Rd.
Brighton, MI 48116
PH: 800-848-2719
FAX: 810-227-9266
www.cor-met.com
sales@cor-met.com
Manufacturing
Flux Cored
Welding Wire
Cobalt
Nickel
Hardface
Stainless
Alloy Steel
Tool Steel
Maintenance
Forge Alloys
Custom Alloys
FEBRUARY 2014 60
particles of submicron size are complete-
ly miscible with the molten phase of the
base silver-organic material, resulting in
compact silver layers.
This procedure leads to good adher-
ence, especially to copper substrates.
Shear strength in the order of 2025
MPa was achieved, which is about the
strength of a conventional Sn63Pb37 sol-
der. The shear strength can be easily
increased if a third component with a
densifying effect is added. This silver sol-
der material can be used as dry powder
or as paste, and layer thicknesses can be
achieved within a broad range.
References
Note: Refs. 38 are from Brazing, High
Temperature Brazing and Diffusion
Bonding, LT-2013, DVS-Berichte, Vol.
293.
1. Pstrus, J. 2013. Surface tension and
density of liquid In-Sn-Zn alloys. Applied
Surface Science 265: 5059.
2. Yao, Y., Fry, J., Fine, M. E., and
Keer, L. M. 2013. The Wiedemann-
Franz-Lorenz relation for lead-free sol-
der and intermetallic materials. Acta
Materialia 61: 15251536.
3. Hollnder, U., Bach, F.-W.,
Mwald, K., Kirchberg, S., and
Ziegmann, G. 2013. Injection molding
characterization and application of
polymer bonded nickel-based braze
metal preforms for high temperature
brazing process. pp. 1116.
4. Gross-Barsnick, S. M., Cela
Greven, B., Batfalsky, P., Koppitz, T.,
Natour, G., and Blum, L. 2013. Recent
results in SOFC glass-ceramic sealant
technology development. pp. 5053.
5. Martin, H.-P., Triebert, A., and
Matthey, B. 2013. Ta-Ni-braze for high-
temperature stable ceramic ceramic
junctions. pp. 5458.
6. Bobzin, K., Kopp, N., Puidokas, S.,
Schickle, K., Korsten, A., and Fischer,
H. 2013. Research and development of a
cytocompatible titanium-cobalt-based
active brazing coating. pp. 5962.
7. Nguyen, V. D., Fssel, U., Pejko,
M., Andrusch, K., and Hommel, B. 2013.
Friction surfacing by soldering and the
application to produce the press fit/pres-
sure-soldered joint. pp. 6771.
8. Rhrich, T., and Oestreicher, A.
2013. Pressureless joining with silver
nanoparticles at low temperatures. pp.
133135.
TECHNOLOGY NEWS
Win Potential Clients
by Showing Them Videos on
How to Save Money and Time
By Using Your Products!
For more information visit our website at
http://videos.aws.org or please contact:
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Lea Paneca
lea@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 220
Sandra Jorgensen
sjorgensen@aws.org / (800) 443-9353, ext. 254
http://videos.aws.org
or please contact: http://videos.aws.org
Information provided by ALEXANDER
E. SHAPIRO (ashapiro@titanium-
brazing.com) and LEO A. SHAPIRO,
Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio.
Cosponsors:
Follow us:
CANADA | I NDI A | MEXI CO | ATLANTA
FOLLOW THE
POSSIBILITIES
MARCH 18-20, 2014
Toronto Congress Centre
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
FABTECH
CANADA
Attendees: 5,000
Exhibitors: 300
APRIL 10-12, 2014
Pragati Maidan
New Delhi, India
FABTECH
INDIA
Attendees: 10,000
Exhibitors: 250
NOVEMBER 11-13, 2014
Georgia World
Congress Center
Atlanta, Georgia USA
FABTECH
ATLANTA
Attendees: 26,000
Exhibitors: 1,200
MAY 6-8, 2014
Centro Banamex
Mexico City, Mexico
FABTECH
MEXICO
Attendees: 12,000
Exhibitors: 450
For more information about exhibiting
or attending any of the upcoming
FABTECH events, log on to
fabtechexpo.com
Own the entire library of
AWS Welding Handbooks.
Be the person with
the answers.
For 75 years, the most accurate and complete answers for
virtually every process and material have been found in the
volumes of the most current AWS Welding Handbooks. Hundreds
of leading authorities have ensured that all the facts you need are
at your fingertips and confirmed to be reliable.
For hard questions, the answers are easy to find. Find solutions
fast in the AWS Welding Handbooks.
Ninth Edition, Volume 1, Welding Science

and Technology
Presents the latest developments in the basic
science and technology of welding, and general
descriptions of processes. Continues with
chapters on the physics of welding and cutting;
heat flow; welding metallurgy; design; test
methods; residual stress; welding symbols;
tooling and positioning; monitoring and control;
mechanized, automated, and robotic techniques;
economics; weld quality; inspection;
qualification and certification; welding codes
and standards; and safe practices. 932 pages, 17
chapters, 2 appendices, 530 illustrations, 168
tables, hardbound. (2001).
WHB-1.9 $192 nonmembers/$144 members
Ninth Edition, Volume 2, Welding
Processes, Part 1
Presents comprehensive information on
welding and related processes. Contains
detailed information on arc welding power
sources. Covers shielded metal arc, gas tungsten
arc, gas metal arc, flux cored arc, submerged arc,
and plasma arc welding processes. Includes
chapters on electroslag welding, stud welding,
oxyfuel gas welding, brazing, soldering, oxygen
cutting, and arc cutting and gouging. 736 pages,
15 chapters, 260 line drawings, 100 photographs,
148 tables, hardbound. (2004).
Ninth Edition, Volume 3, Welding
Processes, Part 2
Over 600 pages of comprehensive information
on solid-state and other welding and cutting
processes. The book includes chapters on
resistance spot and seam welding, projection
welding, flash and upset welding, and high-
frequency welding. In addition to a chapter on
friction welding, a new chapter introduces
friction stir welding. The most recent
developments in beam technology are
discussed in expanded chapters on laser beam
welding and cutting and electron beam
welding. A diverse array of processes are
presented in chapters on the ultrasonic
welding of metals, explosion welding,
diffusion welding and diffusion brazing,
adhesive bonding, and thermal and cold
spraying. The last chapter covers various
other welding and cutting processes,
including modernized water jet cutting. 669
pages, 15 chapters, 3 appendices, 438
illustrations, 59 tables; hardbound. (2007)
Ninth Edition, Volume 4, Materials and
Applications, Part 1
This comprehensive volume had more than
50 experts in materials and materials applica-
tions assure its accuracy and the currency of
its content. It is a great reference source for
engineers, educators, welding supervisors,
and welders. Covers carbon and low-alloy
steels; high-alloy steels; coated steels; tool and
die steels; stainless and heat-resisting steels;
clad and dissimilar metals; surfacing; cast
irons; maintenance and repair welding; and
underwater welding and cutting. Includes
more than 500 tables, charts, and photos. 779
pages, 10 chapters, hardbound. (2011).
Eighth Edition, Volume 3, Materials and
Applications Part 1
Covers nonferrous metals, plastics, composites,
and ceramics; specialized topics on maintenance
and repair welding; under-water welding and
cutting. Includes applications of the specific
metals and processes, weldability, safe practices.
538 pages, 10 chapters, softbound. (1996).
GET FIVE VOLUMES OF THE
CURRENT WELDING HANDBOOK
SET AT SUBSTANTIAL SAVINGS
Vol. 1, 9th Ed.: Welding Science & Technology
Vol. 2, 9th Ed.: Welding Processes, Part 1
Vol. 4, 9th Ed.: Materials & Applications, Part 1
Vol. 3, 8th Ed.: Materials & Applications, Part 1
WHB-ALL $762 nonmembers/$572 members
GET THE 2 NEWEST HANDBOOK
VOLUMES ON PROCESSES AT
SUBSTANTIAL SAVINGS
WHB-PRC $288 nonmembers/$216 members
DOWNLOAD SINGLE CHAPTERS
Choose individual Welding Handbook chapters
for PDF download, at an economical price.
See PUBS.AWS.ORG
$20 nonmembers/$15 members
The AWS Welding Handbooks are the must-have references for engineers, structural
designers, technologists, inspectors, welders, welding educators, and others who need to
understand our dynamic and evolving industry. Put all the facts at your fingertips and
make sure youre on the cutting edge with new and updated material.
The largest body of knowledge on welding available anywhere.
Practical, hands-on information that you can put to immediate use.
The most current information on best practices
regarding safety, quality, and qualification
issues.
Unparalleled authoritychapters are
written by leading scientists, engineers,
educators, and other technical and
scientific experts. Everything is peer-
reviewed for accuracy and timeliness.
The most valuable resource on welding
you can buy, covering the entire spectrum
of welding from science and technology,
history, welding processes, and materials
and applications.
Call 888-WELDING or order online at
http://pubs.aws.org
Now available campus-wide for educational institutions
COMING
EVENTS
Energy Conference. Feb. 5, 6. Hotel Monteleone, New Orleans,
La. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include superior hybrid welding
processes, filler metals, and cladding procedures for use in nu-
clear and coal-fired utilities and oil and natural gas pipelines.
Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
AERODEF Manufacturing. Feb. 2527. Long Beach Convention
Center, Long Beach, Calif. Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
(800) 733-4763; www.aerodefevent.com.
Pipelines Conference. March 4, 5. Sheraton Houston Brookhol-
low, Houston, Tex. Sponsored by the American Welding Society.
Topics to include current and future pipeline welding trends. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
ABB Robotics Technology Days and Open House. March 13, 14.
1250 Brown Rd., Auburn Hills, Mich. Offering workshops, train-
ing, and demonstrations. To register, visit www.abb.com/robotics;
call (800) 435-7365.
FABTECH Canada. March 1820. Toronto Congress Centre,
Toronto, Ont., Canada. Cosponsored by the American Welding
Society. www.fabtechcanada.com.
Stainless Steel Conference. March 25, 26. Loews Philadelphia
Hotel, Philadelphia, Pa. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to include
welding of austenitic, duplex, and other grades of stainless steel
including dissimilar metals, and repair welding, cladding, clean-
ing, and coping with stress corrosion cracking. Contact P. Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Metal & Steel Saudi Arabia 2014. April 710. Riyadh, Saudi Ara-
bia. Visit www.metalsteelsaudi.com.
FABTECH India colocated with Weld India. April 1012. Pra-
gati Maidan Exhibition Complex, New Delhi, India. Concurrent
with the 2014 Intl Congress of the IIW. Cosponsored by AWS,
FMA, SME, PMA, CCAI, and India Institute of Welding.
www.fabtechexpoindia.com.
Weld Cracking Conference. April 15, 16. Hilton Garden Inn
Denver Downtown, Denver, Colo. Sponsored by AWS. Topics to
include impact tests, control of moisture in welding consumables,
and information for welding engineers to ensure higher-quality
welded products. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-
9353, ext. 215.
1st Smart Laser Processing Conf. 2014. April 2224. Pacifico
Yokohama, Yokohama, Japan. Organized by Japan Laser Pro-
cessing Society, colocated with Optics & Photonics Intl Congress
2014. www.jlps.gr.jp/slpc2014/.
ITSA International Thermal Spray Assn. Annual Meeting.
April 2426. Savannah, Ga. Sponsored by ITSA, an AWS Stand-
ing Committee. itsa@thermalspray.org; www.thermalspray.org.
NOTE: A DIAMOND () DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.
FEBRUARY 2014 64
65 WELDING JOURNAL
JOM, 18th Intl Conf. on Joining Materials. April 2629. Kon-
ventum LO-Skolen, Helsingr, Denmark. In association with the
Intl Institute of Welding, cosponsored by American Welding So-
ciety, Japan Welding Society, Welding Technology Institute of
Australia, Brazilian Welding Society, and others. E-mail
jom_aws@post10.tele.dk; download brochure at www.aws.org/wj/
JOM-18-CallForPapers.pdf.
Aluminum Conference. April 2830. Hotel Monteleone, New
Orleans, La. Sponsored by AWS. Aluminum industry experts will
survey the state of the art in aluminum welding technology and
practice. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext.
215.
First Intl Symposium on Advances in Resistance Welding. April
2830. Atlanta, Ga. Sponsored by AWS and the Resistance Weld-
ing Manufacturing Alliance (RWMA), an AWS Standing Com-
mittee. Topics will include research results, projects, and industrial
experiences that describe significant advances in resistance weld-
ing technology. Visit www.aws.org/rwma, or contact Patrick Henry,
phenry@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 215.
AWS Weldmex, FABTECH Mexico, METALFORM Mexico.
May 68. Centro Banamex, Mexico City, Mexico. www.fabtech-
mexico.com.
JOIN-TRANS
3
Third European Conf., Joining and Construc-
tion of Railway Vehicles. May 6, 7. An IIW associated event. Weld-
ing Training and Research Centre, SLV Halle GmbH, Halle
(Saale), Germany. www.jointrans.eu.
mfg4 colocated with MicroManufacturing Conf. and Exhibits.
May 68. Connecticut Convention Center, Hartford, Conn. The
FEBRUARY 2014 66
Society of Manufacturing Engineers; (800) 733-4763;
www.mfg4event.com.
AKL 14, Intl Laser Technology Congress and Expo. May 79.
Aachen, Germany. Visit www.lasercongress.org/en/home/.
MMTS Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 1214. Place
Bonaventure, Montreal, Que., Canada. www.mmts.ca.
Composites Manufacturing. May 1315. Northern Kentucky
Convention Center, Covington, Ky. Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers. www.sme.org/composites.
NDE Aerospace Materials and Structures IV. May 13, 14. Crowne
Plaza Hotel, St. Louis, Mo. American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, (800) 222-2768, www.asnt.org.
Metal & Steel Middle East 2014. May 1517. Cairo, Egypt. Visit
www.metalsteeleg.com.
THE BIG M including SME Annual Meeting, RAPID Conf. and
Expo, and North American Research Conf. June 912. Cobo Cen-
ter, Detroit, Mich. Society of Manufacturing Engineers. www.the-
bigmevent.com.
U.S-Japan NDT Symposium. June 1620. Makena Beach and
Golf Resort, Maui, Hawaii. American Society for Nondestructive
Testing, (800) 222-2768, www.asnt.org.
Welding Education, Skills, and Certifications Conference. July
2325. Indianapolis, Ind. Sponsored by AWS. This program an-
swers questions on the requirements to become an AWS Accred-
ited Testing Facility (ATF), including skills training and curricu-
lum. Contact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
Digital Imaging XVII. July 2830. Crowne Plaza Hotel, Warwick,
R.I. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, (800) 222-2768,
www.asnt.org.
Heat Treatment Conference. Aug. 12, 13. Sheraton Arlington
Hotel, Dallas, Tex. Sponsored by AWS. Attendees will get a bet-
ter understanding of the impact of welding and heat treatment
practices to optimize weld quality and reliability. Contact P.
Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
NDE/NDT for Highways and Bridges: Structural Materials Tech-
nology (SMT) 2014. Aug. 2527. Grand Hyatt Washington, Wash-
ington, D.C. American Society for Nondestructive Testing, (800)
222-2768, www.asnt.org.
Additive Manufacturing Conference. Sept. 9, 10. Renaissance
Orlando Airport Hotel, Orlando, Fla. Sponsored by AWS. Con-
tact P. Henry, phenry@aws.org; (800) 443-9353, ext. 215.
ASNT Annual Conference 2014. Oct. 2730. Charleston Conven-
tion Center, Charleston, S.C. American Society for Nondestruc-
tive Testing, (800) 222-2768, www.asnt.org.
7th Offshore Energy Expo and Conf. Oct. 28, 29. Amsterdam RAI,
The Netherlands. Visit www.offshore-energy.biz.
FABTECH 2014. Nov. 1113. Georgia World Congress Center,
Atlanta, Ga. This exhibition is the largest event in North America
dedicated to showcasing the full spectrum of metal forming, fab-
ricating, tube and pipe, welding equipment, and myriad manufac-
turing technologies. American Welding Society. (800/305) 443-
9353, ext. 264; www.fabtechexpo.com.
SERIOUS AIR for SERIOUS PLACES
sales@schaelerlan.com 1.800.77.327 www.schaelerlan.com
8", 12" & 20" Models
Forfable
877-10,000 CFM
110/220v
Fneumaflc
Versa-Kool
Drum Fans
New deslgn- more
durable, powerlul and
cosf ellecflve
The ideal solution for
employee comfort and
productivity!
Publish Your Research in the
and Youll Get

Your research sent to more than 68,000
American Welding Society members

Your published paper posted on the AWS
Web site for FREE access worldwide
(www.aws.org/w/a/research/index.html)

The most recent Impact Factor of 1.00

No page charges

Your paper printed in full color

Electronic submission and tracking through
Editorial Manager
(www.editorialmanager.com/wj)

Every research paper published in the
Welding Journal since 1970 available FREE
on the AWS Web site
(www.aws.org/wj/supplement/supplement-
index.html)
By far, the most people, at the least cost,
will be exposed to your research when you
publish in the world-respected
Welding Journal


elding Journal W
publish in the wo
will be exposed to your
, the most peopl By far

elding Journal
rld-respected publish in the wo
research when you will be exposed to your
e, at the least cost, , the most peopl
CERTIFICATION
SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE
Mobile, AL Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Kansas City, MO Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Houston, TX Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Norfolk, VA Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Milwaukee, WI Mar. 27 Mar. 8
Birmingham, AL Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Indianapolis, IN Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Boston, MA Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Portland, OR Mar. 914 Mar. 15
Rochester, NY Exam only Mar. 22
York, PA Exam only Mar. 22
Miami, FL Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Chicago, IL Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Springfield, MO Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Dallas, TX Mar. 2328 Mar. 29
Minneapolis, MN Mar. 30Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Las Vegas, NV Mar. 30Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Syracuse, NY Mar. 30Apr. 4 Apr. 5
San Francisco, CA Apr. 611 Apr. 12
New Orleans, LA Apr. 611 Apr. 12
Nashville, TN Apr. 611 Apr. 12
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only Apr. 12
Miami, FL Exam only Apr. 17
St. Louis, MO Exam only Apr. 19
Edmonton, Canada Exam only Apr. 28
Annapolis, MD Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Detroit, MI Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Corpus Christi, TX Apr. 27May 2 May 3
Knoxville, TN Exam only May 3
Fresno, CA May 49 May 10
Miami, FL May 49 May 10
Albuquerque, NM May 49 May 10
Oklahoma City, OK May 49 May 10
Corpus Christi, TX Exam only May 31
Birmingham, AL June 16 June 7
Hutchinson, KS June 16 June 7
Spokane, WA June 16 June 7
Bakersfield, CA June 813 June 14
Pittsburgh, PA June 813 June 14
Beaumont, TX June 813 June 14
Miami, FL Exam only June 19
Hartford, CT June 2227 June 28
Orlando, FL June 2227 June 28
Memphis, TN June 2227 June 28
Miami, FL Exam only July 10
Los Angeles, CA July 1318 July 19
Jacksonville, FL July 1318 July 19
Omaha, NE July 1318 July 19
Cleveland, OH July 1318 July 19
Phoenix, AZ July 2025 July 26
Louisville, KY July 2025 July 26
Kansas City, MO July 2025 July 26
Waco, TX July 2025 July 26
Sacramento, CA July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Denver, CO July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Miami, FL July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Milwaukee, WI July 27Aug. 1 Aug. 2
Certified Welding Educator (CWE)
Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified
Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code
Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).
Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)
CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.
Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)
New Orleans, LA Mar. 31Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Minneapolis, MN July 1418 July 19
CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.
9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI
(No exams given.)
For current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education require-
ments without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site
listed under Certified Welding Inspector.
LOCATION SEMINAR DATES
Dallas, TX Mar. 914
Miami, FL Mar. 2328
Sacramento, CA Apr. 27May 2
Boston, MA Apr. 27May 2
Charlotte, NC May 49
Pittsburgh, PA June 16
San Diego, CA July 1318
Miami, FL July 27Aug. 1
Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)
Houston, TX Mar. 31Apr. 4 Apr. 5
Las Vegas, NV May 59 May 10
Miami, FL June 26 June 7
The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can
exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.
Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)
The seminar dates (S:) are followed by the exam dates (E:)
S: July 2831, E: Aug. 1; at
ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421
S: Apr. 2123, E: Apr. 24, 25; S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23, 24; at
OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800
S: Mar. 35, E: Mar. 6; S: Oct. 2022, E: Oct. 23; at
Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542
S: Apr. 710, E: Apr. 11; S: Aug. 1114, E: Aug. 15;
S: Oct. 1316, E: Oct. 17; at
Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688
S: Mar. 1719, E: Mar. 20, 21; S: May 1921, E: May 22, 23;
S: July 2123, E: July 24, 25; S: Sept. 2224, E: Sept. 25, 26;
S: Nov. 1719, E: Nov. 20, 21; at
Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736
On request at
MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996
Certification Seminars, Code Clinics, and Examinations
IMPORTANT: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Applications are to be received at least six weeks prior to the sem-
inar/exam or exam. Applications received after that time will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee. Please verify application deadline
dates by visiting our website www.aws.org/certification/docs/schedules.html. Verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to
confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, or to register
online, visit www.aws.org/certification or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to
avoid paying the $250 Fast Track fee.
FEBRUARY 2014 68
Coming to Mexico City!
Manufacturing, construction and energy projects
are growing in Mexico, demanding new equipment,
services and technologically advanced products.
The co-located AWS Weldmex, FABTECH Mexico,
COATech and METALFORM Mexico shows
provide an opportunity to reach new
markets and buyers located in the
most important industrial
region in Mexico.
12,000 attendees
100,000 sqf
450 exhibitors
4 Great Shows Come
Together in Mexico
May 68, 2014
Centro Banamex
For more information on reserving booth space for this exciting event, contact:
Joe Krall
(800) 443-9353 ext 297
jkrall@aws.org
U.S. Sales
Chuck Cross
(800) 266-6196
chuck@tradeshowconsult.com
Marcela Ordaz
(81) 8191 0444
marcela.ordaz@tradeshowconsult.com
Mexico Sales
Reach New Markets!
6 al 8 de MAYO
Centro Banamex | Mexico, D.F.
2014

6

O YYO AAY M e d 8 l a
44 1 0 2

O
444

Centro Banamex | Mexico
6

F D. , Centro Banamex | Mexico
O YYO AAY M e d 8 l a

. FF.
O

WELDING
WORKBOOK
The characteristics of the gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
process are best described in terms of the basic means by which
metal is transferred from the electrode to the workpiece. The
modes of metal transfer for GMAW are short-circuiting trans-
fer, globular transfer, and spray transfer. A number of factors
determine the mode of transfer. Following are the most influen-
tial factors:
1. Magnitude, type, and polarity of welding current
2. Electrode diameter
3. Electrode composition
4. Electrode extension
5. Shielding gas composition.
Short-Circuiting Transfer
Employed in short circuit gas metal arc welding (GMAW-S),
short-circuiting transfer (Fig. 1) encompasses the lowest range
of welding currents and electrode diameters associated with the
process. Metal transfer results when the molten metal from a
consumable electrode is deposited during repeated short circuits.
This mode of transfer produces a small, fast-freezing weld pool
that is generally suited for the joining of thin sections, for out-
of-position welding, and for bridging large root openings.
In short-circuiting transfer, metal is transferred from the elec-
trode to the workpiece only when the electrode is in contact with
the weld pool. No metal is transferred across the arc. The electrode
contacts the weld pool from 20 to more than 200 times per second.
Globular Transfer
In this mode, molten metal in the form of large drops trans-
fers from the consumable electrode across the arc Fig. 2. This
transfer mode is characterized by a drop size with a diameter
greater than that of the electrode. Gravity easily acts upon this
large drop, generally limiting the successful application of this
mode of transfer to the flat position.
At average current rates that are only slightly higher than
those used in short-circuiting transfer, axially directed globular
transfer can be achieved in a substantially inert gas shield. If the
arc length is too short (indicating low voltage), the enlarging drop
may short to the workpiece, become superheated, and disinte-
grate, producing considerable spatter. The arc must therefore be
long enough to ensure detachment of the drop before it contacts
the weld pool. A weld made with a higher voltage is likely to be
unacceptable because of incomplete fusion, incomplete joint pen-
etration, and excessive weld reinforcement. This characteristic
greatly limits the use of the globular transfer mode in produc-
tion applications.
Spray Transfer
The spray transfer mode occurs when the molten metal from
a consumable electrode is propelled axially across the arc in the
form of minute droplets Fig. 3. With argon-rich (at least 80%)
gas shielding, it is possible to produce a very stable, spatter-free
axial spray transfer mode.
This mode requires the use of direct current with a positive
electrode (DCEP) and a current level above a critical value,
termed the spray transition current. Below this current level,
transfer occurs in the globular mode at the rate of a few drops
per second. Above the transition current, transfer occurs in the
form of very small drops that are formed and detached at the
rate of hundreds per second that are accelerated axially across
the arc.
Datasheet 346
Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, Part 1, ninth edition.
Metal Transfer Modes in Gas Metal Arc Welding
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of short
circuiting metal transfer.
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of globu-
lar transfer.
Fig. 3 Schematic showing the spray
transfer mode.
FEBRUARY 2014 70
awo.aws.org
for the Non-Metallurgist: Fundamentals
Sample seminar at awo.aws.org/seminars/metallurgy
Metallurgy is the science that deals with the internal structure of
metals, the relationship between metals, and the properties of metals.
In welding, a basic understanding of metallurgy provides insight into
the positive and negative changes that occur in metals when joined
by welding.
From the properties of an atom to the behaviors of metals during
the welding process, you are introduced to the properties of metals
and will gain an understanding of why metals behave the way they do.
Concepts covered include the anatomy of atoms, the periodic table,
chemical bonding, including ionic bonding, covalent bonding, and
metallic bonding, as well as the properties of metals. This seminar
contains interactive exercises to reinforce key points and includes
summaries and quizzes to help prepare you for the completion exam.
The seminar is approximately five hours long and concludes with a
proficiency test.
METALLURGY

ME

ALL TTA

G UR L

GY

for the Non-Metallurg
ME

Metallurgy is the science that deals with the i
for the Non-Metallurg
ALL TTA

Metallurgy is the science that deals with the i
ist: Fundamentals for the Non-Metallurg
G UR L

nternal structure of Metallurgy is the science that deals with the i
ist: Fundamentals
GY

nternal structure of
ist: Fundamentals

metallic bonding, as well as the properties of metals.
Concepts covered include the anatomy of ato
From the properties of an atom to the behavi
by welding.

Concepts covered include the anatomy of ato
From the properties of an atom to the behavi
by welding.

This seminar metallic bonding, as well as the properties of metals.
ms, the periodic table, Concepts covered include the anatomy of ato
ors of metals during From the properties of an atom to the behavi

This seminar
ms, the periodic table,
ors of metals during

summaries


This seminar metallic bonding, as well as the properties of metals.

This seminar

Know a person or company who gives back
to their community and makes the welding industry shine?
Nominate them for the 2014 awards!
Entry deadline is July 31, 2014
For more information and to submit a nomination form online,
visit www.aws.org/awards/image.html or call 800-443-9353.
The Image of Welding Awards Program recognizes
outstanding achievement in the following categories:
Individual
Distributor
Educational Facility
Large Business
(you or other individual) (welding products) (any organization that conducts (200 or more employees)
welding education or training)

Section
Educator
Media
Small Business
(AWS local chapter) (welding teacher at an (image promoting article or (less than 200 employees)
institution, facility, etc.) news broadcast)
Congratulations to our 2013 Image of Welding Award Winners!
(from left) are Ned Lane (Distributor, Cee Kay Supply); Nanette Samanich (Educator); Levi Crusmire and Bob Richwine (AWS Section, Ivy Tech Community
College Student Chapter); Dennis A. Wright (Individual); Woody Cook (Large Business, SME Steel); and Rick McCartney (Small Business, Bay State Industrial
Welding & Fabrication, Inc.) Not pictured: Dr. Patricio Mendez (Educational Facility, Canadian Centre for Welding and Joining, University of Alberta).
An Association of Welding Manufacturers

SOCIETYNEWS
SOCIETYNEWS
73 WELDING JOURNAL
On Nov. 16 at FABTECH in Chicago,
Ill., Dennis D. Harwig and Muralidhar
Tumuluru were inducted into the 2013
Class of Fellows, cited for serving the
welding community and industry with
great distinction as individuals whose ca-
reers have contributed significantly to the
knowledge, science, and application of
welding.
Dennis Harwig was noted for his dis-
tinguished and significant research in the
ARCWISE parameter development
method for arc welding processes, his ap-
plication of the Brittle Temperature
Range (BTR) technique to the study of
weld solidification cracking, and his im-
portant contributions to improving the
control of titanium weld quality.
Muralidhar Tumuluru was cited for
his significant studies in fracture behav-
ior of the advanced high-strength steel
(AHSS) used in automotive applications,
and the procedures he developed for join-
ing of AHSS coils on continuous pickling
and galvanizing lines that helped to com-
mercialize these steels, his contributions
to technical standards, and for his teach-
ing and mentoring of young engineers.
Both Tumuluru and Harwig serve as Prin-
cipal Reviewers for the Welding Journal
and contribute to a number of AWS Tech-
nical Committees.
AWS Counselors Donald B. DeCorte,
James Horvath, William A. Komlos, Dou-
glas R. Luciani, Lowell W. Mott, and
Robert Paul Matteson were recognized
for serving the welding community and
industry with great distinction as individ-
uals whose careers demonstrating distin-
guished organizational leadership have
enhanced the image and impact of the
welding industry.
Donald B. DeCorte, who has served
AWS at the national, District, and Section
levels and WEMCO, an Association of
Industry Leaders Recognized at FABTECH
AWS Taps Incoming Classes of Fellows and Counselors
The AWS 2014 board of directors assembled at FABTECH in Chicago, Ill.
Shown, from left, are incoming Class of 2013 Fellows Muralidhar Tumuluru and Dennis D. Harwig, and Counselors Donald B. DeCorte,
Douglas R. Luciani, James Horvath, Lowell W. Mott, and William A. Komlos, and Class of 2014 Counselor Robert Paul Matteson.
FEBRUARY 2014 74
Welding Equipment Manufacturers, and
the Resistance Welder Manufacturing Al-
liance (RWMA), was cited for his support
of RoMan Mfg. Co. employees becoming
involved in AWS, RWMA, and ISO activ-
ities, and for his excellence in training and
education of welding personnel.
James Horvath was cited for his many
years of service as a liaison between com-
pany and customers. He is known as the
go-to guy to solve complex field sales is-
sues. He has introduced young people to
the welding field by consistently demon-
strating his commitment to the industry
and participating in numerous volunteer
leadership activities.
William A. Komlos was cited for his
significant role in successfully directing
many large-scale welding projects includ-
ing the Space Shuttle, Hoover Dam, and
the Large-Blast Thermal Simulator, his
continued contributions to training of
welding personnel, and for his volunteer
leadership roles within the Society.
Douglas R. Luciani was cited for his
contributions to AWS and Canadian weld-
ing standards and his leadership role in
developing the Canadian Welding Bureau
(CWB) into a successful organization by
adding a nondestructive evaluation train-
ing organization (INTEG) component
and increasing CWBs involvement with
the International Institute of Welding
(IIW) and the International Standards
Organization (ISO).
Lowell W. Mott was cited for his 49
years of service at Hobart Brothers Co.
where he rose through the ranks to serve
as director of research; and for his expert-
ise and many contributions to the elec-
troslag, submerged arc, and small-diame-
ter flux cored wire welding processes.
Inducted into the 2014 Class of Coun-
selors, Robert Paul Matteson was cited for
his accomplishments as chief engineer and
director of technology at Taylor Winfield
Technologies where he invented the twin
lap seam welding machine for advanced
high-strength steels. A renowned expert
on resistance welding, he has authored
chapters in the ASM Metals Handbook
and trained welding professionals for ten
years in the school sponsored by the Re-
sistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance.
Comfort A. Adams
Lecture Award
This award is presented to an outstand-
ing scientist or engineer for a lecture de-
scribing a new or distinctive development
in the field of welding. The lecture is pre-
sented at the FABTECH show.
Welding of nickel-base alloys for
energy applications
John N. DuPont, an AWS Fellow, is R.
D. Stout Distinguished Professor at
Lehigh University, associate director of
the Energy Research Center, and holds a
joint appointment in the Mechanical En-
gineering Department. DuPont is a Prin-
cipal Peer Reviewer for the Welding Jour-
nal and a member of the AWS Awards,
Research & Development, Handbook,
Conference, and Technical Papers Com-
mittees, and serves on the EWI Navy Join-
ing Center Technical Advisory Board.
Adams Memorial
Membership Award
This award recognizes educators for out-
standing teaching activities in undergradu-
ate and postgraduate engineering institu-
tions.
Robert W. Warke, a licensed Profes-
sional engineer in Texas, is an associate
professor of engineering at LeTourneau
University. He conducts research and
teaches materials engineering, welding
metallurgy, and design of structural weld-
ments. He has 17 years of experience in
industry, consulting, and performing ap-
plied research.
Howard E. Adkins Memorial
Instructor Membership Award
This award recognizes instructors for
outstanding teaching accomplishments at
the high school, trade school, technical in-
stitute, and community college levels.
Greg Siepert is chairman of the AWS
Kansas Section, a Certified Welding In-
spector, and Certified Welding Educator.
He has taught welding and machine tech-
nology at Hutchinson Community Col-
lege for six years and previously taught
these courses at Central Texas College.
Robert J. Conkling Memorial Award
2013 SkillsUSA Championships
Gold Medalist Schools
FIRST PLACE HIGH SCHOOL
Blackstone Valley RVTHS
Upton, Mass.
FIRST PLACE POSTSECONDARY
Cuesta Community College
San Luis Obispo, Calif.
A. F. Davis Silver Medal Award
This medal is awarded to the authors of
papers published in the Welding Journal
during the previous calendar year that rep-
Achievement Awards Presented at FABTECH
John DuPont Robert Warke Greg Siepert
Yangyang Fan
Chunli Yang Sanbao Lin
Chenglei Fan Wenge Liu YeFei Zhou
Y. L. Yang
D. Li J. Yang
75 WELDING JOURNAL
resent the best contributions to the progress
of welding in the categories of Machine De-
sign; Maintenance and Surfacing, and
Structural Design.
MACHINE DESIGN
Ultrasonic wave assisted GMAW
Yangyang Fan is a welding engineer at
DongFang Electric Corp. in China.
Chunli Yang and Sanbao Lin are pro-
fessors and Chenglei Fan is an associate
professor at Harbin Institute of Technol-
ogy, China.
Wenge Liu is a welding engineer at
Shanghai Electric Nuclear Power Equip-
ment Co., Ltd., of China.
MAINTENANCE AND SURFACING
Effect of titanium content on
microstructure and wear resistance of
Fe-Cr-C hardfacing layers
YeFei Zhou is a PhD candidate at Yan-
shan University, P. R. China.
Y. L. Yang is vice president of Yanshan
University.
D. Li is with Southwest Jiaotong Uni-
versity and MCC CISDI Engineering Co.
J. Yang is a PhD student at Yanshan
University.
Y. W. Jiang is with Shougang Technol-
ogy Research Institute.
X. J. Ren is a professor at Liverpool
John Moores University, UK.
Q. X. Yang is vice president, College of
Materials Science and Engineering, Yan-
shan University.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
An evaluation of the cross-tension test
of resistance spot welds in
high-strength dual-phase steels
David J. Radakovic and Muralidhar
Tumuluru, an AWS Fellow, are with U. S.
Steel Research and Technology.
Distinguished Welder Award
This award is presented to individuals
who have exceptional skills and experiences
related to all aspects of the art of welding.
George F. Bane, a Certified Welding
Inspector, is a welding instructor at Rock
Valley College, Rockford, Ill.
Anthony Sanchez, owner of A & F
Welding, Inc., in West Valley City, Utah,
is renowned for his welded sculptures.
W. H. Hobart Memorial Award
This award recognizes the authors of the
paper published in the Welding Journal
during the previous calendar year that de-
scribes the best contribution to pipe weld-
ing, structural use of pipe or similar appli-
cations, excluding the manufacture of pipe.
Double stage plasma arc
pipe welding process
Xiangrong R. Li is a senior firmware/
hardware engineer at OSRAM Sylvania,
Danvers, Mass.
Zeng Shao is an electrical engineer at
Adaptive Intelligent Systems, LLC, Lex-
ington, Ky.
YuMing Zhang, an AWS Fellow, holds
the James R. Boyd Professorship in Elec-
trical Engineering at the University of
Kentucky. He is also president of Adap-
tive Intelligent Systems, LLC, a developer
of welding technologies.
Honorary Membership Award
This award is presented to persons of ac-
knowledged eminence in the welding pro-
fession or who are credited with exceptional
accomplishments in the industry.
Michael Bileca, founder and president
of Towncare Dental Partnerships, Inc., is
a member of the Florida House of Rep-
resentatives where he chairs the Choice
and Innovation Education Committee.
Orlando Alonso Jr. is the principal ar-
chitect of QA Architecture and CEO of
The Architectural Development Group.
International Meritorious
Certificate Award
This award is given in recognition of an
individuals significant contributions to the
worldwide welding industry. The award re-
flects service to the international welding
community in the broadest terms.
Nigel Scotchmer is president of Huys
Industries, a supplier of resistance weld-
ing equipment and consumables based in
Toronto with additional facilities in
Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
William Irrgang Memorial Award
This award is presented to the individ-
ual who has done the most to enhance the
American Welding Societys goal of advanc-
ing the science and technology of welding
over the last five years.
Patricio Mendez holds the Weldco/In-
dustry Chair in Welding and Joining and
is the director of the Canadian Centre for
Welding and Joining at the University of
Alberta, Canada.
Charles H. Jennings
Memorial Award
This award is presented for the most
valuable paper written by a college student
or faculty representative published in the
Welding Journal during the previous cal-
endar year.
Modeling of human welder
response to 3D weld pool surface:
Part I Principles
WeiJie Zhang is a research assistant
and PhD candidate at the University of
Y. W. Jiang X. J. Ren Q. X. Yang David Radakovic
M. Tumuluru
George Bane
Anthony Sanchez Xiangrong Li Zeng Shao YuMing Zhang Michael Bileca Orlando Alonzo Jr.
FEBRUARY 2014 76
Kentucky Welding Research Laboratory.
YuMing Zhang, an AWS Fellow, holds
the James R. Boyd Professorship in Elec-
trical Engineering at the University of
Kentucky. He is also president of Adap-
tive Intelligent Systems, LLC, a developer
of welding technologies.
McKay-Helm Award
This award recognizes the best contribu-
tion to the advancement of knowledge of
low-alloy steel, stainless steel, or surfacing
welding metals, involving the use, develop-
ment, or testing of these materials, as repre-
sented by articles published in the Welding
Journal during the previous calendar year.
Effect of the consumable on the
properties of gas metal arc welded
EN1.4003-type stainless steel
Emel Taban is vice director of the
Welding Research, Education, and Train-
ing Center at Kocaeli University, Turkey.
Alfred Dhooge has served as director
of the Belgian Welding Institute and is a
Ghent University engineering professor.
Erdinc Kaluc is director of the Weld-
ing Research Center and a professor of
engineering at Kocaeli University.
Eddy Deleu is with the Research Cen-
ter of the Belgian Welding Institute.
Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award
This award is presented to an individual
who has made significant contributions to
the advancement of science and technology
of materials joining through research and
development.
Peter Mayr is a professor of welding
engineering and the director of the Insti-
tute of Joining and Assembly at Chem-
nitz University of Technology, Germany.
His research involves dissimilar material
joints and high-performance welding
processes.
Samuel Wylie Miller
Memorial Medal Award
This award is presented for meritorious
achievements that have contributed con-
spicuously to the advancement of the art and
science of welding and cutting.
Phillip I. Temple, since retiring, has
provided technical support for welding,
materials, failure analysis, and design
specifications for the DOE Savannah
River Site and DTE Energy, and is presi-
dent of eNergy Wise Consulting, LLC.
National Meritorious Award
This award is given in recognition of good
counsel, loyalty, and devotion to the affairs
of the Society; assistance in promoting cor-
dial relations with industry and other organ-
izations; and for the contribution of time
and effort on behalf of the Society.
Joseph R. Crisci, an AWS Life Mem-
ber and Fellow of ASM International, has
worked for the U.S. Navy in ship hull ma-
terials research and chaired the ASM
Washington, D.C., Chapter. He serves on
the AWS B4.0 Committee on the Me-
chanical Testing of Welds, ISO/TC44/SC
05 Committee, and has served on the AWS
Technical Activities Committee.
Stephen V. Houston, with American
Technical Publishers, serves on the AWS
Committee on Education and chaired the
Subcommittee on SENSE (Schools Ex-
celling through National Skill Standards
Education), and serves on the SkillsUSA
national welding technical committee.
Previously, he worked with Hobart Insti-
tute of Welding Technology and as a
trainer at Hobart Corporation.
Robert L. Peaslee Memorial
Brazing Award
This award recognizes the paper consid-
ered to be the best contribution to the sci-
ence or technology of brazing published in
the Welding Journal during the previous
calendar year.
A composite solder alloy preform
for high-temperature lead-free
soldering applications
Weiping Liu is a research metallurgist,
Paul Bachorik is a research assistant, and
Ning-Cheng Lee is vice president of tech-
nology at Indium Corporation.
Plummer Memorial Education
Lecture Award
This award recognizes outstanding con-
tributions to the national education lectures
presented at the annual AWS convention
held during FABTECH.
The future of welding education
W. Richard Polanin is a Certified Weld-
ing Inspector and a professor and program
chair of the manufacturing engineering
and welding technology programs at Illi-
nois Central College. A long-time AWS
member, he served two terms as District
13 director.
Robotic and Automatic
Arc Welding Award
This award recognizes significant indi-
vidual achievements in the area of robotic
arc welding. The work can include the in-
troduction of a new technology, establish-
ment of the proper infrastructure (training,
service, etc.) to enable success and any other
activity having significantly improved the
state of a company and/or industry.
Christopher T. Anderson is welding
product marketing manager and leader of
Nigel Scotchmer Patricio Mendez
WeiJie Zhang Emel Taban Alfred Dhooge Erdinc Kaluc
Eddy Deleu
Peter Mayr
Phillip Temple Joseph Crisci Stephen Houston
Weiping Liu
the Welding Working Group at Yaskawa
Motoman where he develops new prod-
ucts. He has served several years with the
Robotic Industries Association Robot
Safety Committee, been active with the
AWS Dayton Section, and served on the
AWS D16 Committee on Robotic and
Automatic Welding since 1985.
Warren F. Savage Memorial Award
This award recognizes the paper pub-
lished in the Welding Journal Research
Supplement during the previous calendar
year that best represents innovative research
resulting in a better understanding of the
metallurgical principles related to welding.
Continuous cooling transformation
behavior in the CGHAZ of Naval steels
Xin Yue works on pipeline welding
projects at ExxonMobil Upstream Re-
search Co. in Houston, Tex.
John C. Lippold, an AWS Fellow and
Fellow of ASM International, is a profes-
sor in the welding engineering program
at The Ohio State University (OSU).
Boian T. Alexandrov, a research sci-
entist at the OSU welding engineering
program, is an expert with advanced al-
loys and welding metallurgy.
Sudarsanam Suresh Babu, an OSU
welding engineering faculty member, has
been recently appointed University of
Tennessee-Oak Ridge National Labora-
tory Governors Chair.
William Spraragen
Memorial Award
This award is presented to the author of
the best paper published in the Welding
Journal Research Supplement during the
previous calendar year.
Partial transient liquid phase
diffusion brazing of copper-beryllium alloy
(C17200) using silver-based interlayer
Mehdi Mazar Atabaki is a research as-
sistant in the Southern Methodist Uni-
versity Research Center for Advanced
Manufacturing in Dallas, Tex.
R. D. Thomas Memorial Award
This award is presented to a member of
the American Council of the International
Institute of Welding (IIW) or to an AWS
member who has made a substantial con-
tribution to IIW activities.
Teresa Melfi, chair of the AWS A5B
Subcommittee on Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steel Electrodes, is an engineer in The
Lincoln Electric Co. Research and De-
velopment department. She serves as a
U.S. Delegate to the IIW and currently
chairs its technical commission on pres-
sure vessels and pipelines.
Elihu Thomson
Resistance Welding Award
This award is presented for an outstand-
ing contribution to the technology and ap-
plication of resistance welding, including
equipment, innovations, unique applica-
tions in production, a paper published in
the Welding Journal or other prestigious
publication, or other activity of merit.
Roger B. Hirsch is president of Uni-
trol Electronics, Inc., a supplier of resist-
ance welding (RW) controls. He devel-
oped the Soft Touch fully passive sensor
system to prevent pinch-point injuries,
and has authored numerous articles on
RW and chaired the Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance (RWMA) com-
mittee that developed Bulletin 5 that
standardizes RW terminology.
George E. Willis Award
This award is presented to an individ-
ual for promoting the advancement of weld-
ing internationally for fostering cooperative
participation in areas such as technology
transfer, standards rationalization, and pro-
motion of industrial goodwill.
Duane K. Miller is the primary pre-
senter of the The Lincoln Electric Co.
Blodgett Design Seminars, chair of the
AWS D1 Committee on Structural Weld-
ing, and a member of the AWS Technical
Activities Committee. He is a Certified
Welding Inspector and a Qualified
Welder who has chaired the Seismic
Welding Subcommittee and the
AASHTO-AWS Bridge Welding Sub-
committee.
77 WELDING JOURNAL
Boian Alexandrov Suresh Babu Roger Hirsch Duane Miller Mehdi Atabaki Teresa Melfi
Xin Yue John Lippold W. Richard Polanin Christopher Anderson Paul Bachorik Ning-Cheng Lee
FEBRUARY 2014 78
AWS President Nancy Cole presents Gold Member Certificates to (from left) Norman Crump, Gerald Hill, Laurie Jones, Edward Yevick, and
Robert Zimny. The certificate is presented for 50 years of membership in the Society.
Member Anniversaries Recognized at FABTECH
In both photos above, AWS President Nancy Cole presents Life Member Certificates to members with 35 years of service. The recipients in-
cluded David Austin, Douglas Boes, Michael Bolduc, Linda Brissey, Alexander Caploon, Stan David, Gary Dugger, Steve Fyffe, Jesse
Grantham, John Grocki, Robert Henson, Dale Hill, Mark Hineman, Gary Ireland, Joseph Lacay, Michael Ludwig, Lawrence Martin, Albert
Moore, Joseph Morin, Terence Profughi, Geoff Putnam, Raymond Roberts, Edward Smith, Albert Tiu, Gary Wallerich, and Glenn Ziegenfuss.
79 WELDING JOURNAL
In both photos above, AWS President Nancy Cole presents Silver Member Certificates to members with 25 years of service to the Society. The
recipients included Donald Anderson, James Archer, Christopher Bailey, Randy Bowers, Edward Calaman, Carl Corbin, Stephen Dangel,
Randy Emery, Zhili Feng, William Harker, Brian Henrickson, Steven Howard, John Knapp, John La Monica, Harish Ledwani, Bernard
Marini, Scott McGregor, John Panetti, Jack Roszelle, Steven Snyder, Paul Sturgill, Mark Varcoe, Robert Warke, and Dean Whitmer.
Shown are (from left) are Sam Gentry,
Boston Section chair Jeff Mannette, and
Gerald Uttrachi.
Shown are (from left) Sam Gentry, Colum-
bus Section chair John Lawmon, and Ger-
ald Uttrachi.
Representing the Iowa Section are (from left)
Bob Kephart, John Shaw, Joe Bailey, and
AWS Vice President David Landon.
Sections Recognized at FABTECH for Establishing New Scholarships
FEBRUARY 2014 80
Shown are (from left) Sam Gentry, Dist. 16
Director Dennis Wright, Jason Miles, Roger
Morris, and Gerald Uttrachi.
At the Philadelphia Section presentation are
(from left) Sam Gentry, Dist. 2 Director Har-
land Thompson, Marinee Temme, and Ger-
ald Uttrachi.
The Washington, D.C. Section banner is dis-
played by (from left) Sam Gentry, Dist. 3 Di-
rector Mike Wiswesser, and Gerald Uttrachi.
The Willamette Valley Section banner is dis-
played by (from left) Sam Gentry, Dist. 19
Director Ken Johnson, and Gerald Uttrachi.
Saginaw Valley Section Chair Keith Steelman
(center) is shown with Sam Gentry (left) and
Gerald Uttrachi.
Shown with the Tidewater Section banner
are (from left) Sam Gentry, Ron Hunnicutt,
Dist. 4 Director Stewart Harris, and Gerald
Uttrachi.
George Rolla (center), chair, Los Angeles-In-
land Empire Section, is shown with Sam
Gentry (left) and Gerald Uttrachi.
Shown are (from left) William Harris,
Pascagoula Section Chair Cynthia Harris,
and Dist. 9 Director George Fairbanks.
AWS Membership Raffle
Prize Winners Announced
A special membership promotion was
held at the AWS Booth during
FABTECH in Chicago. Those who
joined or renewed their membership for
two years or more received their choice
of an American Welder ceramic mug or
an AWS glass mug, and were entered in
a raffle to win gift cards. The raffle win-
ners were
Kap Choi, Morrisville, N.C., $100
American Express gift card;
Ken Phy, Syracuse, N.Y., $100 Ameri-
can Express gift card; and
Timothy Crowder, Frankfort, Ind.,
$100 VISA gift card.
81 WELDING JOURNAL
Tech Topics
Interpretation
D1.5M/D1.5
Bridge Welding Code
Subject: Reinforcing Fillet Welds
Code Edition: D1.5M/D1.5:2002
Code Provision: Subclause 2.8.1.1 and
Figure 2.4, TC-U5-S Joint
AWS Log: D1.5-02-I10
Inquiry: Regarding the reinforcing filler
weld specified by subclause 2.8.1.1 and
Figure 2.4 Details of Welded Joints for
CJP Groove Welds on a TC-U5-S (or any
corner joint), which of the figures (Fig. A
or B shown below) shows the acceptable
desired face angle of a TC-U5-S joint re-
inforcing fillet weld (as shown by dotted
lines), that is either welded separately or
is an integral part of the larger weld?
Response: The intent of a reinforcing fil-
let weld is to provide a gradual transition
of the weld face to the base metal. Figure
A does not accomplish this purpose. Fig-
ure B meets this intent. The fillet weld
need not be concave as shown in Fig. B.
Interpretation
C3.7M/C3.7
Specification for Aluminum Brazing
Subject: Vacuum furnace leak rate test re-
quirements
Code Edition: C3.7M/C3.7:2011
Code Provision: Subclause 5.4.2 (Vacuum
Furnaces)
AWS Log: C3.7-11-I01
Inquiry: Does the procedure below meet
the vacuum furnace leak rate test require-
ments in AWS C3.7M/C3.7:2011?
Leak-up rate measurement shall be
started after furnace has been continu-
ously operated or baked well. After ex-
hausting the furnace to less than 0.65 Pa,
let HVV (High Vacuum Valve) close con-
dition. 15 minutes later; increasing pres-
sure in the furnace shall be measured.
Control range: less than 0.65 Pa/15 min-
utes (2.6 Pa/60 minutes).
Response: Yes
D14.3 Amendment Notice
View and download this and all AWS
Amendments at this website:
www.aws.org/w/a/technical/amendments.
D14.3/D14.3M:2010 AMD1
Specification for Welding Earthmoving,
Construction, and Agricultural Equipment
This Amendment reflects numerical
changes made to a group of prequalified
weld joints within Annex A as well as
minor AWS document title updates, and
clause and table references within the
body of the document.
New Standards Projects
Development work has begun on the
following revised or reaffirmed standards.
Affected individuals are invited to con-
tribute to the development of these stan-
dards. To participate, contact the secre-
tary listed with the document. Participa-
tion on AWS Technical Committees is
open to all persons.
B2.1-1-016:20XX, Standard Welding
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
(M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2),
1
8 inch [3 mm]
through 1
1
2 inch [38 mm] Thick, E7018, in
the As-Welded or PWHT Condition, Prima-
rily Plate and Structural Applications. This
standard contains the essential welding
variables for carbon steel in the thickness
range shown, using manual shielded metal
arc welding. It cites the base metals and
operating conditions necessary to make
the weldment, the filler metal specifica-
tions, and the allowable joint designs for
fillet and groove welds. This SWPS was
developed primarily for plate and struc-
tural applications. Stakeholders: Welding
industry. Revised. J. Rosario, ext. 308.
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel
(M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2)
1
8 inch [3 mm]
through 1
1
2 inch [38 mm] Thick, E6010, in
the As-Welded or PWHT Condition, Prima-
rily Plate and Structural Applications. This
standard contains the essential welding
variables for carbon steel in the thickness
arc welding. It cites the base metals and
operating conditions necessary to make
the weldment, the filler metal specifica-
tions, and the allowable joint designs for
fillet and groove welds. This SWPS was
Procedure (SWPS) for Self-Shielded Flux
Cored Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-
1, Group 1 or 2)
1
8 inch [3 mm] through 1
1
2
inch [38 mm] Thick, E71T-8, in the As-
Welded Condition, Primarily Plate and
Structural Applications. This standard con-
tains the essential welding variables for
carbon steel in the thickness range shown,
using semiautomatic self-shielded flux
cored arc welding. It cites the base met-
als and operating conditions necessary to
make the weldment, the filler metal spec-
ifications, and the allowable joint designs
for fillet and groove welds. This SWPS was
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for CO
2
Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding of Car-
bon Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or 2),
1
8 inch
[3 mm] through 1
1
2 inch [38 mm] Thick,
E70T-1 and E71T-1, in the As-Welded Con-
dition, Primarily Plate and Structural Ap-
plications. This standard contains the es-
sential welding variables for carbon steel
in the thickness range shown, using semi-
automatic CO
2
shielded flux cored arc
welding. It cites the base metals and op-
erating conditions necessary to make the
weldment, the filler metal specifications,
and the allowable joint designs for fillet
and groove welds. This SWPS was devel-
oped primarily for plate and structural ap-
plications. Stakeholders: Welding indus-
try. Revised. J. Rosario, ext. 308.
Procedure Specification (SWPS) for 75%
Ar/25% CO2 Shielded Flux Cored Arc Weld-
ing of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1, Group 1 or
2),
1
1
2 inch [38 mm]
Thick, E70T-1 and E71T-1, in the As-
Erratum
AWS A5.1/A5.1M:2012
Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes
for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
Page 16, Table 7, Chemical Composition
Requirements for Weld Metal
Change column header
Weight Percent
b
to
Weight Percent
b,c
by adding the foot-
note ccallout.
FEBRUARY 2014 82
Welded or PWHT Condition, Primarily Plate
and Structural Applications. This standard
contains the essential welding variables for
carbon steel in the thickness range shown,
using semiautomatic Ar/CO
2
shielded flux
cored arc welding. It cites the base metals
and operating conditions necessary to
make the weldment, the filler metal speci-
fications, and the allowable joint designs
for fillet and groove welds. This SWPS was
B2.1-1-021:20XX, Standard Welding Pro-
cedure Specification (SWPS) for Gas Tung-
sten Arc Welding Followed by Shielded Metal
Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1,
Group 1 or 2)
1
1
2
inch [38 mm] Thick, ER70S-2 and E7018,
in the As-Welded or PWHT Condition, Pri-
marily Plate and Structural Applications.
This standard contains the essential weld-
ing variables for carbon steel in the thick-
ness range shown, using manual gas tung-
sten arc welding followed by shielded metal
arc welding. It cites the base metals and op-
and the allowable joint designs for fillet and
groove welds. This SWPS was developed
primarily for plate and structural applica-
tions. Stakeholders: Welding industry. Re-
vised. J. Rosario, ext. 308.
cedure Specification (SWPS) for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-
1, Group 1 or 2),
1
1
2
inch [38 mm] Thick, E6010 (Vertical Up-
hill) Followed by E7018, in the As-Welded or
PWHT Condition, Primarily Plate and Struc-
tural Applications. This standard contains
the essential welding variables for carbon
steel in the thickness range shown, using
manual shielded metal arc welding. It cites
the base metals and operating conditions
necessary to make the weldment, the filler
metal specifications, and the allowable
joint designs for fillet and groove welds.
This SWPS was developed primarily for
plate and structural applications. Stake-
holders: Welding industry. Revised. J.
Rosario, ext. 308.
Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-
1, Group 1 or 2)
1
1
2
inch [38 mm] Thick, E6010 (Vertical Down-
hill) Followed by E7018, in the As-Welded or
PWHT Condition, Primarily Plate and Struc-
the essential welding variables for carbon
steel in the thickness range shown, using
manual shielded metal arc welding. It cites
the base metals and operating conditions
necessary to make the weldment, the filler
metal specifications, and the allowable
joint designs for fillet and groove welds.
This SWPS was developed primarily for
plate and structural applications. Stake-
holders: Welding industry. Revised. J.
Rosario, ext. 308.
Metal Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless
Steel (M-8/P-8 Group 1)
1
8 inch [3 mm]
through 1
1
2 inch [38 mm] Thick, in the As-
Welded Condition, Primarily Plate and Struc-
the essential welding variables for
austenitic stainless steel in the thickness
arc welding. It cites the base metals and op-
and the allowable joint designs for fillet and
groove welds. This SWPS was developed
primarily for plate and structural applica-
tions. Stakeholders: Welding industry. Re-
vised. J. Rosario, ext. 308.
D14.8M:201X (ISO/TR 17844:2004
IDT), Standard Methods for the Avoidance
of Cold Cracks. This is the U.S. national
adoption of ISO 17844:2004, Welding
Comparison of standardized methods for the
avoidance of cold cracks. Stakeholders: Ma-
chinery & Equipment Community. Reaf-
firmed. E. Abrams, ext. 307.
Technical Committee Meetings
All AWS technical committee meetings
are open to the public. To attend a meet-
ing, call the commitee secretary (305) 443-
9353 at the extention shown.
Feb. 13, D3B Subcommittee on Under-
water Welding. New Orleans, La. B. Mc-
Grath, ext. 311.
Feb. 25, B5I Subcommittee on Welding
Supervisor Programs, and B5J Subcommit-
tee on Welder Test Facilities. Miami, Fla.
S. Hedrick, ext. 305.
Feb. 26, B5F Subcommittee on Welding
Technicians, and Committee on Personnel
& Facilities Qualification. Miami, Fla. S.
Hedrick, ext. 305.
March 11, D15C Subcommittee on
Track Welding. St. Louis, Mo. J. Rosario,
ext. 308.
March 12, D15 Committee on Railroad
Welding; D15A Subcommittee on Cars and
Locomotives, St. Louis, Mo. J. Rosario, ext.
308.
March 19, 20, A5 Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials. Orlando, Fla.
R. Gupta, ext. 301.
March 27, 28, D16 Committee on Ro-
botic and Automatic Welding. Columbus,
Ohio. C. Lewis, ext. 306.
April 14, D1 Committee and Subcom-
mittees on Structural Welding. Miami, Fla.
B. McGrath, ext. 311.
Joining of Plastics and Composites G1
Committee seeks educators, users, general
interest, and consultants. S. Hedrick,
steveh@aws.org.
Methods of Weld Inspection, The B1
Committee seeks educators, general inter-
est, and end users. E. Abrams,
eabrams@aws.org.
Safety and Health Committee seeks ed-
ucators, users, general interest, and con-
sultants. S. Hedrick, steveh@aws.org.
Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, C4
Committee seeks educators, general inter-
est, and end users. C. Lewis,
clewis@aws.org.
Friction welding, C6 Committee seeks
professionals. C. Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
High energy beam welding and cutting,
C7 Committee seeks professionals. C.
Lewis, clewis@aws.org.
Magnesium alloy filler metals, A5L
Subcommittee seeks professionals. R.
Gupta, gupta@aws.org.
Robotic and automatic welding, D16
Committee seeks general interest and ed-
ucational members. B. McGrath, bmc-
grath@ aws.org.
Local heat treating of pipe, D10P Sub-
committee seeks professionals. B. Mc-
Grath, bmcgrath@aws.org.
Mechanical testing of welds, B4 Com-
mittee seeks professionals. B. McGrath,
bmcgrath@aws.org.
Reactive alloys, G2D Subcommittee
seeks volunteers. A. Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Titanium and zirconium filler metals,
A5K Subcommittee seeks professionals. A.
Diaz, adiaz@aws.org.
Welding qualifications, B2B Subcommit-
tee seeks members. J. Rosario,
jrosario@aws.org.
Friction stir welding of aluminum al-
loys for aerospace applications, D17J Sub-
committee seeks members. J. Rosario,
jrosario@ aws.org.
Resistance welding equipment, J1 Com-
mittee seeks educators, general interest,
and users. E. Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Thermal spraying and automotive weld-
ing, The D8 and C2 Committees seek ed-
ucators, general interest, and end users. E.
Abrams, eabrams@aws.org.
Machinery and equipment and surfac-
ing and reconditioning of industrial mill
rolls, D14 Committee and D14H Subcom-
mittee seek professionals. E. Abrams,
eabrams@ aws.org.
Opportunities to Serve on AWS Technical Committees
Volunteers are sought to contribute to the following technical committees. Visit www.aws.org/technical/jointechcomm.html.
4 Easy Ways to Join or Renew:
Mail: Form with your payment, to AWS Call: Membership Department at (800) 443-9353, ext. 480
Fax: Completed form to (305) 443-5647 Online: www.aws.org/membership
q New Member q Renewal
q Mr. q Ms. q Mrs. q Dr. Please print Duplicate this page as needed
Last Name:_______________________________________________________________________________
First Name:___________________________________________________________________ M.I:_______
Birthdate: _____________________________ E-Mail:____________________________________________
Cell Phone ( )__________________________ Secondary Phone ( )______________________
Were you ever an AWS Member? q YES q NO If YES,give year________ and Member #:____________________
Company (if applicable):___________________________________________________________________
Address:________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
City:_____________________________________State/Province:__________________________________
Zip/PostalCode:_____________________Country:______________________________________________
q Check here if you learned of the Society through an AWS Member? Members name:_______________________Members # (if known):________
q Check here if you would prefer not to receive email updates on AWS programs, new Member benefts, savings opportunities and events.
CONTACT INFORMATION
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP
Type of Business (Check ONE only)
A q Contract construction
B q Chemicals & allied products
C q Petroleum & coal industries
D q Primary metal industries
E q Fabricated metal products
F q Machinery except elect. (incl. gas welding)
G q Electrical equip., supplies, electrodes
H q Transportation equip. air, aerospace
I q Transportation equip. automotive
J q Transportation equip. boats, ships
K q Transportation equip. railroad
L q Utilities
M q Welding distributors & retail trade
N q Misc. repair services (incl. welding shops)
O q Educational Services (univ., libraries, schools)
P q Engineering & architectural services (incl. assns.)
Q q Misc. business services (incl. commercial labs)
R q Government (federal, state, local)
S q Other
Job Classifcation (Check ONE only)
01 q President, owner, partner, ofcer
02 q Manager, director, superintendent (or assistant)
03 q Sales
04 q Purchasing
05 q Engineer welding
20 q Engineer design
21 q Engineer manufacturing
06 q Engineer other
10 q Architect designer
12 q Metallurgist
13 q Research & development
22 q Quality control
07 q Inspector, tester
08 q Supervisor, foreman
14 q Technician
09 q Welder, welding or cutting operator
11 q Consultant
15 q Educator
17 q Librarian
16 q Student
18 q Customer Service
19 q Other
Technical Interests (Check all that apply)
A q Ferrous metals
B q Aluminum
C q Nonferrous metals except aluminum
D q Advanced materials/Intermetallics
E q Ceramics
F q High energy beam processes
G q Arc welding
H q Brazing and soldering
I q Resistance welding
J q Thermal spray
K q Cutting
L q NDT
M q Safety and health
N q Bending and shearing
O q Roll forming
P q Stamping and punching
Q q Aerospace
R q Automotive
S q Machinery
T q Marine
U q Piping and tubing
V q Pressure vessels and tanks
W q Sheet metal
X q Structures
Y q Other
Z q Automation
1 q Robotics
2 q Computerization of Welding
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (One Year)..................................................................................................$84
q AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP (Two Years) SAVE $25 New Members Only....................................$143
q New Member Initiation Fee ...........................................................................................................................................$12
OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO AWS INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS ONLY:
A.) OPTIONAL Book Selection (Choose from 25 titles; up to a $192 value; includes shipping & handling)
q Individual Members in the U.S..................................................................................................................................$35
q Individual Members outside the U.S (includes International shipping)...........................................................................$85
ONLY ONE SELECTION PLEASE. For more book choices visit www.aws.org/membership
q Jefersons Welding Encyclopedia (CD-ROM only) q Design & Planning Manual for Cost-Efective Welding q Welding Metallurgy
Welding Handbook Selections: q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 4) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 3) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 2) q WH (9th Ed., Vol. 1)
Pocket Handbook Selections: q PHB-1 (Arc Welding Steel) q PHB-2 (Visual Inspection) q PHB-4 (GMAW / FCAW)
B.) OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (for Members outside North America)
q Individual Members outside North America (note: digital delivery of WJ is standard)..............................................$50
INDIVIDUAL MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT..................................................................................$_____________
NOTE: Dues include $18.70 for Welding Journal subscription and $4.00 for the AWS Foundation.
8669 NW 36 St, # 130
Miami, FL 33166-6672
Telephone (800) 443-9353
FAX (305) 443-5647
Visit our website: www.aws.org
PAYMENT INFORMATION
Payment can be made (in U.S. dollars) by check or money order (international or foreign), payable to the American Welding Society, or by charge card.
q Check q Money Order q AMEX q Diners Club q MasterCard q Visa q Discover q Other
CC#:____________ / ____________ / ____________ / ____________ Expiration Date (mm/yy) ________ / ________
Signature of Applicant:_________________________________________ Application Date:_______________________
OFFICE USE ONLY Check #:_______________________________ Account #____________________________________
Source Code: WJ Date:_________________________________ Amount:_____________________________________
AWS MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP
Please check each box that applies to the Membership or service youd like, and then add the cost together to get your Total Payment.
q AWS STUDENT MEMBERSHIP (One Year)...................................................................................................................$15
q OPTIONAL Welding Journal Hard Copy (Only available to students in the U.S., Canada and Mexico)...........................$20
Note: Hard copy option applies to students in U.S., Canada and Mexico. Digital delivery of magazine is standard beneft for all student members.
STUDENT MEMBERSHIP TOTAL PAYMENT......................................................................................$_____________
REV. 11/13
85 WELDING JOURNAL
Candidates Sought for Welding-Related Awards
William Irrgang Memorial Award
This award is given to the individual who has done the most
over the past five years to enhance the Societys goal of advanc-
ing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500
honorarium and a certificate.
Honorary Membership Award
This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession,
or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in the
development of the welding art. Honorary Members have full
rights of membership.
Nat. Meritorious Certificate Award
This award recognizes the recipients counsel, loyalty, and
dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial rela-
tions with industry and other organizations, and for contribu-
tions of time and effort on behalf of the Society.
George E. Willis Award
This award is given to an individual who promoted the ad-
vancement of welding internationally by fostering coopera-
tive participation in technology transfer, standards rationali-
zation, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a
$2500 honorarium.
International Meritorious Certificate Award
This honor recognizes recipients significant contributions to
the welding industry for service to the international welding com-
munity in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificate
and a one-year AWS membership.
The deadline for nominating candidates for the following awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Contact
Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.
AWS Offers Online Service for Job Seekers
and Employers
Jobfind, an AWS free service for job
seekers, is the right place to start looking
for a job, a better position, or hiring that
needed employee. Here is the meeting
place for welders, CWIs, engineers, tech-
nicians, welding managers, supervisors,
and consultants.
Companies can post, edit, and manage
job listings easily, have access to a rsum
database of qualified people, look for can-
didates who match employments needs
for full- or part-time work, and use either
30-day or unlimited monthly postings at
reasonable cost.
All job seekers enjoy free access to job
listings specific to the materials joining
industry. They can post a public or confi-
dential rsum in a searchable database,
and apply directly online for positions
with prospective employers. They also can
edit a rsum at any time and upload ad-
ditional rsums without cost. Check out
Jobfind online at www.aws.org/jobfind.
AWS Member Counts
Jan. 1, 2014
Sustaining ......................................605
Supporting.....................................342
Educational ...................................668
Affiliate..........................................546
Welding Distributor........................47
Total Corporate ...........................2,208
Individual .................................59,422
Student + Transitional ...............10,185
Total Members.........................69,607
The U.S. TAG (Technical Advisory
Group) that serves as the United States
National Committee to ISO/TC 44/SC 10,
Unification of Requirements in the Field
of Metal Welding, seeks United States ex-
perts to serve on a newly created subgroup
dealing with micro melting diffusion
bonding.
The group is curently working on a new
ISO standard concerning micro joining
of second-generation high-temperature
superconductors.
For complete information, contact An-
drew Davis, managing director, technical
services, adavis@aws.org.
U.S. Experts Sought to Develop ISO Standard on
Micro Melting Diffusion Bonding
November 1, 2014, is the deadline for
submitting nominations for the 2014 Prof.
Koichi Masubuchi Award. This award in-
cludes a $5000 honorarium. It is presented
each year to one person, 40 years old or
younger, who has made significant contri-
butions to the advancement of materials
joining through research and develop-
ment. Nominations should include a de-
scription of the candidates experience,
list of publications, honors, and awards,
and at least three letters of recommenda-
tion from fellow researchers. The award
is sponsored by the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology Dept. of Ocean Engi-
neering. E-mail your nomination package
to Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor,
The Pennsylvania State University,
tap103@psu.edu.
Nominate Your Candidate for the Masubuchi Award
FEBRUARY 2014 86
New AWS Supporters
New Sustaining Members
Mainstar Co., Ltd.
First Floor Stamford House
Northenden Road Sale
Manchester, M33 2DH, UK
Representative: John Toal
www.mainstargroup.com
Universal Industries, Inc.
5800 Nordic Dr.
Cedar Falls, IA 50613
Representative: Drew McConwell
www.universalindustries.com
Affiliate Companies
A1 Machine Mfg. Co.
3100 Molinaro St.
Santa Clara, CA 95054
Bap Industries LLC
224 Woodies Rd.
Waynesburg, PA 15370
Casey Industrial, Inc.
1400 W. 122nd Ave.
Ste. 200
Westminster, CO 80234
Design Built Mechanical, Inc.
168 Craig St.
Charlo, NB E8E2W8
Canada
F. Vogelmann & Co.
440 Center Rd.
Frankfort, IL 60423
Fabricacion Ingenieria Y Servicio SACV
Ave. Alfonso Reyes 2924
Col Bernardo Reyes
Monterrey, NL 64280
Mexico
Lundahl Ironworks
102 S. 100 W.
PO Box 59
Franklin, ID 83237
Naslan Energy, Inc.
12418 Donna Dr.
Houston, TX 77067
Ray NDT Services Ltd.
#24-2100 Boucherie Rd.
West Kelowna, BC V4T2X1
Canada
Servicios Y Fabricaciones
Mecanicas S.A.C.
Pasaje San Francisco N 218
Ate Lima, Lima, 051Peru
Speed Machine, Inc.
5109 W Lake St., Unit B
Melrose Park, IL 60160
Educational Institutions
Donjon Shipbuilding & Repair LLC
220 E. Bayfront Pkwy.
Erie, PA 16507
Northeast Iowa Community College
680 Main St., Ste. 100
Dubuque, IA 52001
Randolph Community College
110 Park Dr.
Archdale, NC 27263
Rappahannock Community College
12745 College Dr.
Glenns, VA 23149
Workshop for Warriors
2970 Main St.
San Diego, CA 92113
Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
20+ Points
M. Pelegrino, Chicago 216
J. Compton, San Fernando Valley 85
J. Morris, Mobile 75
M. Anderson, Indiana 57
D. Ebenhoe, Kern 50
B. Scherer, Cincinnati 40
K. Rawlins, Columbia 31
S. Lindsey, San Diego 31
R. Richwine, Indiana 30
S. Siviski, Maine 29
B. Trankler, West Tennessee 27
D. Wheeler, Oklahoma City 25
G. Gammill, NE Mississippi 24
R. Hammond, Greater Huntsville 24
D. Saunders, Lakeshore 22
F. Babish, Lehigh Valley 20
C. Daon, Israel 20
R. Jones, Atlanta 20
1119 points
M. Kress, Chattanooga 19
J. Vincent, Kansas City 18
C. Donnell, Northwest Ohio 17
D. Bastian, Northwestern Pa. 16
P. Kreitman, Chicago 15
S. Lathrop, Puget Sound 15
F. Oravets, Pittsburgh 15
S. Schulte, Kansas City 15
J. Terry, Greater Huntsville 15
A. Duron, New Orleans 14
R. Riggs, Tulsa 14
H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 13
J. Goodson, New Orleans 12
S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 12
J. Carney, West Michigan 11
R. Poirier, Tidewater 11
T. Shirk, Tidewater 11
Listed below are the Members partici-
pating in the 2013 AWS Member-Get-A-
Member Campaign. The campaign ran
from June 1, 2013, to Dec. 31, 2013. Mem-
bers received 5 points for each Individual
Member and 1 point for every Student
Member recruited. For campaign rules
and a prize list, see page 83 of this Weld-
ing Journal. For complete campaign rules,
visit www.aws.org/mgm. Standings are as
of Dec. 13. Call (800) 443-9353, ext. 480,
with questions or more information.
87 WELDING JOURNAL
SECTIONNEWS SECTIONNEWS
District 1
Thomas Ferri, director
(508) 527-1884
thomas_ferri@victortechnologies.com
Shown at the Green & White Mountains Section meeting are (from left) Phil Witteman,
Jennifer Eastley, Chair John Steel, Gary Buckley, Geoff Putnam, Rich Fuller, Ernie Plumb,
and Ray Henderson.
Shown at the Long Island Section program are (from left) Eugene Sanquini, Ray OLeary,
Tom Gartland, Alex Duchere, Chair Brian Cassidy, Dist. 2 Director Harland Thompson,
and speaker Deborah McInnis.
Ralph Bailey (right) receives the Life Mem-
ber certificate from Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 direc-
tor, at the Boston Section program.
Warren Ballard (left) receives the Silver
Member certificate from Tom Ferri, Dist. 1
director, at the Boston Section event.
Welding Engineer Alban Geurten (right) is
shown with Bill Mowbray, Philadelphia Sec-
tion chair, at Aker Shipyard.
Life Member Russ Diefenbach is shown at
the Philadelphia Section program.
.BOSTON
NOVEMBER 4
Activity: Tom Ferri, Dist. 1 director, pre-
sented Ralph Bailey the Life Member Cer-
tificate for 35 years of service to the Soci-
ety and the Silver Member Certificate to
Warren Ballard for 25 years of member-
ship.
GREEN & WHITE MTS.
DECEMBER 12
Activity: The Section held an executive
committee meeting at Victor Technologies
in West Lebanon, N.H. Attending were
Chairman John Steel, Gary Buckley, Phil
Witteman, Jennifer Eastley, Geoff Put-
nam, Rich Fuller, Ernie Plumb, and Ray
Henderson.
LONG ISLAND
DECEMBER 5
Speaker: Deborah McInnis
Topic: Setting up Facebook and other on-
line accounts to promote Section activi-
ties
Activity: The program was held in West-
bury, N.Y.
PHILADELPHIA
NOVEMBER 6
Activity: The Section members met at
Aker Shipyard in Philadelphia, Pa., for
demonstrations of the welding processes
used to fabricate tankers and cargo ships.
Alban Geurten, welding engineer, and Jim
Clark, manager of training, conducted the
program.
District 2
Harland W. Thompson, director
(631) 546-2903
harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com
District 3
Michael Wiswesser, director
(610) 820-9551
mike@wtti.com
FEBRUARY 2014 88
District 4
Stewart A. Harris, director
(919) 764-4000
Steward.Harris@Altec.com
Southwest Virginia Section members are shown during their tour of New River Truck Plant.
Speaker Eric Hilty (left) is shown with John
Menhart, Pittsburgh Section chair.
Shown at the Triangle Section program are (from left) Chair Russell Wahrman, Brian Wearly, Gary Cleveland, Carl Harris, Jay Manning,
Robert Long, Howard Parker, James Bowen, Kenny Duncan, and Damian Kotecki.
Presenter Dave Watson (left) and Cameron
Leaky, winner in the virtual welding contest,
are shown at the Lancaster Section event.
Presenter Jamie von Stevens (left) is shown
with Kevin Rawlins at the Columbia Section
event.
CUMBERLAND VALLEY
OCTOBER 2
Speaker: Jim Hale, welding instructor
Affiliation: IAIW, Local 5
Topic: NASCAR welding and fabrication
Activity: About 25 members attended the
event, held in Hagerstown, Md.
LANCASTER
OCTOBER 15
Speaker: Dave Watson, sales engineer
Affiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.
Topic: Using the VRTEX 360
Activity: Following the talk, the members
competed for highest scores in using the
VRTEX virtual reality arc welding
trainer. The winner, Cameron Leaky, re-
ceived a welding helmet.
TRIANGLE
NOVEMBER 21
Speaker: Robert Long, department head
Affiliation: Johnston Community College
Topic: His career in welding
Activity: Damian Kotecki, AWS president
20052006, attended the program.
COLUMBIA
OCTOBER 17
Speaker: Jamie von Stevens, blacksmith
Affiliation: The Philip Simmons Artist
Blacksmith Guild of South Carolina
Topic: The art of forge welding
Activity: The program was held at Arclabs
of Columbia, S.C.
SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA
NOVEMBER 21
Speaker: Wayne Johnson, welding team
leader
Affiliation: New River Truck Plant
Topic: Introduction to resistance welding
Activity: Following the talk, Johnson led
the members on a tour of facility.
District 5
Carl Matricardi, director
(770) 979-6344
cmatricardi@aol.com
District 6
Kenneth Phy, director
(315) 218-5297
kenneth.phy@gmail.com
89 WELDING JOURNAL
District 7
Uwe Aschemeier, director
(786) 473-9540
uwe@miamidiver.com
District 8
D. Joshua Burgess, director
(931) 260-7039
joshburgess1984@gmail.com
The Pittsburgh Section members are shown at their November meeting hosted by Steamfitters Local 449.
Chattanooga Section members are shown
during their tour of Valmont Industries.
Shown at the Pittsburgh Section event are (from left) Chair John Menhart, Benjamin Richey,
John Ginther, Mary Krut, and Tom Geisler.
Shown are Central Louisiana Section members, Lincoln Electric personnel, and the Boy
Scouts who earned their welding merit badges.
PITTSBURGH
NOVEMBER 12
Speaker: Eric Hilty, graduate student
Affiliation: University of Akron
Topic: Welding properties of 6xxx series
aluminum alloys
Activity: Awards were presented to weld-
off winners Benjamin Richey, Adam Festa,
and Cole Krut. Attending were welding in-
structors Tom Geisler and John Ginther.
The program was held at Steamfitters
Local 449 in Pittsburgh, Pa.
NOVEMBER 17
Activity: The Section members attended
FABTECH in Chicago, Ill. AWS President
Nancy Cole presented Ed Yevick his Gold
Member certificate for 50 years of service
to the Society.
CHATTANOOGA
DECEMBER 3
Activity: The Section members toured Val-
mont Industries in Jasper, Tenn., to study
the manufacture of poles for street light-
ing structures. Tim Yonts, HR manager,
conducted the tour. Attending were Robin
Dykes, Andy Miller, Larry Craig, Chris
Bialczak, Jonathan Elsea, Chris Renfro,
and Marsh Lalor.
CENTRAL LOUISIANA
NOVEMBER 23
Activity: The Section partnered with Lin-
coln Electric to coach 16 Boy Scouts to
earn their welding merit badges. The event
was held at Louisiana Purchase Council
Camp Attakapas Winter Camp in Trout,
La. The counselors were Jim Lukehart,
Gerald Bickerstaff, Mike Stuchlik, Tony
Glorioso, and Don Sanders.
Lawson State C. C.
Student Chapter
NOVEMBER 21
Speaker: Trent Spackman
Affiliation: Miller Electric Mfg. Co.
Topic: Pulse welding
District 9
George Fairbanks Jr., director
(225) 473-6362
ts@bellsouth.net
FEBRUARY 2014 90
District 10
Robert E. Brenner, director
(330) 484-3650
bobren28@yahoo.com
District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director
(734) 721-8272
rmwilcox@wowway.com
District 12
Daniel J. Roland, director
(715) 735-9341, ext. 6421
daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com
Activity: Following the talk, Spackman
demonstrated how to set up and use a
Miller power source and wire feeder. Each
Lawson State Student Chapter attendee
had a chance to weld with the equipment
and learn how various adjustments af-
fected the weld quality. The Chapter is af-
filiated with the Birmingham Section.
NORTHWESTERN PA.
NOVEMBER 16
Activity: The Section members hosted a
training program at Erie Institute of Tech-
nology in Erie, Pa., for 40 members of Boy
Scout Troops 9 and 176 to earn their weld-
ing merit badges. Counselors Donna Bas-
tian and Tom Kostreba led the program at
Erie Institute of Technology. Charlie Cross
from Lincoln Electric donated welding
jackets and hoods, General Electric do-
nated the steel used for the projects, and
Welders Supply donated gloves, safety
glasses, and beanies.
DETROIT
OCTOBER 26
Activity: The Section mentored ten Boy
Scouts to earn their welding merit badges.
Carl Occhialini, Tim Hurley, and Chris
Trombetta presented more than four hours
of instruction and testing at the Lincoln
Electric facilities in Wixom, Mich.
DECEMBER 5
Activity: The Detroit Section hosted its
holiday party at Genittis Hole-in-the-Wall
in Northville, Mich., for about 70 mem-
bers and guests.
RACINE-KENOSHA
DECEMBER 4
Activity: The Section members and weld-
ing students from Gateway Technical Col-
lege toured LDV, Inc., a manufacturer
of emergency response and commercial
vehicles.
Lawson State C. C. Student Chapter members are shown at their November program.
Donna Bastian (center), welding merit badge counselor, poses with the Washington Trails Troop 176 Boy Scouts at the Northwestern Penn-
sylvania Section event.
Troop 9 Boy Scouts earned their welding badges assisted by Northwestern Pennsylvania Section members and student volunteers.
91 WELDING JOURNAL
District 13
John Willard, director
(815) 954-4838
kustom_bilt@msn.com
District 14
Robert L. Richwine, director
(765) 378-5378
bobrichwine@aol.com
Racine-Kenosha Section members and welding students are shown at LDV, Inc.
Shown at the St. Louis Section awards presentation are (from left) Chair David Beers, Jerry
Simpson, Becky McDonald, Rick Suria, Wyatt Piediscalzi, Cathy Cook, and Robert Lee.
Boy Scouts and Kansas Section members are shown at the December welding merit badge program.
ST. LOUIS
DECEMBER 6
Activity: The Section held its holiday party
at Royal Orleans Banquet Center in St.
Louis, Mo. Chair David Beers presented
awards to Jerry Simpson (Dist. Meritori-
ous), Becky McDonald (Section Meritori-
ous), Rick Suria (Distinguished Member),
Wyatt Piediscalzi (Dist. CWI), Cathy Cook
(Section Private Sector), and Robert Lee
(Dist. Director).
KANSAS
DECEMBER 7
Activity: The Section members coached
Boy Scouts in Troops 301 and 321 to earn
their welding merit badges.
District 15
David Lynnes, director
(701) 365-0606
dave@learntoweld.com
District 16
Dennis Wright, director
(913) 782-0635
awscwi1@att.net
FEBRUARY 2014 92
District 17
Jerry Knapp, director
(918) 622-8600
jerry.knapp@gasandsupply.com
KANSAS CITY
NOVEMBER 7
Activity: The Section members toured the
EXLTUBE facility in Kansas City, Mo.
Micah Morrison, manager, detailed the
process and procedures for preparing cold-
formed steel tube and pipe, including coil
handling, slitting, and milling.
NEBRASKA
NOVEMBER 22
Activity: The Section members toured the
Nucor Steel facility in Norfolk, Neb. Chair
Chris Beatty presented John Metz his Life
Member certificate for 35 years of service.
District 17
NOVEMBER
Activity: J. Jones, Dist. 17 director, pre-
sented Jamie Kidder the District Merito-
rious Award and Section Private Sector
Educator Awards to Rod Riggs and
Charles Griffin. The District Director
Award was presented to Heater Special-
ists, LLC, received by Richard Howard,
QC manager. J. Jones was presented the
District Meritorious Award.
OZARK
NOVEMBER
Activity: Chair Aaron Brown presented the
Gardner Memorial Scholarship to Brie
Jenkins from Ozark Technical College.
The Kansas City Section members are shown during their tour of EXLTUBE.
The Nebraska Section members are shown during their tour of Nucor Steel.
Micah Morrison (right) is shown with Grant
Von Lunen, Kansas City Section chair.
Incoming Dist. 17 Director Jerry Knapp (left)
is shown with Charles Griffin, head, Okla-
homa Technical College Welding Dept.
Rod Riggs, a welding instructor at Oklahoma
Technical College, receives his award from
J. Jones, Dist. 17 director.
J. Jones displays his District 17 Meritorious
Award presented by Jamie Pearson, a past
Tulsa Section chair.
Life Member John Metz (right) is shown with
Chris Beaty, Nebraska Section chair.
93 WELDING JOURNAL
District 18
John Stoll, director
(713) 724-2350
John.Stoll@voestalpine.com
Brie Jenkens receives a scholarship from
Aaron Brown, Ozark Section chair.
Eric Arnold shows Boy Scouts the fine points
of welding technology at the Puget Sound
Section event.
Shown at the Sabine Section program are (from left) Chair John McKeehan, Jim Stuckey,
Morris Weeks, Rick McAnally, Jason Bingham, Gary Sztaba, and Donnie Newman.
Shown at the Spokane Section meeting are (from left) Phil Pinto, Don Gage, Art Sabiston, Shane York, Richard Campbell, speaker Jeff
Mitchell, Phil Zammit, Cord Hill, Randy Polito, Jon Thompson, Jasmine Griggs, and Brandon Tower.
Houston Section members pose at their hol-
iday party.
Derek Stelly cozies up to Santa (think John
Bray) at the Houston Section party.
Incoming AWS Vice President John Bray
spread holiday cheer as Santa Claus.
SABINE
NOVEMBER 12
Activity: Forty Section members toured
Coastal Welding Supply in Beaumont,
Tex. Awards were presented to Chair John
McKeehan (Section Meritorious), Jim
Stuckey and Gary Sztaba (District Direc-
tor), Morris Weeks (Section Private Sec-
tor Instructor), Rick McAnally and Jason
Bingham(Section Educator), and Donnie
Newman (Section Sponsor) representing
Coastal Welding Supply, a Section spon-
sor for more than 40 years.
HOUSTON
DECEMBER 4
Activity: The Section hosted its holiday
party at Steamboat House in Houston, Tex.
District 19
Ken Johnson, director
(425) 957-3553
Kenneth.Johnson@vigorindustrial.com
FEBRUARY 2014 94
Shown at the L.A./Inland Empire Section
program are Tim Chubbs (left) and presen-
ter Jim Byrne.
AWS President Nancy Cole poses with scholarship winners (from left) DaMarlynn Wright,
Caree Rochelle, and Brendan Cloonan, at the San Francisco Section event.
Doug Williams receives his award from
Nancy Cole, AWS president, at the San Fran-
cisco Section program.
Shown at the San Francisco Section event
are (from left) Mike Zinser, AWS President
Nancy Cole, and Kerry Shatell, Dist. 22 di-
rector.
Speaker Manfred Hoefer (left) is shown with
Bashkar Ra, Emirates Welding Section chair.
NOVEMBER 26
Activity: The Puget Sound Section mem-
bers mentored Boy Scouts to earn their
welding merit badges at Everett C. C. in
Seattle.
SPOKANE
DECEMBER 11
Speaker: Jeff Mitchell
Affiliation: Coffman Engineering
Topic: Basics of structural engineering
Activity: The program was held at OXARC
Training Center in Spokane, Wash.
L.A./INLAND EMPIRE
NOVEMBER 5
Speaker: Jim Byrne
Affiliation: Miller Electric Pipe division
Topic: Advanced pipe welding techniques
Activity: The program was held at the
Miller Training Center in Rancho Cuca-
monga, Calif.
SAN FRANCISCO
NOVEMBER 7
Speaker: Nancy Cole, AWS president
Affiliation: NCC Engineering
Topic: Educating welding professionals
Activity: Eighty members and guests at-
tended the program held at Spengers
Restaurant in Berkeley, Calif. Ten schol-
arships were presented. Doug Williams re-
ceived the Dist. Meritorious Award from
Cole and Kerry Shatell, Dist. 22 director.
EMIRATES WELDING
NOVEMBER 27
Speaker: Manfred Hoefer, global industry
segment manager, pipelines
Affiliation: Voestalpine Bohler Welding
Topic: Hydrogen-induced cracking in high-
strength steel pipeline welds
Activity: The program, conducted by Chair
Bashkar Ra, was held in Dubai, UAE.
PUGET SOUND
SEPTEMBER 5
Speaker: Chris Sunderg, AWS Senior Cer-
tified Welding Inspector
Topic: Construction of the Catskill/
Delaware Ultraviolet Disinfection Facility
in New York City
Activity: The program was held at Ivars
Salmon House in Seattle, Wash.
District 20
Pierrette H. Gorman, director
(505) 284-9644
phgorma@sandia.gov
District 21
Nanette Samanich, director
(702) 429-5017
nan07@aol.com
District 22
Kerry E. Shatell, director
(925) 866-5434
kesi@pge.com
International
Section
95 WELDING JOURNAL
Guide to AWS Services
8669 NW 36th St., #130, Miami, FL 33166-6672
T: (800/305) 443-9353; F: (305) 443-7559
Staff phone extensions are shown in parentheses.
AWS PRESIDENT
Dean R. Wilson
deanwilsonaws@gmail.com
Welldean Enterprises
151 Oak Tree Circle
Glendora, CA 91741
ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director
Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210)
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Chief Financial Officer
Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252)
Chief Technology Officer
Dennis Harwig..dharwig@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(213)
Executive Assistant for Board Services
Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)
Administrative Services
Managing Director
Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214)
Director
Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(287)
Director of IT Operations
Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(245)
Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits
Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266)
Director, Human Resources
Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)
International Institute of Welding
Senior Coordinator
Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319)
Liaison services with other national and international
societies and standards organizations.
GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES
Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com
Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C.,
(202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors fed-
eral issues of importance to the industry.
CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS
Director, Convention and Meeting Services
Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(239)
ITSA International Thermal
Spray Association
Senior Manager and Editor
Kathy Dusa.kathydusa@thermalspray.org . . .(232)
RWMA Resistance Welding
Manufacturing Alliance
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
WEMCO Association of
Welding Manufacturers
Management Specialist
Keila DeMoraes....kdemoraes@aws.org . . . .(444)
Brazing and Soldering
Manufacturers Committee
Stephen Borrero..sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334)
GAWDA Gases and Welding
Distributors Association
Executive Director
John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462)
Operations Manager
Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)
INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales
Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)
Corporate Director, International Sales
Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)
Oversees international business activities involving
certification, publication, and membership.
PUBLICATION SERVICES
Dept. information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)
Managing Director
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Welding Journal
Publisher
Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)
Editor
Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238)
National Sales Director
Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243)
Society News Editor
Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)
Welding Handbook
Editor
Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)
MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director
Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226)
Public Relations Manager
Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416)
Webmaster
Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456)
Section Web Editor
Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)
MEMBER SERVICES
Sr. Associate Executive Director
Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253)
Director
Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260)
Serves as a liaison between members and AWS head-
quarters.
CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Managing Director
John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472)
Oversees all certification activities including all inter-
national certification programs.
Director, Certification Operations
Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470)
Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam
scoring.
Director, Accreditation Programs
Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298)
Oversees the development of new certification pro-
grams, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and
AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.
EDUCATION SERVICES
Director, Operations
Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224)
Director, Development and Systems
David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)
AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS
Senior Manager
Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293)
Coordinates AWS awards and Fellow and Coun-
selor nominations.
TECHNICAL SERVICES
Managing Director
Technical Services Development & Systems
Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466)
International Standards Activities, American Coun-
cil of the International Institute of Welding (IIW)
Director, Operations
Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(299)
Technical Activities Committee
Associate Director, Operations
Alex L. Diaz.... adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(304)
Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Air-
craft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys
Manager, Safety and Health
Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305)
Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plas-
tics and Composites, Personnel and Facilities Qual-
ification, Mechanical Testing of Welds
Program Managers II
Stephen Borrero... sborrero@aws.org . . . . .(334)
Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and
Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook,
Definitions and Symbols, Structural Subcommit-
tees on Bridge Welding, Stainless Steel, and Rein-
forcing Steel
Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301)
Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International
Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc
Welding and Cutting Processes, Computerization
of Welding Information
Brian McGrath .... bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . .(311)
Structural Welding, Welding in Marine Construc-
tion, Piping and Tubing
Program Managers
Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307)
Automotive, Resistance Welding, Machinery and
Equipment, Methods of Inspection
Chelsea Lewis.. clewis@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(215)
Friction Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cut-
ting, High-Energy Beam Welding, Robotics Weld-
ing, Welding in Sanitary Applications
Jennifer Rosario.. jrosario@aws.org . . . . . .(308)
Railroad Welding, Thermal Spraying, Welding Iron
Castings, Welding Qualification
Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards
may be obtained only by sending a request in writ-
ing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Tech-
nical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on
AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral
opinions do not constitute official or unofficial
opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition,
oral opinions are informal and should not be used
as a substitute for an official interpretation.
AWS FOUNDATION, Inc.
www.aws.org/w/a/foundation
General Information
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212, vpinsky@aws.org
Chairman, Board of Trustees
Gerald D. Uttrachi
Executive Director, Foundation
Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331)
Corporate Director, Workforce Development
Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461)
The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation
established to provide support for the educational
and scientific endeavors of the American Welding
Society. Promote the Foundations work with your fi-
nancial support. For information, call Vicki Pinsky,
(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 212; e-mail vpinsky@aws.org.
PERSONNEL
Lincoln Appoints Senior VP
The Lincoln Elec-
tric Co., Cleveland,
Ohio, announced
that Geoffrey P. All-
man has been elected
as an officer and sen-
ior vice president.
Allman also serves as
corporate controller
for Lincoln Electric
Holdings, Inc. With
the company since
1997, he has held several positions, in-
cluding director of finance for Canada and
North America.
Climax Names Global VP
Climax Portable Machining and Weld-
ing Systems, Newberg, Ore., has ap-
pointed Thomas Pesch vice president of
global operations.
Prior to joining the
company, Pesch
worked for An-
d r e w / C O M M -
SCOPE, a manufac-
turer of telecommu-
nications products,
where he served as
operations director,
based in China.
Veteran Awarded Milestone
Training Credential
The Manufacturing Skill Standards
Council, Cincinnati, Ohio, an industry-led
training, assessment, and certification or-
ganization, has presented its 50,000th cre-
dential to Daniel Kessler, a graduate of
the Get Skills to Work program. Kessler,
a seven-year U.S. Navy veteran, com-
pleted the Certified Production Techni-
cian course at Cincinnati State Technical
and Community College. The Get Skills
to Work program is a nationwide initia-
tive led by General Electric, Boeing,
Lockheed Martin, Alcoa, and the Manu-
facturing Institute. It was launched in Oc-
tober 2012 with a goal of training and
matching 100,000 veterans to manufactur-
ing jobs by 2015.
Trafimet Hires Operations
Manager
Trafimet USA,
Hialeah, Fla., a sup-
plier of welding and
cutting guns and
torches, has hired
Mark Costa as oper-
ations manager.
Costa has more than
30 years experience
in the welding indus-
try.
Joining Technologies
Makes Staff Changes
Joining Technolo-
gies, East Granby,
Conn., a supplier of
laser manufacturing
services and systems,
has promoted com-
pany President Dave
Hudson to CEO. He
succeeds Michael
Francoeur, company
founder, who will act
as chairman. Fran-
coeur will steer the companys investment
strategy while Hudson will direct its four
major divisions.
SME Announces Incoming
Board Members
The Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers (SME), Dearborn, Mich., has
elected Michael F. Molnar 2014 president,
Wayne F. Frost president-elect, Dean L.
Bartles vice president, and Sandra L.
Bouckley secretary/treasurer. Molnar,
with the society for more than 30 years,
leads the National Institute of Standards
and Technology Advanced Manufactur-
ing Office for extramural programs and
liaison to industry and academia for man-
ufacturing. Frost retired as a production
system project manager and product qual-
Geoffrey Allman
Thomas Pesch
Mark Costa
Dave Hudson
FEBRUARY 2014 96
Pipelines Conference

For the latest conference information and registration visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call 800-443-9353, ext. 223.
Highlights
- Learn about the progress of new and innovative developments
in pipeline welding.
-
business growth.
- AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH (Professional
Development Hour) for each hour of conference attendance.
and renewals.
March 4-5, 2014 - Hcu:Icn
We|cing hc: c|wcy: Leen cn inIegrc| pcrI cf pipe|ine ccn:IrucIicn. lI c|| gce:
back to the days when hand-held oxyacetylene torches were u:ec Ic ccnnecI
pipe: IcgeIher in Ihe fie|c. CurrenI cnc fuIure pipeline welding trends will be
ci:cu::ec curing Ihi: AWS-sponsored conference cn pipe|ine we|cing.
www.aws.org
This conference will bring together the industry's
outstanding experts to discuss the welding of austenitic,
duplex, and other grades of stainless steel. Topics will
include dissimilar metal welds between stainless and steel,
repair welding, cladding, cleaning, and the pitfalls involved
in stress corrosion cracking.
AWS Conference attendees are awarded 1 PDH
(Professional Development Hour) for each hour of
conference attendance. These PDHs can be applied toward
AWS recertifications and renewals.
For the latest conference information and registration,
visit our web site at
www.aws.org/conferences or call (800) 443-9353, ext. 223.
A
W
S

C
o
n
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

o
n
M
a
r
c
h

2
5

2
6
,

2
0
1
4
P
h
i
l
a
d
e
l
p
h
i
a
.aws.org www w.
The Linde Distributor Association
held its 18th annual meeting in Las
Vegas, Nev. During the two-day meet-
ing, 28 vendors discussed various serv-
ices. This years agenda included best
practices seminars on current buying
trends along with a presentation by
Linde on the global helium supply
situation.
Tennessee Gov. Bill Haslam has an-
nounced a $337,297 grant for Walters
State Community College to fund
equipment for industrial skills/train-
ing and advanced welding programs.
Kurtz Ersa North America, Plymouth,
Wis., recently annouced high-mix EMS
provider ADCO Circuits has pur-
chased a second Ersa selective solder-
ing machine.
The American Bureau of Shipping has
certified Weldcote E71T-1 (CSF-71T)
is in compliance with its specification
and placed on its approved welding
consumables list. E71T-1 also meets all
the requirements of AWS D1.8:2009.
And all Weldcote stainless steel cut
lengths are now dual stamped on both
ends.
The Leed Fabrication board of direc-
tors voted to donate $100,000 to Aims
Community College through The Aims
Foundation. The funds will support the
Leed Fabrication Welding Lab at the
Aims south campus, Fort Lupton,
Colo.
Genesis Systems Group, Davenport,
Iowa, and Translift Systems have
signed a distribution agreement for the
sale of Genesis robotic welding prod-
ucts and a sales agreement to repre-
sent the companys products through
Brazil and South America, effective
until September 2014.
Two online configurators offered by Tre-
gaskiss, Windsor, Ont., Canada, make
it simple to customize the companys
TOUGH GUN G1 and ThruArm
G1 Series robotic gas metal arc guns.
Visit Tregaskiss.com/ConfigureMyGun.
Welding students from Mohave Com-
munity College won first place in the
Arizona state Welders Without Bor-
ders: 2013 Welding Thunder Expo and
Welding Fabrication Contest, held in
Cottonwood, Ariz. The winning proj-
ect was a barbecue and smoker.
Adaptive Technology Solutions,
Beavercreek, Ohio, held its initial
Manufacturing Pays event, a week-
long, free program for attendees to
learn basic skills for a manufacturing
career. It is also adding a second course
for CNC machine operation.
99 WELDING JOURNAL
ity systems auditor of John Deere Water-
loo Works. Bartles is vice president and
general manager for the Ordnance and
Tactical Systems Division of General Dy-
namics Corp. Bouckley is vice president,
operations, for electrical systems and serv-
ices business for the Electrical Sector of
Eaton Corp.
Bunting Magnetics Makes
Executive Appointments
Bunting Magnetics Co., Newton,
Kan., a producer of precision magnetic
products for the automobile and other in-
dustries, has appointed Rod Henricks di-
rector of sales, and Robert Bunting Jr. prod-
uct manager, metal detection, succeeding
Henricks. Bunting previously served as
business strategist for metal detection.
European Laser Institute
Elects Board Chair
The European Laser Institute (ELI),
headquartered in Aachen, Germany, has
elected Paul Hilton chairman of the ELI
executive board. Hilton succeeds Stefan
Kaierle who has served as chairman of the
board since he cofounded the institute in
2003. For his contributions, Kaierle has
been awarded the title of ELI Fellow.
Wagner Hires Buyer
The Wagner Com-
panies, Milwaukee,
Wis., a supplier of
handrail fittings and
metal products for
architectural and in-
dustrial applications,
has hired Lisa Gesell
as buyer for its pur-
chasing department.
Gesell, a Certified
Professional in Sup-
ply Management, previously served as
purchasing coordinator at Thermo Fisher
Scientific in Milwaukee.
Obituaries
Matthew J. Lucas Jr.
Matthew J. Lucas
Jr., 69, an AWS direc-
tor-at-large, died
Nov. 10 at his home
near Cincinnati,
Ohio. He received his
degrees in welding
engineering from
The Ohio State Uni-
versity (OSU) in 1967
and 1968. An AWS
Life Member, he
joined the American Welding Society
while at OSU and remained active in the
Society his entire life. He served 30 years
at General Electric Co. where he was
known as the go-to brazing expert. He
worked with Robert Peaslee and Alexan-
der Shapiro to develop and implement a
brazing course at OSU where he taught
the first classes. He also served on several
AWS technical committees, including the
Technical Activities Committee, and con-
tributed to the Welding Handbook chap-
ter on brazing.
William H. Drake Jr.
William H. Bill Drake Jr., 69, died
Dec. 14 at his home in Rogersville, Mo.
An AWS Life Member, he served the
Ozark Section as education committee
chair from 1987 to 2008, treasurer from
2007 to 2013, and two terms as chairman.
Dr. Drake received the Dist. 17 CWI of
the Year Award in
2008. After serving
in the U.S. Army
during the Vietnam
War, he earned an
engineering degree
at the University of
Houston and a doc-
torate at Texas A &
M. He joined the
staff at Missouri
State University as
professor of engi-
neering in 1986, where he worked until
retiring in 2006. Drake then became a
Certified Welding Inspector, a Demo-
cratic representative for Webster County,
a leader in the 4H Foundation and the
Show-Me Adventure 4H Club, and was
a volunteer with the Greene County
Safety Council.
William Drake Jr.
Matthew Lucas Jr.
Rod Henricks Robert Bunting
Lisa Gesell
continued from page 96
NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY
PERSONNEL
Friends and Colleagues:
I want to encourage you to submit nomination packages for those individuals whom you feel
have a history of accomplishments and contributions to our profession consistent with the standards
set by the existing Fellows. In particular, I would make a special request that you look to the most
senior members of your Section or District in considering members for nomination. In many cases,
the colleagues and peers of these individuals who are the most familiar with their contributions, and
who would normally nominate the candidate, are no longer with us. I want to be sure that we take
the extra effort required to make sure that those truly worthy are not overlooked because no obvious
individual was available to start the nomination process.
For specifics on the nomination requirements, please contact Wendy Sue Reeve at AWS
headquarters in Miami, or simply follow the instructions on the Fellow nomination form in this issue
of the Welding Journal. Please remember, we all benefit in the honoring of those who have made
major contributions to our chosen profession and livelihood. The deadline for submission is July 1,
2014. The Committee looks forward to receiving numerous Fellow nominations for 2015
consideration.
Sincerely,
Thomas M. Mustaleski
Chair, AWS Fellows Selection Committee
Fellow Description
DEFINITION AND HISTORY
The American Welding Society, in 1990, established the honor of Fellow of the Society to recognize members for
distinguished contributions to the field of welding science and technology, and for promoting and sustaining the professional
stature of the field. Election as a Fellow of the Society is based on the outstanding accomplishments and technical impact of the
individual. Such accomplishments will have advanced the science, technology and application of welding, as evidenced by:
Sustained service and performance in the advancement of welding science and technology
Publication of papers, articles and books which enhance knowledge of welding
Innovative development of welding technology
Society and chapter contributions
Professional recognition
RULES
1. Candidates shall have 10 years of membership in AWS
2. Candidates shall be nominated by any five members of the Society
3. Nominations shall be submitted on the official form available from AWS Headquarters
4. Nominations must be submitted to AWS Headquarters no later than July 1 of the year prior to that in
which the award is to be presented
5. Nominations will remain valid for three years
6. All information on nominees will be held in strict confidence
7. No more than two posthumous Fellows may be elected each year
NUMBER OF FELLOWS
Maximum of 10 Fellows selected each year.
AWS Fellow Application Guidelines
Nomination packages for AWS Fellow should clearly demonstrate the candidates outstanding contributions to the advance-
ment of welding science and technology. In order for the Fellows Selection Committee to fairly assess the candidates qualifica-
tions, the nomination package must list and clearly describe the candidates specific technical accomplishments, how they con-
tributed to the advancement of welding technology, and that these contributions were sustained. Essential in demonstrating the
candidates impact are the following (in approximate order of importance).
1. Description of significant technical advancements. This should be a brief summary of the candidates most
significant contributions to the advancement of welding science and technology.
2. Publications of books, papers, articles or other significant scholarly works that demonstrate the contributions cited
in (1). Where possible, papers and articles should be designated as to whether they were published in
peer-reviewed journals.
3. Inventions and patents.
4. Professional recognition including awards and honors from AWS and other professional societies.
5. Meaningful participation in technical committees. Indicate the number of years served on these committees and
any leadership roles (chair, vice-chair, subcommittee responsibilities, etc.).
6. Contributions to handbooks and standards.
7. Presentations made at technical conferences and section meetings.
8. Consultancy particularly as it impacts technology advancement.
9. Leadership at the technical society or corporate level, particularly as it impacts advancement of welding technology.
10. Participation on organizing committees for technical programming.
11. Advocacy support of the society and its technical advancement through institutional, political or other means.
Note: Application packages that do not support the candidate using the metrics listed above
will have a very low probability of success.
Supporting Letters
Letters of support from individuals knowledgeable of the candidate and his/her contributions are encouraged. These
letters should address the metrics listed above and provide personal insight into the contributions and stature of the
candidate. Letters of support that simply endorse the candidate will have little impact on the selection process.
Return completed Fellow nomination package to:
Wendy S. Reeve
Senior Manager
Award Programs and Administrative Support
Telephone: 800-443-9353, extension 293
SUBMISSION DEADLINE: July 1, 201
8669 Doral Blvd., #130
4
Miami, FL 33166
(please type or print in black ink)
FELLOW NOMINATION FORM
DATE_________________NAME OF CANDIDATE________________________________________________________________________
AWS MEMBER NO.___________________________YEARS OF AWS MEMBERSHIP____________________________________________
HOME ADDRESS____________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY_______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE________________________
PRESENT COMPANY/INSTITUTION AFFILIATION_______________________________________________________________________
TITLE/POSITION____________________________________________________________________________________________________
BUSINESS ADDRESS________________________________________________________________________________________________
CITY______________________________________________STATE________ZIP CODE__________PHONE_________________________
ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, AS APPLICABLE:
INSTITUTION______________________________________________________________________________________________________
MAJOR & MINOR__________________________________________________________________________________________________
DEGREES OR CERTIFICATES/YEAR____________________________________________________________________________________
LICENSED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER: YES_________NO__________ STATE______________________________________________
SIGNIFICANT WORK EXPERIENCE:
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
POSITION____________________________________________________________________________YEARS_______________________
SUMMARIZE MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS IN THESE POSITIONS:
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
IT IS MANDATORY THAT A CITATION (50 TO 100 WORDS, USE SEPARATE SHEET) INDICATING WHY THE NOMINEE SHOULD BE
SELECTED AS AN AWS FELLOW ACCOMPANY NOMINATION PACKET. IF NOMINEE IS SELECTED, THIS STATEMENT MAY BE IN-
CORPORATED WITHIN THE CITATION CERTIFICATE.
SEE GUIDELINES ON REVERSE SIDE
SUBMITTED BY: PROPOSER_______________________________________________AWS Member No.___________________
Print Name___________________________________
The Proposer will serve as the contact if the Selection Committee requires further information. Signatures on this nominating form, or
supporting letters from each nominator, are required from four AWS members in addition to the Proposer. Signatures may be acquired
by photocopying the original and transmitting to each nominating member. Once the signatures are secured, the total package should
be submitted.
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________NOMINATING MEMBER:___________________________________
Print Name___________________________________ Print Name___________________________________
AWS Member No.______________ AWS Member No.______________
CLASS OF 201
SUBMISSION DEADLINE July 1, 2014
5
Educational Opportunities
Acoustic Emission Inspection Level III Course. Feb. 37,
Princeton Junction, N.J. MISTRAS NDT Training Institute;
www.mistrasgroup.com/training/courses/ae_3.aspx; (609) 716-4049.
Grounding and Electrical Protection Courses. Feb. 20, 21,
Honolulu, Hawaii; April 3, 4, Miami, Fla.; June 12, 13,
Oklahoma City, Okla.; Aug. 14, 15, Syracuse, N.Y.; Oct. 9, 10,
Phoenix, Ariz.; Nov. 13, 14, New Orleans, La. Lyncole XIT
Grounding; (800) 962-2610; www.lyncole.com/courses/.
Laser Safety Officer Training Courses. Feb. 2527, Phoenix,
Ariz.; March 1014, San Antonio, Tex.; June 26, Boston, Mass.;
June 2426, St. Louis, Mo. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-
2737; www.lia.org.
LAM Laser Additive Manufacturing Workshop. March 12, 13.
Houston, Tex. Laser Institute of America; (800) 345-2737;
www.lia.org/lam.
E-Courses in Destructive and Nondestructive Testing of Welds.
Online video courses taken at ones own pace offer certificates of
completion and continuing education units. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology. hiwt@welding.org; www.welding.org.
Hypertherm Cutting Institute Online. Includes video tutorials, in-
teractive e-learning courses, discussion forums, and blogs. Visit
www.hyperthermcuttinginstitute.com.
INTEG Courses. Courses in NDE disciplines to meet certifica-
tions to Canadian General Standards Board or Canadian
Nuclear Safety Commission. The Canadian Welding Bureau;
(800) 844-6790; www.cwbgroup.org.
Laser Safety Online Courses. Courses include Medical Laser
Safety Officer, Laser Safety Training for Physicians, Industrial
Laser Safety, and Laser Safety in Educational Institutions. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Laser Safety Training Courses. Courses based on ANSI Z136.1,
Safe Use of Lasers, Orlando, Fla., or customers site. Laser
Institute of America; (800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
Laser U Online Education Portal. Offers practical informa-
tion to use on the job. Topics range from 3D printing to drilling,
welding, wireless and optical product requirements, and many
others. Visit website for complete information and to sign up for
modules. Laser Institute of America; www.lia.org/laseru.
Laser Vision Seminars. Two-day classes, offered monthly and on
request, include tutorials and practical training. Presented at
Servo-Robot, Inc., St. Bruno, QC, Canada. For schedule, cost,
and availability, send your request to info@servorobot.com.
Machine Safeguarding Seminars. Rockford Systems, Inc.; (800)
922-7533; visit www.rockfordsystems.com.
Machining and Grinding Courses. TechSolve, www.TechSolve.org.
Medical Laser Safety Officer Training Courses. March 29, 30,
Chicago, Ill.; June 7, 8, Boston, Mass. Laser Institute of America;
(800) 345-2737; www.lia.org.
NACE Intl Training and Certification Courses. National Assoc.
of Corrosion Engineers; (281) 228-6223; www.nace.org.
NDE and CWI/CWE Courses and Exams. Allentown, Pa., and
customers locations. Welder Training and Testing Institute;
(800) 223-9884; www.wtti.edu.
NDT Courses and Exams. Brea, Calif., and customers locations.
Level I and II and refresher courses in PA, UT, MP, radiation
safety, radiography, visual, etc. Test NDT, LLC; (714) 255-1500;
www.testndt.com.
Online Education Courses. Topics include Introduction to Die
Casting ($99), Metal Melting and Handling ($99), Product
Design ($59), Energy Training ($19), Dross Training ($19),
Managing Dust Hazards ($19), Safety (free). North American
Die Casting Assn.; (847) 808-3161; www.diecasting.org/educa-
tion/online.
Plastics Welding School. A two-day course for certification to
European plastics welding standards. Malcom Hot Air Systems;
www.plasticweldingtools.com.
Protective Coatings Training and Certification Courses. At vari-
ous locations and online. The Society for Protective Coatings;
(877) 281-7772; www.sspc.org.
Robotics Operator Training. Presented by ABB University at 13
locations nationwide. For course titles and locations: (800) 435-
7365, opt. 2, opt. 4; www.abb.us/abbuniversity.
Safety Training Online. Unlimited training on myriad industrial
safety course titles for $45/employee/year. Visit website for com-
plete information and previews of several courses;
www.safety99.com.
Service Manager Course. For sheet metal workers and HVAC
service shop owners. Various locations and dates. International
Training Institute; www.sheetmetal-iti.org; (703) 739-7200.
Servo-Robot Training Seminars. Two-day laser-vision seminars
held throughout the year at Servo-Robot, Inc., near Montreal,
Canada. Seminars include tutorials and hands-on practical train-
ing. For seminar schedule and costs, e-mail request to info@
servorobot.com.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding of 2-in. Pipe in the 6G Position
Uphill. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology;
(800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
SSPC Training and Certification Courses. Courses in protective
coatings, abrasive blasting, paint inspector, bridge coatings
inspector, surface preparation, NAVSEA inspector, and many
others. The Society for Protective Coatings; www.sspc.org.
Thermadyne Distributor Training. Year-around training at
Denton, Tex.; West Lebanon, N.H.; Bowling Green, Ky.; and
Chino, Calif. Contact trainingteam@victortechnologies.com.
TIP TIG Manual and Automated Plate and Pipe Welding
Workshops. Held the third Thursday of every month. 1901 Kitty
Hawk Ave., Bldg. 68, Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Philadelphia,
Pa.; (215) 389-7700; www.tiptigusa.com.
Tool and Die Welding Courses. Troy, Ohio. Hobart Institute of
Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.
Unitek Miyachi Corp. Training Services. Personalized training
services on resistance and laser beam welding and laser marking;
(626) 303-5676; www.unitekmiyachi.com.
103 WELDING JOURNAL
COMING EVENTS

CUSTOH
RPRINTS

P R
S U C

S T N I R
H O T S

e r u s o p x L
d L r u o y I o
v d A e k a TTa
m o t s t o | r p o r o s U

. e
l a l r o to l d
e g a t n a v
g o | t o k r a m r u o y o z | m | x a

h t g o o r t s d o a s o v | t a | t | o | g

. o u | a v s ' d o a r b r u o y o o h

6 6 8 | | a C

o t s o ffo s o | a s r o 4 4 1 9 . 9 7 8 . 6

m o c . g o | t o | r p r o

105 WELDING JOURNAL
CLASSIFIEDS
FEBRUARY 2014 106
JOE FULLER LLC
We manufacture tank turning rolls
3-ton through 120-ton rolls
www.joefuller.com
email: joe@joefuller.com
Phone: (979) 277-8343
Fax: (281) 290-6184
Our products are made in the USA
EQUIPMENT FOR SALE OR RENT
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
MITROWSKI RENTS
Made in U.S.A.
Welding Positioners
1-Ton thru 60-Ton
Tank Turning Rolls
Used Equipment for Sale
www.mitrowskiwelding.com
sales@mitrowskiwelding.com
(800) 218-9620
(713) 943-8032
Professionals Sought for
IIW Training Courses
The American Welding Society, the
Gesellschaft fr Schweisstechnik
International (German Welding
Institute, GSI), and the National
Center for Welding Education and
Training (Weld-Ed) are seeking
candidates interested in obtaining
the IIW International Welding
Engineer or International Welding
Technologist diploma. Courses are
being planned that will blend
Internet-delivered training with
classroom training conducted in the
United States.
The 440-hour course will be offered
during the next two summers and
is designed to promote career
development for busy welding
professionals.
Please contact Jeff Hufsey at:
hufsey@aws.org for more details.
CWI PREPARATORY
Guarantee Pass or Repeat FREE!
80+ HOUR COURSE
MORE HANDSON/PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Pascagoula, MS Feb. 314
Ellijay, GA Feb. 1728 Apr. 718
Shreveport, LA Mar. 314
Marksville, LA Apr. 28May 9
Waco, TX May 1223
Loveland, CO June 213
Ardmore, OK June 23July 4
Searcy, AR July 718
Temple, TX July 21Aug. 1
+ Includes additional self study for weekend
FOR DETAILS CALL OR E-MAIL:
(800) 489-2890
info@realeducational.com
Also offering: RT Film Interpretation,
MT/PT/UT Thickness, CWS, SCWI,
Welding Procedure Fundamentals,
And Advanced Inspection Courses
2014
107 WELDING JOURNAL
SERVICES
CERTIFICATION
& TRAINING
Showcase Your Products
and Services in the
April 2014
Welding Marketplace
Spread the word on your company around
the world by promoting a full-color photo of
your newest and hottest welding products
or services to more than 80,000 AWS
members and customers in this famous
welding product photo guide, WELDING
MARKETPLACE.
As an extra bonus your ad will be posted on
the AWS website with an active link to your
website. Also a digital link to Welding
Marketplace will be sent to more than
68,000 AWS members. Make AWS
members your customers!
Closing date is
February 14, 2014
Call the AWS sales team at:
(800) 443-9353
Rob Saltzstein at ext. 243
salty@aws.org
Lea Paneca at ext. 220
lea@aws.org
Sandra Jorgensen at ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
Win Potential Clients
by Showing Them Videos on
How to Save Money and Time
By Using Your Products!
For more information
visit our website at http://videos.aws.org or please contact:
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Sandra Jorgensen
sjorgensen@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 254
Lea Paneca
lea@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 220

Hawkeye
Borescopes

e
y e k w a H
e p o c s e r o B

s e p

g n i d l e w / m o c . s n e l t n e i d a r g 0 . 6 3 5 . 0 0 8
0 880
e yye e kke
eex lle FFl , dd,
o e dde iid VVi
p oop c s
! k c o

0 9 7 0
e
e lle b iib xxi

o
s e p
Place Your
Classified Ad Here!
Call the AWS sales team at:
(800) 443-9353
Rob Saltzstein, ext. 243
salty@aws.org
Lea Paneca, ext. 220
lea@aws.org
Sandra Jorgensen, ext. 254
sjorgensen@aws.org
Above Materials Technology Co., Beijing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
www.amt-alloys.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86-186-0125-9786
Amitek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
www.aimtek.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 772-0104
ALM Materials Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
www.almmh.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 544-5438
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC
www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353
AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71, 97, 98
www.aws.org/education/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 455
AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20, 104
www.aws.org/membership/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 480
AWS Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62-63, 66
www.aws.org/wj/ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353
AWS WELDMEX/FABTECH MEXICO 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
www.fabtechmexico.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Belmont Metals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
www.belmontmetals.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(718) 342-4900
Bluco Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
www.bluco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 535-0135
Brazing and Joining Consultant, LLC/Anatol Rabinkin, Ph.D. . . . . . .59
E-mail: arabinkin@gmail.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(973) 993-9546
Bug-O Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
www.bugo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 245-3186
Camfil Air Pollution Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
www.camfilapc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 479-6801
CDA Technical Institute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232
Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
www.championwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353
Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719
Detroit Section of AWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
www.awsdetroit.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(248) 275-8209/(614) 688-5121
Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837
FABTECH 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
www.fabtechexpo.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 297
Fischer Engineering Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
www.fischerengr.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 754-1754
Flexovit USA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
www.flexovitabrasives.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 689-3539
Fronius USA, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 376-6487
Fusion, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
www.fusion-inc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 626-9501
Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00
Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110
Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333
Harris Products Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
www.harrisproductsgroup.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 733-4043
Hobart Institute of Welding Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448
Hodgson Custom Rolling, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
www.hcrsteel.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 263-2547
Intercon Enterprises, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
www.intercononline.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 665-6655
K.I.W.O.T.O., Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
www.rodguard.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 944-1552
KMT Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
www.kmtsaw.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(269) 321-8860
Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
www.koike.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 252-5232
Laser Institute of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
www.lia.org/lam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(407) 380-1553
Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC
www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
www.lucasmilhaupt.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(414) 679-6000
Midalloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
www.midalloy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 776-3300
OTC Daihen, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
www.daihen-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 682-7626
Princt & Izant Companies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
www.princeizant.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 634-0437
Red-D-Arc Weldrentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
www.reddarc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(866) 733-3272
RWMA/Resistance Welding Mfg. Alliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
www.aws.org/rwma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 444
Schaefer Ventilation Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
www.schaeferfan.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 779-3267
Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC
www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215
Superflash Compressed Gas Equipment/IBEDA, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
www.oxyfuelsafety.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 327-7306
TEKA North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
www.teka-direct.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(816) 842-1773
Triangle Engineering, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
www.trieng.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(781) 878-1500
TRUMPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
www.us.trumpf.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .web contact only
Tweco/Victor Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
www.tweco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 426-1888
voestalpine Bhler Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
www.voestalpine.com/welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 527-0791
Weld Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
www.weldaid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 935-3243
Weld Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
www.weldengineering.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(508) 842-2224
WEMCO/An Association of Welding Manufacturers . . . . . . . . . . . .36, 72
www.aws.org/wemco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353, ext. 444
WEX/American Welding Society Bookstore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
www.academicaccess.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(866) 467-8151
IFC = Inside Front Cover
IBC = Inside Back Cover
OBC = Outside Back Cover
Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/ad-index
ADVERTISER
INDEX
FEBRUARY 2014 108
Introduction
Efficient production and consumption
of energy has become a critical issue in the
United States and around the world due
to a number of factors, including increased
demand due to rising population, deple-
tion of fossil fuel sources, and detrimental
impacts on the environment. Figure 1
shows the relative amounts of U.S. energy
production and consumption by fuel
source from 1949 to 2011 (Ref. 1), where it
is apparent that fossil fuels and nuclear
power have been the primary fuel sources.
It has been estimated (Ref. 2) that world
energy consumption will increase by 56%
between 2010 and 2040. Although renew-
able energy and nuclear power are the
worlds fastest growing energy sources,
fossil fuels will continue to supply almost
80% of world energy use through this time
period. As a result of this increase in en-
ergy consumption, carbon dioxide emis-
sions from energy production are expected
to increase significantly by approximately
46%, from 31 billion metric tons in 2010
to 45 billion metric tons in 2040.
These factors point to the need to pro-
duce and consume fossil and nuclear fuels
with increased efficiency. Materials play
an important role in these applications.
For example, the efficiency of coal-fired
power plants is most effectively improved
with increases in the operating tempera-
tures and pressures within the plant. New
so-called ultra super critical power
plants are currently being designed to op-
erate at significantly higher pressures and
temperatures in order to realize these
gains in efficiency. When plant efficiency
is increased, more power can be generated
with less consumption of coal and reduced
carbon dioxide emissions. Successful im-
plementation of these new plant designs
hinges on the ability to develop materials
with improved creep strength and corro-
sion resistance in order to provide ade-
quate design lives out to about 30 years.
Nickel-based alloys fill an important need
in these new plants. In fact, in some cases
Ni alloys provide the only suitable candi-
date material that can provide the re-
quired level of high-temperature strength
and corrosion resistance.
There is a very wide range of Ni-based
alloys that have been developed for an
equally impressive range of applications.
The extensive development and use of Ni-
based alloys can, at least in part, be attrib-
uted to two unique characteristics. First,
Ni is capable of dissolving high concentra-
tions of alloying elements compared to
other metals. The explanation for this
dates back to some of the early work on
the electron configuration of metals con-
ducted by Pauling and has been attributed
to the relatively full shell of d-band elec-
trons in the Ni atom (Ref. 3). Second, the
addition of Cr (and/or Al) to Ni provides
excellent corrosion resistance resulting
from the formation of a protective Cr
2
O
3
(or Al
2
O
3
) surface oxide layer. This per-
mits use of Ni-based alloys in a wide vari-
ety of applications that require protection
due to various forms of degradation, such
as aqueous corrosion, oxidation, and sul-
fidation. The subsequent discovery of im-
provements in creep strength provided by
the addition of Ti and Al to promote pre-
cipitation of the ordered -Ni
3
(Ti, Al)
phase extended the use of these alloys to
applications requiring a combination of
high-temperature strength and corrosion
resistance.
While these attributes are certainly
beneficial, the wide range and high con-
centration of alloying elements used in Ni-
based alloys can present a challenge for
SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, FEBRUARY 2014
Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council
Welding of Nickel-Based Alloys for Energy
Applications
A summary of the Comfort A. Adams Lecture presented at
the 2013 AWS Annual Meeting
BY JOHN N. DuPONT
KEYWORDS
Corrosion Resistance
Energy Production
Fossil Fuels
High Temperature
Nickel Alloys
Nuclear Energy
JOHN N. DuPONT is R. D. Stout Distinguished
Professor, Department of Materials Science and
Engineering, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa.
This is the 2013 Adams Lecture presented at the
94th annual meeting of the American Welding So-
ciety, Chicago, Ill.
ABSTRACT
The development of new engineering alloys with improved strength and corrosion
resistance is vital to the production of energy from a wide variety of sources. In many
applications, critical components used in energy production will require welding dur-
ing initial fabrication, maintenance, and repair. Nickel-based alloys are expected to
play a key role in this area since they can often provide levels of high-temperature
strength and corrosion resistance that cannot be obtained with ferritic steels or
austenitic alloys. However, the thermal cycle associated with welding causes signif-
icant microstructural modification to these alloys, usually in a manner that has a
detrimental impact on properties. Thus, it is important to understand and control
these modifications so that full-scale use of new Ni-based alloys is not limited when
welding is required as a means of construction. This article summarizes some recent
advances made at Lehigh University in the last ~ 10 years toward understanding the
welding metallurgy and weldability of Ni-based alloys for energy applications. The
use of new computational tools and microstructural characterization techniques have
been important for obtaining a detailed understanding of welding metallurgy issues,
and examples are provided in this review. The advances are described by several ex-
amples for specific energy applications.
31-s WELDING JOURNAL
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
microstructure control during welding.
The primary reason for this can be under-
stood by comparing typical thermal cycles
used for heat treatment during alloy pro-
duction to those associated with welding.
An example of this for the newly devel-
oped Ni-based superalloy IN740H is
shown in Fig. 2. During alloy production, a
heat treatment (Fig. 2A) is applied that
consists of an initial hold at 1135C for one
h, followed by a water quench and re-heat
at 800C for four h. The initial high-
temperature treatment is needed to ho-
mogenize microsegregation and dissolve
secondary phases in the ingot. The quench
is required to produce a single-phase
austenite matrix that is supersaturated
with respect to -forming elements (Nb,
Ti, Al). The final aging treatment at 800C
is used to produce a fine distribution of
precipitates that provide the best distri-
bution and morphology for high-tempera-
ture strength. Figure 2B shows a typical
thermal cycle for various locations
throughout a fusion weld. Comparison of
the weld thermal cycles to the original heat
treatment thermal cycle reveals significant
differences. The weld is exposed to a much
wider range of temperatures (from above
melting to ambient temperature) and time
frames that are on the order of seconds
(compared to hours for the original heat
treatment).
The rapid weld thermal cycles associ-
ated with fusion welding cause significant
alteration to the microstructure of fusion
welds in Ni-based alloys, usually in a man-
ner that has a negative effect on mechani-
cal and corrosion properties. While
progress is being made to develop new Ni-
based alloys to meet future energy de-
mands, the joining technology has not kept
pace with the alloy development efforts. In
most cases, the severe microstructural gra-
dients in welds of Ni alloys lead to inferior
properties that severely limit the overall
performance of the component. Thus, it is
critical that the joining technology
progress in parallel with alloy develop-
ment efforts so that these materials can be
used in applications that require welding.
This study describes several important ap-
plications of fusion welds in Ni-based al-
loys that are critical aspects to successful
operation of various power plants. Exam-
ples include use of Ni-based weld cladding
in conventional fossil-fired plants operat-
ing with low NOx burners, welding of new
Ni-based superalloys for advanced coal-
fired power plants, and welding of Gd-
enriched nickel alloys for spent nuclear
fuel applications.
Weld Cladding for Corrosion
Control in Low-NOx Burners
In an effort to reduce boiler emissions,
many coal-fired power plant operators have
moved toward a staged combustion process.
By delaying the mixing of fuel and oxygen,
the amount of nitrous oxides (NOx) that are
released as a by-product of combustion is
reduced (Refs. 4, 5). Prior to this, most
boiler atmospheres were oxidizing, allowing
for formation of protective metal oxides on
waterwall tubes made out of carbon- or low-
alloy steels (Refs. 4, 6). Under those condi-
tions, failure due to accelerated waterwall
wastage was generally not a major problem.
Staged combustion boilers, on the other
hand, create a reducing atmosphere in the
boiler due to the lack of oxygen. Sulfur com-
pounds from the coal are transformed into
highly corrosive gaseous H
2
S (Ref.7). In ad-
dition, corrosive deposits may form on the
waterwall tubes due to the accumulation of
solid particles in the combustion environ-
ment, such as ash and unburnt coal. As a re-
sult, low-alloy steels are often susceptible to
excessive wastage rates and unsatisfactory
service lifetimes (Refs. 4, 7). Thermal spray
and chromium diffusion coatings were ini-
tially evaluated for protection in these envi-
ronments, but generally do not provide
adequate corrosion resistance. Commer-
cially available nickel-based weld cladding
is currently the industry standard for corro-
sion protection of waterwalls in boilers op-
erating with low-NOx burners (Ref. 8).
These alloys provide excellent resistance to
general corrosion and can extend the serv-
ice life of waterwalls relative to bare tubes.
However, recent experience has shown that
these coatings are susceptible to premature
failure due to corrosion-fatigue cracking
(Ref. 9). In fact, waterwall failures are the
leading cause of forced outages of coal-fired
power plants and can cost a utility company
from $250,000 to $850,000 a day in down-
time and lost revenue (Ref. 10).
Figure 3A is a photograph of an IN625
cladding that was applied with the gas
metal arc welding (GMAW) process and
removed from service due to the presence
of extensive corrosion-fatigue cracking
(Ref. 9). Figure 3B shows a cross-sectional
photomicrograph of several small cracks
that were examined early in the cracking
stage, and Fig. 3C shows the distribution
of alloying elements across the dendritic
FEBRUARY 2014, VOL. 93 32-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 Relative amounts of U.S. energy production (A) and consumption (B) by fuel source from 1949
to 2011.
Fig. 2 A Typical heat treatment of the base
metal for newly developed IN740 nickel-based su-
peralloy; B typical thermal cycle at various lo-
cations throughout a weld that are associated with
fusion welding.
A
A B
B
substructure of the cladding. Figure 3D
provides a lower magnification view that
demonstrates the cracks initiate at the val-
leys of the weld ripples. The dendrite cores
in the cladding exhibit a minimum in alloy
concentration due to the relatively rapid
solidification conditions associated with
welding. As a result, the corrosion rate is
accelerated in these regions and localized
attack occurs at the dendrite cores. These
localized penetrations form stress concen-
trations, which eventually grow into full-
size fatigue cracks under the influence of
residual and service-applied stresses,
where the service-applied stresses arise
primarily through thermal cycling. As
shown in Fig. 3D, most cracks initiate at a
region in the valley of surface weld ripple
where an additional stress concentration
exists. The high residual stress that results
from welding also probably contributes to
the cracking problem. In addition, dilution
from the underlying steel tube substrate,
which results in reduced alloy content of
the cladding, compromises the corrosion
resistance of the cladding.
The primary metallurgical factors that
contribute to corrosion-fatigue cracking
(weld ripples, microsegregation, high
residual welding stresses, dilution) are all
associated with the localized heating,
melting, and solidification of the welding
process. Thus, use of a coating that can be
applied with more uniform heating in the
solid state should help mitigate these
problems and improve the cracking resist-
ance. Work is in progress (Ref. 11) to eval-
uate coatings made by the coextrusion
process in order to eliminate or reduce the
inherent problems of weld cladding. With
this process, a cylindrical shell of a corro-
sion-resistant alloy is first joined by explo-
sive welding to a steel substrate, and the
bimetallic billet is then coextruded at an
elevated temperature to produce a tube
with an outer coating. Since there is no
melting/solidification involved, the coating
microstructure consists of equiaxed grains
with no microsegregation, similar to that
expected for a wrought alloy.
The corrosion resistance of Alloys 600
(Ni-16Cr-8Fe) and 622 (Ni-22Cr-13Mo-
2Fe) weld cladding and coextruded coat-
ings have recently been compared using
thermogravimetric testing in a simulated
combustion gas (10%CO-5%CO
2
-
2%H
2
O-0.12%H
2
S-N
2
, in vol-% at 600C,
and the results are shown in Fig. 4 (Ref.
11). A sample of wrought Alloy 600 was
also tested. The coextruded coatings ex-
hibit significantly better corrosion resist-
ance compared to the weld cladding of the
matching alloy. Figure 5 shows a weld
cladding sample that was corrosion tested
under solid-state conditions and then
etched to reveal the dendritic substruc-
ture. Note that preferential corrosion has
occurred at the dendrite cores (arrows).
Figure 6 provides an EDS line scan that
was acquired across the dendritic sub-
structure of the weld cladding. As ex-
pected (Ref. 12), the dendrite cores are
depleted in Mo, with Mo concentration
levels down to ~ 11 wt-% (the nominal
Mo concentration of the filler metal is
~ 13 wt-%). Figure 7 shows the mi-
crostructure of the coextruded coating,
and an EDS line scan acquired across sev-
eral grains of the coating is shown in Fig. 8.
The coextruded coating exhibits a uni-
form, equiaxed grain structure and a uni-
form distribution of alloying elements.
For Alloy 600, the corrosion resistance
of the wrought alloy and coextruded coat-
ing are comparable. This indicates that the
coextrusion coating process has no adverse
effect on the inherent corrosion resistance
of the alloy. The improved corrosion re-
sistance of Alloy 622 relative to 600 is at-
tributed to the higher Cr and Mo content
of Alloy 622. The difference in corrosion
performance between the coating types
can be attributed to two factors. First, the
weld claddings evaluated in this work con-
tain an additional 10 wt-% Fe from dilu-
tion with the steel substrate. This
additional Fe stems from dilution with the
underlying steel substrate and is always
present in any weld cladding. The addition
of Fe results in a corresponding decrease
in the Cr and Mo content and often has a
detrimental effect on corrosion resistance.
The 10% dilution value used to prepare
the sample for these tests represents a
lower limit on the dilution level for com-
mercially applied coatings. Such dilution
effects do not occur with the coextruded
coating. Second, the weld cladding exhibits
microsegregation of alloying elements, re-
sulting in preferential corrosion of the
alloy-depleted dendrite core regions. The
coextruded coatings also have a uniform
coating thickness and smooth surface fin-
ish that should help reduce the localized
stress concentrations that can aggravate
the corrosion-fatigue problem. In addi-
tion, the heating and cooling cycles expe-
rienced during coextrusion are much less
severe and more uniform compared to fu-
sion welding, so the residual stresses
should be significantly reduced.
While the mechanism of corrosion fa-
tigue cracking is generally understood,
there is a need to understand the corro-
sion fatigue behavior on a more funda-
mental basis in order to assess the relative
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 3 A Photograph of a weld cladding with extensive circumferential cracks; B cross-sectional
scanning electron photomicrograph of several small cracks early in the cracking stage; C distribution
of alloying elements across the dendritic substructure of the cladding; D photograph showing crack ini-
tiation at the valley of the weld ripple.
A B
D C
cracking susceptibility of candidate alloys
and coating processes. In order to accom-
plish this, an experimental technique
needs to be developed that accurately sim-
ulates the corrosion fatigue mechanism of
weld cladding in service. Typically, fatigue
tests involve the use of standard specimen
configurations such as
compact tension (C(T))
or single edge-notched
(SEN). These types of
tests involve fatigue
crack propagation using
a single crack design.
While this type of ap-
proach offers the ability
to measure propagation
rates of isolated cracks,
it is not entirely ade-
quate for studying the
corrosion fatigue behav-
ior of weld cladding in
combustion conditions
for several reasons.
First, these approaches
do not provide informa-
tion on the corrosion fa-
tigue crack initiation
behavior of multiple
cracks. Since crack initi-
ation can comprise a
large portion of the fa-
tigue life, it is impera-
tive that the crack
initiation behavior be
characterized. Addi-
tionally, single crack ex-
periments do not take
into account the effect
of crack interactions on
the crack propagation
behavior. Numerous
circumferential cracks
form on the surface of
Ni-based weld cladding
during service (Refs. 9,
13). A series of cracks
on the surface can alter
the crack propagation behavior by reduc-
ing the stress intensity factors to a level
well below that of a single isolated crack
(Refs. 14, 15). Therefore, in order to un-
derstand the corrosion fatigue resistance,
the effects of crack interactions need to be
considered. This includes understanding
the crack initiation behavior that affects
the crack depths and distribution.
Figure 9 shows a recently developed
corrosion fatigue cracking test apparatus
involving a Gleeble thermomechanical
simulator. With this test, a retort is posi-
tioned around the sample to allow the ap-
plication of simulated combustion gases.
The test sample is resistively heated to a
constant temperature of 600C, which is a
typical surface temperature of Ni-based
claddings in service. A representative
(Refs. 16, 17) sulfidizing gas of N
2
-
10%CO-5%CO
2
-0.12%H
2
S circulated
through the retort during the test. Corro-
sion fatigue tests to date have been con-
ducted with an alternating stress profile
involving a minimum tensile stress of 0
MPa and a maximum tensile stress of 300
MPa. The minimum and maximum
stresses were alternated every five min
(ten-min fatigue cycles). A maximum
stress of 300 MPa was chosen because it is
above the 200 MPa yield strength of Alloy
622 at 600C. This was done to simulate
the residual tensile stresses that develop in
the waterwall tubes that cause significant
yielding.
The validity of the experimental ap-
proach was first examined by comparing
the laboratory-induced cracking mecha-
nism to the established mechanism from
field samples (Ref. 9). Figure 10A demon-
strates the layered multiphasic scales that
developed on the surface of the samples.
An embryonic corrosion fatigue crack is
shown, which formed within the multilay-
ered corrosion scale. Figure 10B shows the
initiation of a corrosion fatigue crack at a
preferentially corroded dendrite core (the
corrosion scale was removed by the etch-
ing process). These results are consistent
with the corrosion fatigue mechanism ob-
served on field samples. Figure 10C and D
illustrates that the mature corrosion fa-
tigue cracks propagated down the main
axis of the dendrite cores and exhibit a sec-
ondary or spinal phase along the length
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 4 Thermogravimetric results from the gaseous corrosion testing for Alloy 600 (A) and Alloy 622 (B).
Fig. 5 Light optical photomicrographs of the 300-h corrosion sample of
the weld cladding after it was etched to reveal the dendritic substructure. Note
that preferential corrosion has occurred at the dendrite cores (arrows).
A B
of the crack. This is also consistent with
the corrosion fatigue mechanism observed
from examination of samples removed
from the field. Figure 11 shows represen-
tative images of corrosion fatigue cracks in
weld cladding samples tested out to 440
cycles. Figure 11A shows the presence of a
small corrosion fatigue crack after 25 cy-
cles. This observation indicates that cor-
rosion fatigue cracks initiated relatively
quickly as a result of the accelerated test
conditions. Thus, the experimental ap-
proach was able to accurately reproduce
the corrosion fatigue mechanism in a rel-
atively short amount of time. Additionally,
multiple corrosion fatigue cracks were ap-
parent within each of the samples after 25
cycles, indicating that cracks continuously
formed throughout the test. The variation
in the corrosion fatigue crack depths with
increasing number of corrosion fatigue cy-
cles further supports this conclusion. Se-
rial sectioning and quantitative image
analysis techniques have recently been
used to measure the frequency and depths
of corrosion fatigue cracks that develop
during this test. As an example, Fig. 12
compares the maximum crack depths of a
cladding applied with the GMAW process
to that of a laser weld cladding. Note that
the laser weld cladding exhibits better per-
formance than the GMAW cladding in
terms of both time to crack initiation and
crack depth for a given number of cycles.
Work is currently in progress to under-
stand the microstructural differences that
account for this improvement in corro-
sion-fatigue cracking resistance and to test
other coating systems, such as the coex-
truded coating described above.
Welding of IN740H for Ultrasuper
critical Power Plants
As described above, advanced ultra-
supercritical (AUSC) power plants are
currently being designed to operate at
higher pressures and temperatures for in-
creased efficiency. These more aggressive
operating conditions place heavy demands
on tubing and piping components within
the plants, particularly with regard to
creep resistance. Figure 13 (Ref. 18) shows
the maximum allowable stress as a func-
tion of temperature for a wide range of
stainless steels and nickel alloys. The tem-
peratures and pressures associated with
AUSC conditions are expected to be
~ 1300 1400F (704 760C) and 4500
lb/in.
2
(31 MPa), respectively. Note that
these operating conditions lie on the
upper bound of allowable stresses and
temperatures even for the commonly used
solid solution strengthened Ni alloys. This
situation represents a significant challenge
to the successful implementation of these
newer, more efficient plants. In response
to this need, a new precipitation-strength-
ened nickel-based superalloy has recently
been developed known as IN740H. This
alloy has significant additions of Nb, Ti,
and Al in order to form the precipitate
for high-temperature creep strength. Ex-
tensive fabrication by fusion welding will
be required on this alloy during plant con-
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
A B
Fig. 6 EDS line scan. A Acquired across the dendritic substructure of the weld cladding showing the composition profiles for Fe, Ni, and Cr; B acquired
across the dendritic substructure of the weld cladding showing Mo depletion at dendrite cores.
Fig. 7 Light optical photomicrograph showing the microstructure of the
coextruded coating.
Fig. 8 EDS line scan acquired across several grains of the coating.
struction and subsequent maintenance.
Thus, retention of the creep properties of
the welds is of primary importance.
Figure 14 shows recent results from
Oak Ridge National Laboratory (Ref. 19)
that compares the stress rupture proper-
ties of wrought IN740H tube material to
that of cross-weld samples, where a signif-
icant reduction in the weld metal creep life
is apparent. These results have required
the use of a weld strength reduction factor
for the welds of 0.70, which can place
rather appreciable restrictions on the load-
bearing capacity of welded components.
Thus, it is important to understand the
cause of this reduced creep strength so
that a viable solution can be developed.
Electron microscopy techniques have
recently been used (Refs. 20, 21) to char-
acterize both base metal and weld samples
exposed to a wide range of creep test con-
ditions in order to identify the cause for
the reduced creep life in the welds. Figure
15 compares scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) photomicrographs of base metal
and weld samples after creep testing. The
base metal sample exhibits a uniform dis-
tribution of precipitates directly up to
the grain boundary. In contrast, the weld
metal has precipitate-free zones (PFZs) at
the grain boundaries, and the creep voids
that initiate premature failure in the weld
are commonly observed to initiate at the
PFZs. The localized creep-failure along
these PFZs is generally attributed to their
lower strength due to the lack of a dense
population of fine precipitates. The
presence of PFZs in creep-resistant alloys
has been observed in many alloy systems
and been attributed to a number of differ-
ent formation mechanisms, including
stress-assisted diffusion associated with
Nabarro-Herring (NH) creep conditions,
grain boundary carbide formation, and
discontinuous precipitation/coarsening
(DPC) (Refs. 2234). Each mechanism is
associated with a set of unique mi-
crostructural features that can be used to
identify the responsible mechanism, which
is critical for formulating a solution. While
a complete review of these mechanisms is
beyond the scope of this paper, several dis-
tinguishing characteristics are worthy of
discussion.
Nabarro-Herring creep and grain
boundary carbide formation will each pro-
duce PFZs that are symmetric about the
grain boundary. In addition, the coarse
secondary phases within the PFZs typically
exhibit a globular morphology. Precipi-
tate-free zones formed under NH creep
conditions have the added feature of being
dependent on the direction of applied
stress, where the PFZs will form normal to
the applied stress direction. In contrast,
PFZs that form due to DPC exhibit a
lamellar morphology and are asymmetric
about the grain boundary (i.e., the PFZ
will be confined to one grain). These fea-
tures are the result of precipitation (or
coarsening) in the presence of a moving
boundary. Figure 16 shows the lamellar
morphology that is commonly observed
with the PFZs in welds of IN740H that
have been creep tested. Transmission elec-
tron miscroscope techniques have been
used to confirm that the coarse secondary
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 9 A A corrosion fatigue sample that has been clamped into the grips of the Gleeble; B the retort that has been designed to seal around a corrosion
fatigue sample and allow for the application of corrosive gas.
Fig. 10 A Multilayer corrosion scale that develops under the simulated combustion conditions; B
corrosion fatigue cracks initiating at the alloy-depleted dendrite cores. (The etching process removed
the corrosion scale on the surface of the sample); C, D a mature corrosion fatigue crack that propa-
gated down a dendrite core. A secondary phase was observed along the length of crack.
A
B
A B
C
D
phase within the PFZ is . Figure 17
shows electron backscattered diffraction
(EBSD) patterns acquired across the
boundary that contains a PFZ. The EBSD
patterns demonstrate that the PFZ is lo-
cated entirely in Grain 2. Detailed com-
parisons of creep samples from a wide
range of test conditions also showed that
there was no relation between the PFZ
orientation to that of the applied stress. It
is worth noting that similar PFZs are oc-
casionally observed in the base metal of
IN740H after creep. However, the base
metal requires significantly longer times
(or higher temperatures) for PFZ forma-
tion. Thus, the reduced creep strength in
welds of IN740H can be attributed to en-
hanced susceptibility to PFZ formation as-
sociated with DPC.
The enhanced driving force for PFZs
in the weld metal can be understood with
reference to Figs. 18 and 19. Figure 18
shows results from EDS traces acquired
across the dendritic substructure of the
weld. The data points reflect the average
and standard deviation from multiple
measurements, while the lines represent
results from Scheil solidification simula-
tions (Ref. 20). Note there is good agree-
ment between the model and
experimental results. In this case, the cal-
culations are probably more reflective of
the actual compositions within the very
edge of the interdendritic regions due to
the spatial resolution limitations of the
electron beam (which is about 1 m
3
) and
the large concentration gradient within the
interdendritic region. The results also
show that, due to microsegregation, the
concentrations of Ti and Nb are higher at
the grain boundary and interdendritic re-
gions (the Al concentration is also slightly
higher). The increased localized concen-
tration of these forming elements is im-
portant, since it causes an increased
supersaturation beyond the solubility
limit, thus leading to the enhanced grain
boundary precipitation shown in Fig. 19.
Classical solutions to the diffusion equa-
tions associated with precipitation (Ref.
35) reveal that the growth rate of the pre-
cipitate/matrix interface is directly pro-
portional to the degree of supersaturation
in the matrix, C
o
. Here, C
o
can be
viewed as the driving force for precipita-
tion and is given by the difference between
the actual matrix concentration and the
solubility limit at a given temperature. Fig-
ure 20 shows the C
o
values (at 800C,
the typical operating temperature) associ-
ated with the forming elements Nb, Ti,
and Al that demonstrate the significantly
enhanced driving force for precipitation
associated with interdendritic microsegre-
gation. Also note from Fig. 19 that there
is significant grain boundary curvature.
This could be associated with the original
(nonequilibrium) grain boundary curva-
ture typical in the as-solidified condition,
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 11 Corrosion fatigue cracks observed in the GMAW cladding. A 25
cycles; B 50 cycles; C 100 cycles; D 442 cycles.
Fig. 13 Maximum allowable stress as a function of temperature for a wide
range of stainless steels and nickel alloys.
Fig. 12 A Average crack depths; B maximum crack depths for the
GMAW and laser weld cladding samples.
Fig. 14 Recent results from Oak Ridge National Laboratory that compares
the stress rupture properties of wrought IN740H tube material to that of cross-
weld samples.
A
B
C
D
which would then provide the driving force
for boundary movement. The observed cur-
vature could also possibly be the result of
the DPC process itself. Work is in progress
to more clearly understand the factors lead-
ing to boundary migration.
Work is also in progress to explore new
filler metal compositions that should be
more resistant to the formation of PFZs
during creep. Meanwhile, the results pre-
sented above demonstrate that a postweld
heat treatment (PWHT) that homogenizes
microsegregation within the weld may help
to minimize the problem of PFZ formation.
Dissolution of secondary phases that form
during solidification may also be helpful. In
light of this, it is important to establish the
influence of time and temperature on the
homogenization kinetics of welds in
IN740H. A study in this area has recently
been completed and is summarized below
(Ref. 20).
The most convenient PWHT would per-
mit dissolution of secondary phases and ho-
mogenization in a single initial step,
followed by a subsequent aging treatment.
However, it must be recognized that the
local increases in solute concentration
within the interdendritic regions will cause
a corresponding decrease in the local
solidus temperature. This, in turn, could
lead to localized melting within the solute-
enriched interdendritic regions if the initial
PWHT is too high. This is demonstrated in
Fig. 21, which shows the stability of various
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 15 Scanning electron microscopy photomicrographs of base metal and weld samples of Alloy IN740H after creep testing.
Fig. 16 Scanning electron microscope photomicrograph showing the lamellar
morphology that is commonly observed with the PFZs in welds of IN740H that
have been creep tested.
Fig. 17 Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD)
patterns acquired across the boundary of a weld in
IN740H that contains a PFZ. The EBSD patterns
demonstrate that the PFZ is located entirely in Grain 2.
phases as a function of temperature in
IN740H for the base metal nominal com-
position (Fig. 21A, B) and for a value of
0.99 fraction solid that is representative of
the interdendritic composition Fig.
21C, D. (Figure 21B, D shows the same re-
sults as Figs. 21A and 22C, but over a nar-
rower temperature range for clarification.)
Note that, if the heat treatment was based
on the nominal composition of the base
metal, the results suggest that the initial
PWHT step could be conducted slightly
beyond 1300C before any problems from
localized melting (also note that the MC
carbide will still be stable at these high
temperatures). However, when dendritic
segregation is properly considered (Fig.
21C, D), the results demonstrate that the
initial PWHT temperature should not ex-
ceed about 1150C to avoid localized melt-
ing in the interdendritic regions. These
results emphasize the importance of de-
signing PWHT schedules based on the ac-
tual phase stability in the fusion zone as
affected by compositional gradients.
Figure 22 shows the results of DIC-
TRA calculations for IN740H that demon-
strate the homogenization kinetics.
Results are shown for the concentration
gradient of Nb, since this is the slowest dif-
fusing element in the system and therefore
the rate-limiting step. The calculations
show that a PWHT at 1100C for four h
should eliminate the microsegregation,
and this has been confirmed by experi-
mental measurements (Fig. 23). Once the
homogenization is complete, a higher tem-
perature solution temperature can be uti-
lized if needed for more complete
dissolution of secondary phases. Although
it is recognized that the 1100C/4-h treat-
ment is not practical for a PWHT con-
ducted in the field, the results can be ap-
plied to shop fabrication conditions. As
mentioned previously, the potential for a
more practical solution through design of
tailored filler metals is needed and is cur-
rently being pursued.
Fusion Welding of Gd-Enriched Ni
Alloys for Spent Nuclear Fuel
Applications
Nuclear fuel plays an important role in
energy production in the United States
and throughout the world, and the use of
nuclear power is expected to rise over the
coming years. One of the major challenges
associated with nuclear fuel is the handling
of spent nuclear fuel (e.g., nuclear waste).
Safe disposition of spent nuclear fuel re-
quires the development of thermal neu-
tron-absorbing structural materials for
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 18 EDS traces acquired across the dendritic substructure of a weld in IN740H. The data points reflect the average and standard deviation from multi-
ple measurements, while the lines represent results from Scheil solidification simulations.
A B
Fig. 19 SEM photomicrograph showing how increased localized concen-
tration of -forming elements produces enhanced grain boundary precipi-
tation in fusion welds on Alloy IN740H.
Fig. 20 C
o
values at 800C associated with the -forming elements Nb,
Ti, and Al that demonstrate the significantly enhanced driving force for pre-
cipitation in the interdendritic regions of welds in Alloy IN740H.
nuclear criticality control. These materials
will be used for the internal baskets that
separate spent fuel assemblies and are re-
quired for structural support, spent nu-
clear fuel geometry control, and nuclear
criticality safety. Given the large quantity
of material required for this application,
the material should be producible with
conventional fabrication methods such as
ingot casting and hot working. Ultimately,
the material will be formed and welded
into an internal structure that will cradle
the fuel and maintain a specified geome-
try, so the material must also exhibit good
weldability.
Recent research (Refs. 3638) has fo-
cused on development of gadolinium-
(Gd) enriched Ni-based alloys for this ap-
plication. Gd serves as an effective alloy
addition for this application because it has
a very high neutron absorption cross sec-
tion (Refs. 23, 39). The results of recent
research has also shown that Gd additions
at the nominal 2 wt-% level can success-
fully be added to the commercial Ni-based
C-4 alloy while maintaining adequate hot
workability, weldability, and mechanical
properties.
The current plan for fusion welding of
this alloy involves the use of a Gd-free
commercial filler metal such as Alloy C-4
or 59. With this approach, the Gd content
in the fusion zone will vary with weld metal
dilution, and the dilution level is strongly
affected by the welding parameters (Refs.
40, 41). Considering the case in which a
base metal containing 2 wt-% Gd is
welded with a Gd-free filler metal, the
concentration of Gd in the fusion zone will
vary linearly with dilution and can be close
to 0 wt-% Gd (at low dilution values) to 2
wt-% Gd (for an autogenous weld in
which the dilution is 100%). The welding
parameters are typically selected based on
the required weld size and joint design re-
quirements, and a wide range of welding
parameters can be expected in practice.
This, in turn, can produce a wide range of
fusion zone Gd concentration values. The
Gd concentration can also vary through-
out the fusion zone of a given weld in mul-
tiplepass welding applications. Recent
research has shown that Gd controls the
solidification behavior of this alloy. In par-
ticular, the solidification temperature
range and amount of terminal eutectic-
type constituents that form at the end of
solidification are essentially dominated by
the Gd concentration (Ref. 38). In addi-
tion, it has also been well established that
the solidification cracking susceptibility is
also strongly affected by the solidification
temperature range and amount of termi-
nal eutectic-type constituents that form
during solidification of the fusion zone
(Refs. 42, 43). Thus, it is important to de-
termine the influence of Gd concentration
on the solidification cracking susceptibil-
ity of Alloy C-4 so that these structural
materials can be welded while maintaining
their structural integrity.
Figure 24 shows the influence of Gd on
the solidification cracking susceptibility of
Alloy C-4. The cracking susceptibility is
low for the Gd-free base alloy. The crack-
ing susceptibility then increases with in-
creasing Gd concentration up to ~1 wt-%
Gd and then decreases to a level that is
similar to the base alloy at Gd concentra-
tions of 1.5 to 2.5 wt-%. Typical mi-
crostructures of the Varestraint samples
are shown in Fig. 25. No significant crack
healing due to backfilling of solute-rich
liquid occurred in the alloy with 1.01 wt-%
Gd. Similar results were obtained with the
alloy that had 0 and 0.46 wt-% Gd. How-
ever, a significant amount of crack healing
was observed in the alloys that had addi-
tions of Gd at the 1.49 wt-% level and
above.
The Varestraint weldability results
show that the cracking susceptibility
reaches a maximum at ~ 1 wt-% Gd, and
decreases with both higher and lower Gd
additions. Previous research (Refs. 42, 43)
has shown that the solidification cracking
susceptibility of engineering alloys is
strongly affected by the solidification tem-
perature range and amount of terminal
eutectic-type constituent that forms at the
end of solidification. Solidification of
these alloys initiates at the liquidus tem-
perature by the formation of primary
austenite. Essentially, no Gd is dissolved
in the austenite matrix. Thus, as solidifica-
tion proceeds, the liquid becomes increas-
ingly enriched in Gd until the Liquid
+ Ni
5
Gd eutectic-type reaction is reached,
at which point solidification is terminated.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 21 Stability of various phases as a function of temperature in IN740H for the base metal nominal
composition (Fig. 21A, B) and for a value of 0.99 fraction solid that is representative of the interdendritic
composition (Fig. 21C, D) in fusion welds.
Fig. 22 DICTRA calculations for IN740H that
demonstrate the homogenization kinetics. Results are
shown for the concentration gradient of Nb, since this
is the slowest diffusing element in the system and
therefore the rate-limiting step.
A
D
C
B
This reaction sequence and temperature
range is generally similar to that expected
in the binary Ni-Gd system. Simple binary
Ni-Gd alloys with less than about 13 wt-%
Gd exhibit a similar two-step solidification
sequence consisting of primary austenite
formation followed by a terminal eutectic
reaction involving the Ni
17
Gd
2
inter-
metallic at 1275C (Ref. 44). By compari-
son, the multicomponent Ni-Cr-Mo-Gd
alloys examined here complete solidifica-
tion at ~ 1258C by a terminal eutectic-
type reaction involving the Ni
5
Gd inter-
metallic. Thus, although the secondary
phase within the terminal eutectic con-
stituent is different in each case, the ter-
minal reaction temperatures are very
similar. In fact, as shown in Fig. 26, a
pseudo binary solidification diagram has
recently been developed (Ref. 38) for this
alloy that is similar to the phase diagram
of a binary eutectic alloy. In this case, the
solvent is represented by the Ni-Cr-Mo
solid solution -austenite phase and Gd
is treated as the solute element. Although
the diagram does not account for the
minor variation in matrix Mo concentra-
tion that occurs due to microsegregation,
the similarity of this -Gd binary system
to a binary eutectic system is readily evi-
dent in several ways, including the as-
solidified microstructure consists of pri-
mary dendrites surrounded by an inter-
dendritic eutectic-type constituent in
which the secondary phase in the eutectic
is solute rich; the amount of eutectic-type
constituent increases with increasing
solute content; and the proportional
amount of each phase within the eutectic
constituent is relatively insensitive to nom-
inal solute content (Ref. 38). Also note
that the eutectic temperature is not
strongly dependent on the nominal Gd-
concentration.
The pseudo binary diagram developed
for these alloys is useful for interpreting
the weldability results because it permits
direct determination of the solidification
temperature range and amount of termi-
nal /Ni
5
Gd eutectic constituent as a
function of Gd concentration. The frac-
tion of terminal /Ni
5
Gd eutectic con-
stituent (f
e
) that forms during
solidification can be calculated with the
Scheil equation (Ref. 45) via
(1)
where C
Gd
e
is the concentration of Gd in
the liquid at the eutectic reaction (14.7 wt-
% Gd, Fig. 26), C
Gd
o
is the nominal Gd
concentration, and k is the distribution co-
efficient for Gd. Equation 1 is valid for
conditions in which the diffusivity of solute
(Gd) in the solvent () is insignificant. Pre-
vious work (Ref. 37) has shown that es-
sentially no Gd is dissolved in the
matrix, which results in the equivalent con-
dition of negligible solute diffusivity in the
solvent. The lack of Gd solubility in
austenite also indicates that k for Gd is 0,
and Equation 3 reduces simply to
(2)
The solidification temperature range of
fusion welds is best represented by the
separation between the on-heating liq-
uidus temperature (T
L
) and on-cooling
eutectic temperature (T
e
) because solidi-
fication initiates epitaxially at the weld in-
terface without the need for undercooling
(Refs. 46, 47). As mentioned previously
and discussed in more detail elsewhere
(Ref. 38), the eutectic temperature (T
e
)
does not vary significantly with Gd con-
centration and can be represented by an
average value of T
e
= 1258C. The liq-
uidus line in Fig. 26 can be expressed by a
simple linear equation of the form
(3)
where T
o
is the melting point of the Ni-Cr-
Mo solvent and m
L
is the liquidus slope.
Linear regression analysis of the phase di-
agram leads to values of T
o
= 1422C and
m
L
= 11.2C/wt-% Gd. Thus, the solidi-
fication temperature range (T) can be di-
rectly determined as a function of Gd
concentration via
(4)
The solidification temperature range is
important from a weldability perspective be-
cause it controls the size of the solid + liq-
uid mushy zone that trails the fully molten
weld pool. Assuming a constant tempera-
ture gradient in the solid + liquid region
(i.e., fixed welding parameters and sample
size/geometry), the size of the mushy region
is given simply by the ratio of the solidifica-
tion temperature range to temperature gra-
dient. Thus, alloys with narrow solidification
temperature ranges are generally crack re-
sistant because the mushy zone is relatively
small. The influence of the amount of ter-
minal eutectic liquid is a bit more compli-
cated. At very low amounts of terminal
liquid, the cracking resistance is generally
not adversely affected because there is not
enough liquid to cover the solidification
grain boundaries and interdendritic regions.
Thus, solid-solid boundaries can be easily
f
C
C
e
e
Gd
o
Gd
k
1
1
=
f
C
C
e
o
Gd
e
Gd
=
T T m C
L o L o
Gd
= +
T T m C T
o l o
Gd
e
= +
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 23 Semiquantitative (standardless) XEDS line scan across dendrites in a single-pass
GTA weld of Alloy 740H after homogenization at 1100C for 4 h. A Light optical micro-
graph of region of interest; B SEM micrograph of region of interest; C concentration
profile for major alloying elements; D concentration profile for -forming elements.
Fig. 24 Varestraint results showing maximum crack length as a
function of Gd concentration in Alloy C-4.
established without interference from the
liquid, and the cracking resistance is gener-
ally good. (The presence of surface-active
elements that modify the solid/liquid sur-
face energy and promote extensive wetting
of the boundaries by the liquid at even small
liquid fractions can alter this general trend.)
As the fraction of terminal eutectic liquid
increases, the liquid more extensively wets
the boundaries, thus interfering with the
formation of solid-solid boundaries and
causing an increase in the cracking suscep-
tibility. At considerably higher fractions of
liquid, backfilling of cracks can occur by the
liquid and heal the cracks as they form. This
phenomenon is similar to liquid feeding by
risers used to control solidification shrink-
age defects in castings.
With this background in mind, the in-
fluence of Gd concentration on the crack-
ing susceptibility, amount of terminal
eutectic constituent, and solidification
temperature range are summarized in Fig.
27. The lines in the bottom two figures
represent the fraction eutectic and solidi-
fication temperature range, respectively,
calculated with the equations above, and
there is good agreement between the cal-
culated and measured values. This sup-
ports the use of a pseudo binary analog for
modeling the solidification behavior of
these alloys. More importantly, the results
provide a basis for developing a detailed
understanding of the weldability results.
At low Gd concentrations, the solidifica-
tion temperature range is high, but the
fraction of terminal eutectic liquid is very
low. Thus, the cracking susceptibility is
low. As the Gd concentration increases,
there is only a slight decrease in the solid-
ification temperature range, but a rather
significant increase in the fraction of ter-
minal eutectic liquid. This leads to the in-
crease in cracking susceptibility shown in
Fig. 27 that reaches a maximum at ~ 1 wt-
% Gd. With still increasing amounts of
Gd, the amount of terminal liquid in-
creases to the point where cracking sus-
ceptibility decreases due to backfilling of
solidification cracks. The reduction in the
solidification temperature range with in-
creasing Gd concentration also assists in
decreasing the cracking susceptibility. The
amount of terminal liquid required to pro-
mote backfilling has been suggested to be
in the range of 710 vol-% (Ref. 48). The
results in Fig. 27 support this, where the
cracking susceptibility is observed to de-
crease when the fraction of terminal eu-
tectic reaches this range. This occurs when
the Gd concentration reaches ~1.5 wt-%.
This phenomenon is also supported by di-
rect observation of backfilling that became
appreciable when the Gd reached 1.5 wt-
%, as shown in Fig. 25.
These effects can be evaluated in more
quantitative detail by combining solidifi-
cation theory with simple heat flow equa-
tions for determining both the size of the
crack-susceptible region of the solid + liq-
uid mushy zone and variation in fraction
liquid with distance within the mushy re-
gion. The well-known Scheil equation can
also be used to calculate the fraction of liq-
uid (f
L
) as a function of temperature via
(5)
where, as before, T
o
is the melting point of
the Ni-Cr-Mo solvent and T
L
is the liq-
uidus temperature of the alloy (as affected
by Gd concentration). T is the actual tem-
perature. Noting that k for Gd is 0, Equa-
tion 6 reduces simply to
(6)
The variation in temperature within the
solid + liquid region can be estimated
using the Rosenthal heat flow solution
(Ref. 49) which, for three-dimensional
heat flow, is given by
(7)
where T is the actual temperature, T
p
is
the preheat temperature, is the heat
source transfer efficiency, P is the arc
power, h is the thermal conductivity of the
base metal, is the thermal diffusivity of
the base metal, S is the heat source travel
speed, r is the radial distance from the
heat source, and x is the distance behind
the heat source. The weld centerline is of
the most interest here because this is the
location where the temperature gradient
is the lowest and, as a result, where the
crack-susceptible solid + liquid region is
the largest. This accounts for the experi-
mental observation of the maximum crack
length occurring in the weld centerline re-
gion. At the weld centerline, r = x and
Equation 7 reduces t
f
T T
T T
L
o
o L
k
1
1
1
]
1
for f
T T
T T
k 0
L
o L
o

T T
p
hr
S r x
2
exp
2
p

( )
+

_
,
1
]
1
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 25 Microstructures of the Varestraint samples from Alloy C-4 alloyed with various concentrations
of Gd. A 1.01 wt-% Gd; B 1.49 wt-% Gd; C 1.90 wt-% Gd; D 2.45 wt-% Gd.
A
B
C
D
Fig. 26 Pseudo-binary solidification diagram de-
veloped for Gd-enriched Alloy C-4.
(8)
Equation 8 permits an estimate of the
temperature variation (T) with position
(x) behind the heat source. Thus, these
equations can be combined to obtain an
expression between the fraction liquid (f
L
)
and distance along the centerline of the
weld x
(9)
This expression is useful because it per-
mits direct estimation of both the variation
in fraction liquid with location and the size
of the crack-susceptible region of the
mushy zone as a function of alloy parame-
ters (T
o
, m
L
, h, k, C
o
gd
) and welding pa-
rameters (T
o
, P). The solid + liquid region
will exist where the temperature is be-
tween T
L
and T
e
, and the fraction liquid
will vary from 1 at T = T
L
to f
e
at T = T
e
.
Figure 28 shows calculated f
L
x curves
for the Gd-containing alloys evaluated
here. The curves have all been
shifted so that the reference
point is taken as distance from
the solid/liquid interface where
f
L
= 1 (instead of distance from
the heat source). This shift per-
mits more direct comparison be-
tween curves of different
nominal Gd concentrations. The
terminal fraction eutectic values
(f
e
) calculated to form at the
edge of the mushy zone for each
alloy are also noted in the figure.
It should be noted that the vari-
ation in temperature with position calcu-
lated through Equation 8 is not expected
to be highly accurate due to the assump-
tions invoked to arrive at the Rosenthal
solution, most notably that the thermal
properties are assumed constant with tem-
perature and the heat flow via convection
in the melt pool is ignored. However, the
objective here is to evaluate the influence
of nominal composition on the solid + liq-
uid zone characteristics and resultant
weldability under identical heat flow con-
ditions. In view of this, it is only required
to have an estimate of the functional form
of the temperature variation with the
mushy zone. As demonstrated by the good
comparison between experimental and
calculated values of T and f
e
, the influ-
ence of nominal composition on mushy
zone characteristics can be accurately cap-
tured with these equations. This is also
confirmed by noting that the experimen-
tally determined maximum crack lengths
shown in Fig. 24 and the calculated mushy
zone sizes shown in Fig. 28 are of similar
size. Solidification cracks are not expected
to propagate through the high tempera-
ture region of the mushy zone where the
liquid fraction is high because solid-solid
boundaries have not yet begun to form in
these regions, but rather are constrained
to a region within the mushy zone. Thus,
the maximum crack length values should
be less than the size of the mushy region,
and this trend is certainly observed by the
maximum crack lengths shown in Fig. 27
and the mushy zone sizes shown in Fig. 28.
More importantly, the calculated f
L
x
curves, combined with the experimental
weldability results, aid in the development
of a more detailed understanding on the
influence of Gd on the mushy zone char-
acteristics and resultant cracking suscepti-
bility. At the lowest Gd concentration
(0.46 wt-%), the mushy zone is the largest
because the solidification temperature
range is the widest. In addition, much of
the mushy zone is occupied by relatively
low f
L
values. For example, the fraction
liquid only varies from 0.03 at the edge of
the mushy zone (at x 1.4 mm) to 0.07 at
a distance of 0.5 mm behind the solid/liq-
uid interface, (i.e., ~ 65% of the mushy
zone is occupied by 0.03 < f
L
< 0.07). This
liquid fraction range is high enough to
cause moderate cracking, but too low for
appreciable backfilling and healing of the
cracks. The mushy zone size for the 1.01
wt-% Gd alloy is slightly reduced due to
the smaller solidification temperature
range. However, the higher amount of liq-
uid present in the trailing edge of the
mushy zone aggravates cracking by pre-
venting the formation of solid/solid
boundaries, and the terminal fraction liq-
uid value of 0.07 is too low to permit heal-
ing of cracks by backfilling. This suggests
that, at a terminal value of fe 0.07 and
below, the liquid from the molten pool is
cutoff from cracks that form in the mushy
zone because the solid dendritic morphol-
ogy is well developed.
T T
p
hx 2
p
= +

f
m C
T T
p
hx 2
L
l o
Gd
o p
=

+
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 27 Influence of Gd concentration on the cracking sus-
ceptibility, amount of terminal eutectic constituent, and solidi-
fication temperature range in Alloy C-4.
Fig. 28 Calculated f
L
- x curves for various Gd- containing C-4 alloys.
At Gd concentrations of 1.49 wt-% and
higher, the f
L
values never drop below 0.10
in the mushy zone. Also note that the f
L
values do not decrease as substantially
with increasing distance for these higher
Gd alloys. Each of these factors would
help promote a more continuous liquid
phase between the fully molten weld pool
and the solid + liquid mushy zone, thus
permitting the backfilling that was ob-
served experimentally. The decrease in so-
lidification temperature range that occurs
due to a reduction in the liquidus temper-
ature also contributes to the improved
cracking susceptibility of the alloys with
Gd concentration higher than 1.49 wt-%.
Summary
The ever-increasing demand to pro-
duce energy from a variety of ever-de-
creasing resources has created the need to
develop new plants that use existing fuel
sources more efficiently. This, in turn,
places a heavy demand on developing new
engineering alloys that can be utilized in
aggressive conditions that cannot be toler-
ated by existing alloy systems. As the alloys
become more complex, it is likely that they
will also be subjected to more complicated
changes in microstructure during the weld
thermal cycle. In view of this, it is impor-
tant for alloy producers, end users, and re-
search organizations to collaborate so that
welding technology can be developed in
parallel with the discovery of new materi-
als. This approach will permit strategic
changes to new alloys during the design
stage, thus avoiding the potential for lim-
ited use of newly developed alloys in ap-
plications where welding is required.
It is important to note that many of the
inferior properties of fusion welds are re-
lated to the steep gradients in chemical
composition and microstructure that form
across the heat-affected zone and fusion
zone. Thus, emphasis in future research
should be placed on understanding, con-
trolling, and where required, minimizing
these gradients through alloy and process
control. Computational modeling can play
a key role in this area by accelerating the un-
derstanding of microstructure and property
changes that occur during welding. While
significant progress is being made on the
front of microstructural modeling, much
work is still needed to predict mechanical
properties of welds from knowledge of the
microstructure. Similarly, techniques are
needed to determine long-term creep prop-
erties from short-term tests. This area is
particularly challenging because the long-
term creep properties are invariably con-
trolled by microstructural changes that
occur at very long times, and these changes
can be difficult to properly simulate with
short-term tests.
Lastly, training of graduate-level engi-
neers is also vitally important to ensure
safe and reliable operation of welded
structures that will be used in energy ap-
plications. While physical metallurgy
forms the basic discipline for understand-
ing the complex phase transformations
that occur during welding, the number of
engineers with basic skills in physical met-
allurgy has declined over the years as this
form of training gets replaced with other
modern materials topics in areas such as
nanotechnology, biotechnology, etc. While
these fields are certainly important, it is
equally important to ensure a sufficient
level of graduate engineers are trained to
meet the demands of industrial fabrication
and maintenance required in energy and
other areas that rely so heavily on manu-
facturing. Industry can play an important
role in this area through support of grad-
uate research programs in order to fill the
gap from government funding that has de-
clined over the years. A successful exam-
ple of industry/university collaboration is
currently represented by the National Sci-
ence Foundation Center on Integrated
Materials Joining Science for Energy Ap-
plications. This center is a joint effort
through four universities (Ohio State,
Lehigh, Colorado School of Mines, and
University of Wisconsin-Madison) that is
supported by both NSF and 31 member
companies. Research at the center is fo-
cused on a wide range of issues related to
joining for energy applications while si-
multaneously supporting ~ 30 graduate
students who are often hired by member
companies. This type of industry/univer-
sity collaboration is essential for continu-
ing to meet the future needs of welding
and metallurgical engineers.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknowledges fi-
nancial support of this work through the
NSF I/UCRC Center for Integrative Ma-
terials Joining Science for Energy Appli-
cations (CIMJSEA) under contract
#IIP-1034703 and the U.S. Department of
Energy, Assistant Secretary for Environ-
mental Management, under DOE Idaho
Operations Office Contract No. DE-
AC07-99ID13727. The author is also
grateful to collaborators who made signif-
icant contributions to the research pre-
sented in this study, including Drs. Charles
Robino and Ron Mizia and graduate stu-
dents Michael Minicozzi, Andrew Stock-
dale, and Daniel Bechetti.
References
1. Annual Energy Review. 2011. U.S. En-
ergy Information Administration, DOE/EIA-
Report 0384.
2. International Energy Outlook. 2013.
DOE.EIA Report 0484.
3. Pauling, L. 1938. The nature of the inter-
atomic forces in metals. Physical Review 54:
899904.
4. Jones, C. 1997. Power January/February,
pp. 5460.
5. Whitaker, R. 1982. EPRI Journal pp.
1825.
6. Urich, J. A., and Kramer, E. 1996. FACT
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 21:
2529.
7. Kung, S. C., and Bakker, W. T. 1997. Mater.
High Temp. 14: 175182.
8. Deacon, R. M., DuPont, J. N., and Marder,
A. R. 2007. Materials Science & Engineering A,
460-461: 392402.
9. Luer, K .R., DuPont, J. N., Marder, A. R.,
and Skelonis, C. K. 2001. Corrosion fatigue of
Alloy 625 weld claddings exposed to combustion
environments. Materials at High Temperatures, 18:
1119.
10. Dooley, R. B., and Chang, P. 1997. The
current status of boiler tube failures in fossil
plants. International Conference on Boiler Tube
Failures in Fossil Plants, EPRI, Nashville, Tenn.
11. DuPont, J. N., Stockdale, A. W., Caizza,
A., and Esposito, A. 2013. High temperature cor-
rosion behavior of Alloy 600 and 622 weld
cladding and coextruded coatings. Welding Jour-
nal 92(7): 218-s.
12. DuPont (primary author), J. N., Lippold,
J. C., and Kiser, S. D. 2009. Welding Metallurgy
and Weldability of Nickel Base Alloys, John Wiley
& Sons, Hoboken, N.J.
13. Lai, G. Y. 2007. High Temperature Corro-
sion and Materials Applications. ASM Interna-
tional, Materials Park, Ohio.
14. Nied, H. F. 1987. Periodic array of cracks
in a half-plane subjected to arbitrary loading.
Journal of Applied Mechanics 109: 642648.
15. Benthem, J. P., and Koiter, W. T. 1973. As-
ymptotic approximations to crack problems. G.
C. Sih ed. Methods of Analysis and Solutions of
Crack Problems. Noordhoff, Netherlands, pp.
131178.
16. Regina, J. R., DuPont, J. N., Marder, A.
R. 2004. Corrosion behavior of Fe-Al-Cr alloys in
sulfur- and oxygen-rich environments in the pres-
ence of pyrite. Corrosion, Houston, Tex., 60(5):
501509.
17. Regina, J. R., DuPont, J. N., and Marder,
A. R. 2005. Gaseous corrosion resistance of Fe-
Al-based alloys containing Cr additions Part I: Ki-
netic results. Mater Sci Eng, A, A404(1-2): 7178.
18. Viswanathan, R. 2003. Boiler materials for
USC plants. DOE-NETL Presentation.
www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/03/ma-
terials/Viswanathan.pdf.
19. Patel, S. J., deBarbadillo, J. J., Baker, B.
A., and Gollihue, R. D. 2013. Nickel base su-
peralloys for next generation coal fired AUSC
power plants. Procedia Engineering, 6th Interna-
tional Conference on Creep, Fatigue and Creep-
Fatigue Interaction, 55: 246252.
20. Bechetti, D. H., DuPont, J. N., deBar-
badillo, J. J., and Baker, B. A. 2013. Homoge-
nization and dissolution kinetics of fusion welds
in INCONEL Alloy 740H. Accepted for publi-
cation in Metallurgical and Materials Transactions.
21. Bechetti, D. H., and DuPont, J. N. 2013.
Microstructural evolution of IN740 fusion welds
during creep rupture. Manuscript in prepara-
tion for submission to Metallurgical and Materi-
als Transactions.
22. Kloc, L. 1996. On the symmetry of de-
nuded zones in diffusional creep. Scripta Mate-
rialia 35: 539541.
23. Cao, W. D., and Kennedy, R. L. 2001.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Thermal stability of Alloys 718 and Allvac 718-
ER (Ref. registered trademark). SUPERAL-
LOYS 718, 625, 706 and Various Derivatives, pp.
455464.
24. Baither, D., Herding, T., Krol, T., Re-
ichelt, R., and Nembach, E. 2001. The effects of
precipitation free zones on order strengthening
in NIMONIC PE16 bi-crystals. Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering A 319-321: 279283.
25. Krol, T., Baither, D., and Nembach, E.
Quantification of the detrimental effects of pre-
cipitate free zones on the yield strength of a su-
peralloy. Scripta Materialia 48: 11891194.
26. Krol, T., Baither, D., and Nembach, E.
2004. Softening of the superalloy NIMONIC
PE16 by precipitate free zones along grain
boundaries. Materials Science and Engineering
A 387-389: 214217.
27. Baither, D., Krol, T., and Nembach, E.
Dislocation processes in precipitate-free zones in
NIMONIC PE16 studied by in-situ transmission
electron microscopy. Materials Science and Engi-
neering A 387-389: 163166.
28. Wu, X.-J., and Koul, A. K. 1995. Grain
boundary sliding in the presence of grain bound-
ary precipitates during transient creep. Metallur-
gical and Materials Transactions A: Physical
Metallurgy and Materials Science 26 A, pp. 905
914.
29. Baither, D., Krol, T., and Nembach, E.
2003. In-situ transmission electron microscopy
study of dislocation processes at precipitate-free
zones in a -strengthened superalloy. Philosophi-
cal Magazine 83: 40114029.
30. Maldonado, R., and Nembach, E. 2007.
Formation of precipitate free zones and the
growth of grain boundary carbides in the nickel-
base superalloy NIMONIC PE16. Acta Materialia
45: 213224.
31. Qin, X. Z., Guo, J. T., Yuan, C., Chen, C.
L., and Ye, H. Q. 2007. Effects of long-term ther-
mal exposure on the microstructure and proper-
ties of a cast Ni-base superalloy. Special Section:
Symposium on Dynamic Behavior of Materials
(Part II) 38 A, 30143022.
32. Wadsworth, J., Ruano, O. A., and Sherby,
O. D. 2002. Denuded zones, diffusional creep,
and grain boundary sliding. 33: 219229.
33. McNee, K. R., Greenwood, G. W., and
Jones, H. 2002. The effect of stress orientation on
the formation of precipitate free zones during low
stress creep. Scripta Materialia 46: 437439.
34. Tien, J. K., Gamble, R. P. 1971. Influence
of Applied Stress and Stress Sense on Grain Bound-
ary Precipitate Morphology in a Nickel-Base Super-
alloy During Creep 2, 16631667.
35. Zener, C. 1949. Journal of Applied Physics,
20: 950959.
36. Hull, L., Pace, M., Lessing, P., Rogers, R.,
Mizia, R., Propp, A., Shaber, E., and Taylor, L.
2000. Advanced Neutron Absorbers for DOE SNF
Standardized Canisters Feasibility Study, Idaho
National Engineering and Environmental Labo-
ratory Report DOE/SNF/REP-057 Rev. 0.
37. DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., Michael, J.
R., Mizia, R. E., and Williams, D. B. 2004. Phys-
ical and welding metallurgy of Gd-enriched tions
Part II: Nickel base alloys. Welding Journal
83(11): 289-s to 300-s.
38. Susan, D. F., Robino, C. V., Minicozzi, M.
J., and DuPont, J. N. 2006. A solidification dia-
gram for Ni-Cr-Mo-Gd alloys estimated by quan-
titative microstructural characterization and
thermal analysis. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions, Vol. 37A, pp. 28172825.
39. Van Konynenburg, R. A., Curtis, P. G.,
Summers, T. S. E. 1998. Scoping corrosion tests
on candidate waste package basket materials
for the Yucca Mountain project. Report
UCRL-ID-130386, Lawrence Livermore Na-
tional Laboratory.
40. Mizia, R. E., Robino, C. V., and DuPont,
J. N. 2006. Development and testing of an ad-
vanced neutron absorbing gadolinium alloy for
spent fuel storage. Nuclear Technology, Vol. 155,
August.
41. DuPont, J. N., and Marder, A. R. 1996.
Dilution in single pass arc welds. Metallurgical and
Material Transactions B, Vol. 27B, pp. 481489.
42. Cieslak, M. J. 1991. The welding and so-
lidification metallurgy of Alloy 625. Welding Jour-
nal 70(2): 49-s to 56-s.
43. DuPont, J. N., Robino, C. V., and Marder,
A. R. 1998. Solidification and weldability of Nb-
bearing superalloys. Welding Journal 77(10): 417-
s to 431-s.
44. Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams. 1992. Vol. 3,
ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio.
45. Scheil, E. 1942. Z. Metallk. 34: 70.
46. David, S. A., and Vitek, J. M. 1989. Inter-
national Materials Review. 34: 213245.
47. Kou, S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy, 2nd Edi-
tion, pp. 170172, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken,
N.J.
48. Clyne, T. W., and Kurz, W. 1982. The ef-
fect of melt composition on solidification crack-
ing of steel, with particular reference to
continuous casting. Metall. Trans. B, Vol. 13A, pp.
259266.
49. Rosenthal, D. 1941. Welding Journal
20(5):220-s.
For more information visit our website at http://videos.aws.org or please contact:
Rob Saltzstein
salty@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 243
Sandra Jorgensen
sjorgensen@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 254
Lea Paneca
lea@aws.org
(800) 443-9353, ext. 220
By Placing Your Product Video on the AWS Website
Bring Brand
Awareness to Your Company

(800) 443
salty@aw
Rob Salt
For more in
(800) 443-
lea@aws.o
Lea Panec
3-9353, ext. 243
ws.org
tzstein
nformation visit our website a
9353, ext. 220
org
ca
(800) 443-935
sjorgensen@
Sandra Jorg
or p videos.aws.org http:///v t
53, ext. 254
@aws.org
ensen
please contact:
FEBRUARY 2014 VOL. 93 46-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Introduction
In the manual gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) process (Ref. 1), skilled human
welders can appraise the state of the weld
joint penetration by observing the weld
pool and adjusting the welding parameters
accordingly to control the welding process
to a desired penetration state. Because of
their versatile sensory capabilities and ex-
perience-based behavior, they are some-
times preferred over mechanized welding
machines. However, inconsistent concen-
tration, fatigue, and stress do build up such
that welders capabilities may degrade
during daily operations. On the other
hand, the performance of automated
welding machines can be maintained/guar-
anteed. The mechanism of a skilled
welders experience-based behavior thus
should be fully explored and utilized to de-
velop intelligent robotic welding systems
that combine a human welders intelli-
gence and physical capabilities of the
mechanized welding machines, which
paves the foundation for next-generation
manufacturing processes. Modeling skilled
welders responses, i.e., how they respond
to their sensed information, plays a funda-
mental role in facilitating such a develop-
ment. In addition, the resultant welder re-
sponse model may also be utilized to un-
derstand why less skilled welders are not
performing as well as skilled welders. The
welder training process can thus be accel-
erated in order to help resolve the skilled
welder shortage issue the manufacturing
industry is currently facing (Ref. 2).
Extensive research has been performed
to observe the weld pool using various
sensing techniques (Refs. 310). Among
these sensing methods, the vision-based
sensing method has received considerable
attention. The weld pool geometry is be-
lieved to provide abundant information
about the state of the welding process
(Refs. 1113). At the University of Ken-
tucky, a vision-based 3D weld pool sensing
system for the GTAW process was recently
developed and the weld pool was charac-
terized by its width, length, and convexity
(average height of the weld pool) (Ref.
14). However, despite the successes in
monitoring and characterizing the weld
pool, the interpreting and modeling of the
mechanism of human welder behavior re-
mains challenging (Refs. 15, 16).
Neuro-fuzzy approach (i.e., the fusion
of the neuro networks and fuzzy logic) de-
termines the parameters in fuzzy models
using learning techniques developed in
neural networks, and has been successfully
applied in various areas (Refs. 1719).
Jang (Ref. 20) developed the adaptive
neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) by
using a hybrid learning procedure. It pos-
sesses the advantages of adaptive rule-
changing capability, fast convergence rate,
and does not require extensive experi-
ences about the process to construct the
fuzzy rules. Recently, ANFIS was em-
ployed to model nonlinear functions, iden-
tify nonlinear components in control
systems, and predict chaotic time series
(Refs. 2123).
In this paper, a neuro-fuzzy model of
skilled human welder intelligence is pre-
sented. Welding experiments were con-
ducted by a skilled welder and the specular
3D weld pool surface was real-time meas-
ured by an innovative vision system (Ref.
14). A neuro-fuzzy model is constructed to
correlate the welders adjustments to 3D
weld pool characteristic parameters. In a
future study, the proposed human welder
model will be compared with that of the
novice welder and further utilized to de-
velop the intelligent welding machine that
possesses human welder intelligence, yet
free from human welder drawbacks.
Background
In this section, the principle of human
welders behavior in performing a welding
task and intelligent welding machines are
briefly described. The diagram of the
human welders behavior is shown in Fig.
1A. Given a certain welding task, a human
welder starts with some initial estimation
input I, including the current, arc length,
welding speed, etc. After the initial input of
the welding process, the welder perceives
direct information from the weld pool.
This sensing process is perturbed by a noise
representing the randomness of the human
welder such that the perceived information
slightly deviates from the actual information
. The human welder then compares the in-
formation observed from the welding
process and a certain goal in the welder's
Skilled Human Welder Intelligence Modeling
and Control: Part 1 Modeling
Experiments using an innovative vision system based on the skill of an
experienced welder were conducted to adjust the weld pool surface in real time
BY Y. K. LIU, Y. M. ZHANG, AND L. KVIDAHL
KEYWORDS
Skilled Welder Intelligence
Weld Pool
ANFIS Modeling
Machine Vision
GTAW
Y. K. LIU, and Y. M. ZHANG (yuming.zhang@
uky.edu) are with the Institute for Sustainable
Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Ky. L. KVIDAHL is with Huntington
Ingalls Industries, Pascagoula, Miss.
ABSTRACT
Skilled human welders experiences and skills are critical for producing quality welds
with the manual gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process. In this study, a skilled
human welders response to 3D weld pool surface was modeled. To this end, an inno-
vative vision system was utilized to measure in real time the specular 3D weld pool sur-
face under strong arc interference in the GTAW process. Experiments were designed
to produce random changes in the welding speed and voltage, resulting in fluctuations
in the weld pool surface. A skilled human welder made adjustments on the welding
current based on his/her observation of the weld pool and these adjustments were then
recorded. Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) was proposed to correlate
a skilled human welder response to the fluctuating 3D weld pool surface and previous
welding current adjustment made by the welder. It was found that the proposed ANFIS
model can model the human welder intelligence with acceptable accuracy. The result-
ant model will be compared with the model derived from a novice welder, analyzed, and
utilized to control the GTAW process to achieve consistent complete joint penetration
under different initial current and various disturbances in a future study.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
mind and determines the control action
. The output execution is perturbed by a
noise , which reflects the maneuvering skill
of the human welder. It should be noted
that human welder behavior depends on
skills and experiences, which may be differ-
ent from one welder to another. However,
qualified welders should produce similar
welds that can meet the manufacturing re-
quirements. Therefore, the common pat-
tern from the direct information to the
welders output will be modeled and uti-
lized in the proposed intelligent welding
machine Fig. 1B.
In Fig. 1B, the information perception
block in Fig. 1A is substituted with a vi-
sion-based sensing system. The output of
the sensing system is the 3D coordinates
of the weld pool surface. Like the human
welders ability to interpret the complex
weld pool shape, an intelligent welding
machine will characterize the weld pool,
and output certain characteristic parame-
ters to the human intelligence model. The
outputs of the human intelligence model
are the welding inputs, and will be in-
putted into the welding process.
Experimental Effort
Experimental System
A sensing and control platform was de-
veloped that records a human welders cur-
rent adjustments to varying penetration
conditions while si-
multaneously record-
ing topside pool
characteristics, as is
shown in Fig. 2. In
this system, a skilled
human welder holds
the current regulator while observing the
geometry of the weld pool and adjusts the
welding current accordingly in an effort to
control the weld to complete joint penetra-
tion. The pipe weld application is made
using direct-current electrode-negative
(DCEN) GTAW. The material of the pipe is
stainless steel 304. The outer diameter
(OD) and wall thickness of the pipe are
113.5 mm and 2.03 mm, respectively. The
pipe rotated during the experiment while
the positions of the torch, the imaging
plane, the laser structure light generator,
and the camera were stationary. The rota-
tion speed and motion of the torch were
controlled by a computer to achieve the re-
quired welding speed and arc length.
In the sensing system, a 20-MW illumi-
nation laser generator at a wavelength of
685 nm with variable focus was used to proj-
ect a 19 19 dot matrix structured light pat-
tern on the weld pool region. Part of the dot
matrix projected inside the weld pool was
reflected by the specular weld pool surface,
which was depressed and distorted because
of the plasma impact in GTAW. The distor-
tion of the reflected dot matrix was deter-
mined by the shape of the 3D weld pool sur-
face and thus contains the 3D geometry in-
formation about the weld pool. An imaging
plane was installed with a distance about
100 mm from the torch. A camera was lo-
cated behind the imaging plane directly
aiming at it. By using specific image pro-
cessing and the 3D reconstruction scheme
provided by Ref. 9, the 3D weld pool surface
can be reconstructed in real time. Figure 3A
and B shows the illustration of the weld pool
characteristic parameters proposed in Ref.
14. After the weld pool boundary is ac-
quired, the weld pool width and length can
be straightforward to obtain. The convexity
is defined as the intercepted area divided by
the length of the weld pool (i.e., the average
height of the weld pool). An example of the
reconstructed 3D weld pool surface is
shown in Fig. 3C.
Experimental Data
Nine dynamic experiments were con-
ducted. In experiments 1 to 6, the welding
speed was designed to vary within reason-
able ranges (1 mm/s, 2 mm/s) in order to
change the weld pool geometry. Then the
skilled welder adjusted the current to try
Fig. 1 A Interpretation of human welder behavior ; B illustration of intelligent welding machine, which utilizes the developed human intelligent model.
Fig. 3 Illustration of weld pool characteristic parameters and example of
3D reconstruction of GTAW weld pool (Ref. 14).
Fig. 2 Manual control system of GTAW process (Ref. 15).
A
A
C
B
B
to maintain the same penetration state
after the change of the welding speed. The
arc length for these six experiments was set
at 4 to 5.5 mm. During each individual ex-
periment, the arc length was constant. In
experiments 7 to 9, the arc length was
varying from 4 to 5.5 mm, and the human
welder adjusted the current in response to
the fluctuations of the weld pool. The
welding speeds in these three experiments
were between 1 and 1.5 mm/s, which re-
mains unchanged during each individual
experiment. The other experimental pa-
rameters are shown in Table 1. The dy-
namic variation of weld pool geometry and
the adjustment of current by the human
welder were recorded, respectively. It was
noticed that in these experiments the
skilled human welder was able to control
the welding process to desired penetration
states. The obtained backside bead width
in these experiments are within certain
ranges (4 to 6 mm), which is considered
acceptable in our applications.
During the welding process, the human
welder always scans the weld pool with a
certain frequency regardless of the
welders eye blink. The systems sampling
frequency is 2 Hz in this study. There is
also a finite time delay existing in the lin-
ear model of the human welders behavior
as a result of the neuromuscular and cen-
tral nervous latencies (Refs. 16, 24). Based
on the step response experiments, it was
observed that the average time delay of
the welders response was approximately
1.5 s, or three sampling periods.
Figure 4 plots the measured input pa-
rameters (the weld pool width, length,
convexity) and welding current adjusted by
the skilled human welder. It can be seen
from Fig. 4 that the tendency of current
adjustment is roughly opposite to the
length and width fluctuation. The trend of
convexity basically coincides with the cur-
rent variation. The variation of the geom-
etry and the current indicates the human
welder reduces the current as the weld
pool length or width increases, and in-
creases the current as the weld pool con-
vexity increases. However, nonlinearity
does occur in human welder adjustments
corresponding to the weld pool character-
istic parameters. Specifically, in sample
number 1230 to 1280, the human welder
increases the current as the weld pool
width and length decreases, and the weld
pool convexity increases. In sample num-
bers 1700 to 1800, on the other hand, the
human welder increases the current while
the width, length, and convexity all de-
crease. This indicates that the skilled
welder response to the weld pool charac-
teristic parameters are indeed nonlinearly
correlated and may be better modeled by
a nonlinear model rather than simple lin-
ear model.
Human Response Dynamics
It is apparent that a human welder
makes adjustments based on multiple weld
pools he/she observes, rather than a single
pool at the current instant. However, the
increase in the number of input parame-
ters will complicate the nonlinear neuro-
fuzzy model, and is thus not preferred. In
this study, filtered weld pool characteris-
tic parameters are utilized as the inputs of
the neuro-fuzzy model, which combine the
information from multiple weld pools.
The designed filter can be expressed as
CP
f
(k) =
f
CP
f
(k1) + (1
f
) CP(k)
(1)
where CP
f
(k) = [W
f
(k), L
f
(k), C
f
(k)]
T
and
CP
f
(k1) are the filtered weld pool char-
acteristic parameters at instant k and k1,
with W, L, C representing the width,
length, and convexity, respectively. CP(k)
is the measured weld pool characteristic
parameters at instant k.
f
is the coeffi-
cient of the filter, which should be a trade-
off between the filtering effect and
response speed. It is shown in the follow-
ing figure that
f
= 0.6 gives a smaller
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Table 1 Experiment Parameters
Welding Parameters
Current/A Welding Speed/mm/s Arc Length/mm Argon Flow Rate/L/min
57~81 1~2 4-5.5 11.8
Monitoring Parameters
Laser Projection Laser to Weld Pool Imaging Plane to Weld Pool
angle/deg Distance/mm Distance/mm
35.5 24.7 101
Camera Parameters
Shutter Frame Rate/fps Camera to Imaging Plane
Speed/ms Distance/mm
4 30 57.8
Fig. 4 Weld pool characteristic parameters (width, length, convexity) and welding current adjusted by
the skilled human welder in nine dynamic experiments.
Fig. 5 Modeling errors for both linear model and
ANFIS model vs. filtering coefficient.
A
B
modeling error (the definition of average
model error E
ave
and RMSE will be given
later) and is thus chosen in our study.
It is also noticed that the current adjust-
ment (dCurrent: I (k) = I (k) I(k1)) in-
stead of absolute current is used to model
the human behavior. This is because when
the human welder makes adjustments on
the current by using the current regulator,
he/she doesnt know the absolute current
value but the increase/decrease amount.
Figure 6 plots the inputs (filtered weld
pool width, length, and convexity) and out-
put (current adjustment dCurrent) of the
human intelligence model. Figure 7 shows
the distribution of the input parameters in
these experiments. It can be observed that
the weld pool parameters have filled the
certain range of the input space and are
nearly uniformly distributed. This distri-
bution implies that the resultant model
can be used during prediction of the
human welders response if the weld pool
parameters are in this range.
Once a model is identified, its qual-
ity/performance can be evaluated using
the average model error, root mean
square error (RMSE), and maximum
error defined by
(2)
(3)
(4)
where N is the number of samples, I(k)
is the model estimated human welders re-
sponse at instant k.
In general, the human intelligent
model can be written as
I(k) = f(W
f
(k3), L
f
(k3),
C
f
(k3), I(k1)
(5)
where the used human response delay of
1.5 s (three sampling periods) was dis-
cussed in the Experimental Data section.
The simplest form of Equation 5 can be
expressed by the following linear model:
I(k) =
1
W
f
(k3) +
2
L
f
(k3)
+
3
C
f
(k3) +
4
I (k1) (6)
Using the standard least squares
method, the linear model can be fitted
from the raw data. The identified linear
models for skilled welder are shown in
Equation 6A.
I(k) = 0.16 W
f
(k3) 0.082 L
f
(k3)
+ 1.81 C
f
(k3) + 0.26 I (k1) (6A)
The linear modeling result is depicted
in Fig. 8. The average model error, maxi-
mum model error, and RMSE for the
identified linear model can be seen in
Table 5 where all comparative models will
be listed. In the next section, nonlinear
neuro-fuzzy modeling is constructed to im-
prove the model performance, and the
modeling results are analyzed.
Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling Results
and Analysis
As a human inference mechanism, the
human welders response to the 3D weld
pool surface is inevitably fuzzy and non-
linear. However, the abstract thoughts or
concepts in human reasoning are difficult
to extract from the domain knowledge. In
this study, ANFIS algorithm developed by
Jang (Ref. 20) will be used to model a
skilled human welder response.
Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling
The term neuro-fuzzy modeling is used
to refer to the application of algorithms de-
veloped through neural network training to
identify parameters for a fuzzy model. In
neuro-fuzzy modeling, the abstract thoughts
or concepts in human reasoning are incor-
porated with numerical data so that the de-
velopment of fuzzy models becomes more
systematic and less time consuming. Most
neuro-fuzzy systems have been developed
based on the Sugeno-type fuzzy model. A
typical fuzzy rule in a Sugeno-type model
has the form (Ref. 20)
If x is A and y is B,
Then z = f(x,y) (7)
where Aand B are fuzzy sets, and z = f(x,y)
is a linear function.
ANFIS can construct an inputoutput
mapping in the form of Sugeno-type If-Then
rules by using a hybrid learning procedure
(Ref. 20). The membership functions that
correspond to the fuzzy antecedents as well
as functions that form the consequence
parts are parameterized. The hybrid learn-
ing proposed is composed of a forward pass
and a backward pass. In the forward pass,
by keeping the antecedent parameters fixed,
consequence parameters are optimized by
a least square estimation. A fuzzy logic con-
trol/decision network is constructed auto-
matically by learning from the training data.
The ANFIS architecture thus can enable
a change in rule structure during the evalu-
ation of the fuzzy inference system. The
ANFIS optimizes itself given the number of
iterations by providing a change in rules, by
discarding unnecessary rules, and by chang-
ing shapes of membership functions, which
is called modifications.
It is common practice to use the do-
main knowledge about the addressed
problem for determining the fuzzy model
structure, i.e., selecting the relevant inputs,
partitioning the fuzzy sets, etc. In this
study, we selected filtered topside welding
parameters, the width, length, and con-
vexity of the weld pool as three relevant
E
N
I k I k
1
ave
k
N
1
( ) ( ) =
=
RMSE I k I k N
k
N
= ( ) ( )
( )
=
/
2
1
E I k I k
k N
max
,
1,...,
max
( )
( ) ( ) =
=
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 6 Filtered weld pool parameters (width, length, convexity) and current adjustments made by
skilled welder.
Fig. 7 Distribution of the inputs for skilled welder
modeling.
Table 2 Partition of Fuzzy Input Variables
Fuzzy Number of Partition
Variables Fuzzy Sets
Width 2 wide, narrow
Length 2 long, short
Convexity 2 large, small
dCurrent
p
2 large, small
Fig. 10 Fuzzy input membership functions before training (left) and after
training (right).
Fig. 11 ANFIS modeling result.
fuzzy variables for representing the
welders impression about the geometrical
characteristics of the weld pool geometry.
Human welders previous response dCur-
rentp is also considered and added to the
fuzzy variables. These four variables are
denoted as p
j
(j = 1, 2, 3, and 4) where p
1
= W, p
2
= L, p
3
= C, and p
4
= dCurrentp.
Based on the knowledge of the human
welder, we have assumed that each vari-
able has no more than three fuzzy sets. By
modeling trials of three partitions, it is
found that no noticeable improvement has
been observed regarding the overall fitting
impression. Moreover, the fuzzy rule sets
as well as model parameters for three par-
titions are much larger than those with two
fuzzy sets, and the obtained fuzzy models
using three fuzzy sets are more difficult to
interpret than those with two fuzzy sets.
Thus, the partition shown in Table 2 is ob-
tained. Figure 9 shows the proposed four
inputs one output ANFIS scheme.
Because of the smoothness and con-
cise notation, Gaussian membership
function (MF) and generalized bell MF
are becoming in-
creasingly popular
methods for spec-
ifying fuzzy sets.
Generalized bell
MF is adopted in this study, which is
specified by three parameters (Ref. 20)
(8)
where p
j
is the fuzzy variables and a
ji
, b
ji
,
and c
ji
are the input fuzzy membership
function parameters.
For a given set of input variables (for
example, p
1
, p
2
, p
3
, and p
4
), the following
rule is implemented (Ref. 20):
(9)
where dj s' are the so-called consequent
parameters.
The final output of the fuzzy model is
(10)
where w(i
1
, i
2
, i
3
, i
4
) is the weight represent-
ing the truth degree for the premise: p
1
is
A
1i1
, p
2
is A
2i2
, p
3
is A
3i3
, and p
4
is A
4i4
, and
is expressed by the following equation:
(11)
The output Equation 10, together with
the weighting Equation 11, membership
function Equation 8, and the fuzzy rule
Equation 9 form an ANFIS model. Its
model parameters a
ji
, b
ji
, c
jib
, and d
j
can be
identified using the Matlab ANFIS toolbox.
Modeling Results
In order to further improve the model-
ing accuracy and better model the inherent
fuzzy inference mechanism of the human
welder, human intelligence model Equation
5 is realized using the proposed ANFIS
nonlinear model. The fuzzy input variables
are partitioned by 2. The input fuzzy mem-
bership functions before and after training
are depicted in Fig. 10. Table 3 lists the
trained parameters for these input mem-
bership functions. The estimation result is
plotted in Fig. 11. The resultant model
RMSE and maximum model error are
listed in Table 5. All criteria, including the
average model error, RMSE, and maximum
model error are improved by the proposed
ANFIS model. Table 4 lists the output mem-
bership parameters for the proposed
ANFIS model.
A p a b c
p c a
; , ,
1
1 /
ji j ji ji ji
j ji ji
b 2
ji
( )
( )
=
+
Rule :
If is is
i i i i
p A p A
i i
1 2 3 4
1 1 2 2
1
, , ,
,
( )
22 3 4
3 3 4 4
1 2 3 4
, , ,
, , ,
p A p A
z i i i i
i i
is is
Then ( ) ) = ( )
+ ( ) +
d i i i i p
d i i i i p d i
1 1 2 3 4 1
2 1 2 3 4 2 3 1
, , ,
, , , , , , ,
, , , , ,
i i i p
d i i i i p d i i i
2 3 4 3
4 1 2 3 4 4 0 1 2 3
( )
+ ( ) + ,,i
4
( )
z
w i i i i z i i i i , , , , , ,
i i i i 1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
4 3 2 1

( ) ( )
=
= = = =
w i i i i A p , , ,
j
ji j 1 2 3 4
1
4
k
( ) ( ) =
=
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 8 Linear modeling result.
Fig. 9 Four inputs one output ANFIS scheme.
Table 3 Fuzzy Input Parameter for Skilled Welder
MF1 Parameters MF2 Parameters
Skilled Width [2.565 1.993 1.103] [2.558 1.996 6.189]
Welder Length [2.673 2 1.598] [2.677 1.996 6.937]
Convexity [0.0382 2.004 0.0561] [0.0249 2.004 0.2277]
dCurrent
p
[4.008 1.995 -3996] [4.004 1.993 4]
Discussion and Validation
The linear model in Equation 6A ac-
counts for the average of the nonlinear
human welders response in the operation
range of the parameters used to conduct
the dynamic experiments. Specifically, the
coefficient for the width is 0.16, indicat-
ing the average negative effect of the
width on the current adjustment. The co-
efficient for the length is 0.08. This implies
that the skilled welder treats width more
importantly than the length, given the
magnitude of the width and length are
similar. For the weld pool convexity, the
coefficient is 1.81. This implies that in gen-
eral the human welder increases the cur-
rent if the convexity is increased. The
coefficient for the previous adjustment
(0.26) indicates that the human welder ad-
justment at current instant also correlates
to the previous adjustment, and the corre-
lation is positive. One may think that the
model improvement from Table 5 (4 to 7%
for three criteria proposed in this study) is
not significant. However, the ANFIS
model is derived in analytical form and
can be implemented in real time. The re-
sultant model improvement is achieved at
no additional costs. In addition, the
human welder response is better modeled
and understood. In this sense, the pro-
posed ANFIS model is considered a bet-
ter way to represent the intrinsic nonlinear
and fuzzy inference a human welder pos-
sesses. In addition, Fig. 12 shows a de-
tailed view of the modeling result
comparison between the linear model and
ANFIS model from sample number 0 to
180, 480 to 620, and 1350 to 1460, respec-
tively. It is observed that noticeable im-
provements are made by the proposed
ANFIS model.
Although the linear model analysis
can reveal some information about
skilled welders adjustments, detailed in-
formation is lost because of the incapa-
bility of the linear modeling, which can
only model the average effect of the input
parameters over the output. The nonlin-
ear ANFIS model, however, can discover
detailed information about the human
welder intelligence. Because of the rela-
tive complexity of the ANFIS model, its
analysis will be more comprehensive.
Hence, the ANFIS model will be ana-
lyzed and compared with that of the
novice welder in a following investigation.
To further verify the skilled human
welder model, verification experiments
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 12 Model comparison between linear and
ANFIS model.
A
B
C
Table 4 Identified 16 Neuro-Fuzzy Model Rules with Four Inputs
Rule IF THEN (Skilled Welder)
(1,1,1,1) P1 is narrow, P2 is short, y(1,1,1,1) = 5.87p
1
+ 1.575p
2
P3 is small, and P4 is small 79.03p
3
- 2.424p
4
- 7.464
(1,1,1,2) P1 is narrow, P2 is short y(1,1,1,2) = -8.68p
1
2.08p
2
P3 is small, and P4 is large +156.2p
3
-1.5p
4
+ 8.31
(1,1,2,1) P1 is narrow, P2 is short y(1,1,2,1) = 0.338p
1
0.782p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is small +47.85p
3
+ 1.56p
4
5.91
(1,1,2,2) P1 is narrow, P2 is short y(1,1,2,2) = - 2.429p
1
+ 1.33p
2
P3 is large, and P4 large 59.76p
3
- 1.63p
4
+ 8.49
(1,2,1,1) P1 is narrow, P2 is long y(1,2,1,1) = 3.05p
1
+ 7.547p
2
P3 is small, and P4 is small + 443.8p
3
+ 14.46p
4
65.44
(1,2,1,2) P1 is narrow, P2 is long y(1,2,1,2) = - 1.563p
1
0.592p
2
P3 is small, and P4 is large 395.2p
3
+ 8.146p
4
+ 32.86
(1,2,2,1) P1 is narrow, P2 is long y(1,2,2,1) = 1.934p
1
+ 2.46p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is small + 189.8p
3
- 2.985p
4
- 59.65
(1,2,2,2) P1 is narrow, P2 is long y(1,2,2,2) = - 7.64p
1
3.43p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is large 80.49p
3
+ 0.4699p
4
+ 60.33
(2,1,1,1) P1 is wide, P2 is short y(2,1,1,1) = 2.05p
1
+ 2.8p
2
3
+ 3.61p
4
10.93
(2,1,1,2) P1 is wide, P2 is short y(2,1,1,2) = - 4.77p
1
+ 4.22p
2
P3 is small, and P4 is large + 33.41p
3
+ 4.573p
4
+ 3.56
1
+ 0.92p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is small 77.76p
3
+ 0.1138p
4
+ 20.2
1
+ 0.03p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is large + 51.38p
3
+ 1.148p
4
+ 1.568
(2,2,1,1) P1 is wide, P2 is long y(2,2,1,1) = - 2.01p
1
0.994p
2
3
- 1.534p
4
+ 17.09
(2,2,1,2) P1 is wide, P2 is long y(2,2,1,2) = 3.36p
1
+ 1.763p
2
P3 is small, and P4 is large + 22.88p
3
2.229p
4
30.32
1
0.003p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is small 7.404p
3
+ 0.3415p
4
2.028
1
0.141p
2
P3 is large, and P4 is large 11.77p
3
- 0.1821p
4
+ 12.62
Table 5 Model Comparison between Neuro-Fuzzy Model and Linear Model
Average Model Error/A RMSE/A Maximum Model Error/A
Linear Model 0.52 0.79 3.15
ANFIS Model 0.50 0.76 3.03
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
were conducted. The welding speed was de-
signed to vary from 1 to 2 mm/s and the
welders adjusted the current in accordance
to the varying weld pool geometry. The arc
length was set at 4 mm for both experi-
ments. As can be observed in Fig. 13, the
proposed ANFIS model can estimate the
welders response with good accuracy.
Conclusion and Remarks
To derive the skilled human welder re-
sponse model, a number of dynamic exper-
iments were designed to examine how the
welder responds to 3D weld pool geometry.
The weld pool characteristic parameters, in-
cluding the width, length, convexity, and
previous adjustments made by the welder,
were utilized as model inputs, and the
human welders current adjustment was
considered as the model output. A linear
model was first constructed as an average
model over the entire input range and an
ANFIS model was then proposed to pro-
vide better modeling performance.
Analysis suggests that the skilled welder
adjusts the current dynamically based on the
weld pool surface geometry with approxi-
mately a 1.5-second delay. His/her adjust-
ment is, in general, positively correlated to
the weld pool convexity and negatively to
the weld pool width, while the correlation
of his/her adjustment to the weld pool
length is more complex and depends on the
weld pool surface width and convexity.
His/her adjustment on the current is also
positively correlated to the last current ad-
justment. More accurately, his/her adjust-
ment on the current correlates to the width,
length, and convexity of the weld pool sur-
face, and the last adjustment nonlinearly
and the ANFIS model improves the model-
ing accuracy.
In a future investigation, the developed
neuro-fuzzy human intelligence model will
be analyzed and compared with that of a
novice welder and then be utilized as an in-
telligent controller to perform penetration
control in an automated GTAW process.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the National
Science Foundation under grant CMMI-
0927707 and IIS-1208420. YuKang Liu
would like to thank WeiJie Zhang and
Benny Porter for their assistance in con-
ducting experiments.
References
1. OBrien, R., ed., Welding Handbook. 2008.
8th edition, vol. 2, welding processes. American
Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
2. Uttrachi, G. D. 2007. Welder shortage re-
quires new thinking. Welding Journal 86(1): 6.
3. Richardson, R. W., and Edwards, F. S.
1995. Controlling GT arc length from arc light
emissions. Trends in Welding, Proceedings of the
4th International Conference, pp. 715720.
4. Li, P. J., and Zhang, Y. M. 2001. Precision
sensing of arc length in GTAW based on arc light
spectrum. Journal of Manufacturing and Science
Engineering 123: 6265.
5. Hartman, D. A., DeLapp, D. R., Barnett,
R. J., and Cook, G. E. 1998. A neural
network/fuzzy logic system for weld penetration
control. Trends in Welding Research, Proceedings
of the 5th International Conference, pp. 10961101.
6. Balfour, C., Smith, J. S., and Al-Sham-
maA, A. I. 2006. A novel edge feature correla-
tion algorithm for real-time computer
vision-based molten weld pool measurements.
Welding Journal 85(1): 1-s to 8-s.
7. Mi, B., and Ume., C. 2006. Real time weld
penetration depth monitoring with laser ultra-
sonic sensing system. Transactions of ASME:
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineer-
ing 128: 280286.
8. Fan, C., Lv, F., and Chen, S. 2009. Visual
sensing and penetration control in aluminum
alloy pulsed GTA welding. International Journal
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 42(1):
126137.
9. Song, H. S., and Zhang, Y. M. 2009. Error
analysis of a three-dimensional GTA weld pool
surface measurement system. Welding Journal
88(7): 141-s to 148-s.
10. Ma, H.,Wei, S., and Lin, T. et al. 2010.
Binocular vision system for both weld pool and
root gap in robot welding process. Sensor Re-
view 30(2): 116123.
11. Lin, M. L., and Eagar, T. W. 1985. Influ-
ence of arc pressure on weld pool geometry.
12. Rokhlin, S. I., and Guu, A. C. 1993. A
study of arc force, pool depression, and weld pen-
etration during gas tungsten arc welding. Welding
Journal 72(8): 381-s to 390-s.
13. Kovacevic, R., and Zhang, Y. M. 1996.
Monitoring of weld joint penetration based on
weld pool geometrical appearance. Welding Jour-
nal 75(10): 317-s to 329-s.
14. Zhang, W. J., Liu, Y. K., Wang, X., and
Zhang, Y. M. 2012. Characterization of three-di-
mensional weld pool surface in GTAW. Welding
Journal 91(7): 195-s to 203-s.
15. Zhang, W. J., and Zhang, Y. M. 2012.
Modeling of human welder response to 3D weld
pool surface: Part I-principles. Welding Journal
91(11): 310-s to 318-s.
16. Zhang, W. J., and Zhang, Y. M. 2012.
Modeling of human welder response to 3D weld
pool surface: Part II-results and analysis. Welding
Journal 91(12): 329-s to 353-s.
17. Hayashi, K., et al. 1995. Neuro fuzzy trans-
mission control for automobile with variable
loads. IEEE Transactions on Control Systems
Technology 3(1): 4953.
18. Tanaka, K., Sano, M., and Watanabe, H.
1995. Modeling and control of carbon monoxide
concentration using a neuro-fuzzy technique.
IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems 3(3):
271279.
19. Kovacevic, R., and Zhang, Y. M. 1997.
Neurofuzzy model-based weld fusion state esti-
mation. IEEE Control System Magazine 17(2): 30-
42.
20. Jang, J. S. R. 1993. ANFIS: Adaptive-net-
work-based fuzzy inference systems. IEEE Trans-
actions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 23(3):
665685.
21. Lih, W., et al. 2008. Adaptive neuro-fuzzy
inference system modeling of MRR and
WIWNU in CMP process with sparse experi-
mental data. IEEE Transactions on Automation
Science and Engineering 5(1): 7183, 2008.
22. Zhai, J., et al. 2009. The dynamic behav-
ioral model of RF power amplifiers with the mod-
ified ANFIS. IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques 57(1): 2735.
23. Imen, M., Mansouri, M., and Shoore-
hdeli, M. A. 2011. Tracking control of mobile
robot using ANFIS. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE
International Conference on Mechatronics and Au-
tomation, Aug. 710, Beijing, China.
24. Liu, Y. K., Zhang, W. J., and Zhang, Y. M.
2013. Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
(ANFIS) modeling of human welders response
to 3D weld pool surface in GTAW. Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Engineering-Transac-
tions of the ASME 135: 121010112101011.
Fig. 13 Verification experiment results. A Experiment 1; B experiment 2.
A
B
Introduction
One important aspect of a fusion weld
is the weld metal microstructure. On the
one side, the microstructure has a signifi-
cant influence on the mechanical proper-
ties of the weld. For instance, several stud-
ies have shown that small, equiaxed grains
(instead of large, columnar grains) can im-
prove weld properties such as strength,
ductility, and toughness (Refs. 14). On
the other side, weld metal grain refine-
ment is an important possibility to reduce
the susceptibility to solidification cracking
in aluminum welds (Refs. 58).
Small, equiaxed weld metal grains can be
achieved through the addition of a com-
mercial grain refiner to the filler metal
(Refs. 3, 7, 9). Such master alloys usually
consist of the systems Al-Ti, Al-Ti-B, Al-Ti-
C, or Al-B (Ref. 10), where Al-Ti-B master
alloys are considered to be more efficient
than Al-Ti or Al-B alloys (Ref. 11). Al Ti5B1
is one of the most important grain refiners
(Ref. 12). Titanium and boron form parti-
cles such as TiB
2
(Ref. 13) and Al
3
Ti (Ref.
14) that act during the solidification of the
weld pool as heterogeneous solidification
nuclei for aluminum grains. TiB
2
particles
were found in castings at the center of Al
grains (Refs. 15, 16) where they nucleate
aluminum grains (Ref. 17). In contrast, it
was argued that Al
3
Ti is a more potent nu-
cleant than TiB
2
(Refs. 18, 19) because of
the low atomic lattice mismatch between
Al
3
Ti and -Al. Furthermore, Al
3
Ti has
more atomic planes that can nucleate alu-
minum grains than TiB
2
(Refs. 15, 20). Oth-
ers argued that, regarding Ti/B additions,
AlB
2
is the most efficient nucleus for Al,
even though it dissolves quickly in the melt
(Ref. 21).
One widely accepted approach to ex-
plaining the exact role of each particle is
the duplex nucleation theory (Refs. 20, 22,
23) that was developed from the peritectic
theory (Ref. 14). The duplex nucleation
theory suggests that the insolvable TiB
2
particles are covered in liquid aluminum
by a thin Al
3
Ti layer. Afterward, the peri-
tectic reaction Al
3
Ti + Al
L
Al
S
takes
place on these particles. Accordingly, the
Al
3
Ti layer reacts with liquid aluminum
(Al
L
) to form a further layer of solid alu-
minum (Al
S
). This reaction converts such
particles into efficient solidification nuclei
for aluminum grains (Refs. 14, 20, 23).
Properties that make the above particles
favorable for nucleation of aluminum
grains are, for example, their size and size
distribution (Refs. 24, 25), and shape and
atomic lattice (Ref. 26). Consequently, ad-
ditions of grain refiners such as Al Ti5B1
to the aluminum weld pool can provide an
increased number of active solidification
nuclei and thus a fine, equiaxed weld
metal grain structure.
An important influence on nucleation,
subsequent grain growth, and hence the re-
sulting weld microstructure is the chemical
composition of the weld metal. During so-
lidification of the weld pool, the alloying el-
ements partition in the melt and provide
constitutional undercooling (Ref. 27),
which is needed to activate the above-
mentioned particles for nucleation of Al
grains (Ref. 28). Titanium is supposed to
provide the highest degree of constitutional
undercooling of all elements (Ref. 29). This
explains why excess solute Ti (which is not
tied up in particles) plays an important role
in aluminum grain refinement and why
commercial Al grain refiners usually con-
tain Ti (Ref. 19). Furthermore, the above-
Solidification of GTA Aluminum Weld Metal:
Part I Grain Morphology Dependent
upon Alloy Composition and
Grain Refiner Content
In this study, the influence of welding speed and grain refiner content on the
weld metal grain morphology was investigated with the use of cast inserts
BY P. SCHEMPP, C. E. CROSS, A. PITTNER, G. ODER, R. S. NEUMANN, H. ROOCH, I. DRFEL, W. STERLE,
AND M. RETHMEIER
KEYWORDS
Aluminum
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
Grain Refinement
Columnar to Equiaxed
Transition (CET)
Epitaxial Nucleation
Duplex Nucleation Theory
P. SCHEMPP (P.Schempp@gmx.de), A. PIT-
TNER, G. ODER, R. S. NEUMANN, H.
ROOCH, I. DRFEL, W. STERLE, and M.
RETHMEIER are with BAM Federal Institute for
Materials Research and Testing, Berlin, Germany.
C. E. CROSS is with Los Alamos National Labo-
ratory (LANL), Materials Science & Technology,
Los Alamos, N.Mex. RETHMEIER is also with
IPK Fraunhofer Institute for Production Systems
and Design Technology, Berlin, Germany.
ABSTRACT
The solidification conditions during welding strongly influence the weld metal mi-
crostructure and mechanical properties of a weld. In the first part of this study, the
grain morphology of gas tungsten arc (GTA) bead-on-plate welds was investigated
for the aluminum Alloys 1050A (Al 99.5), 6082 (Al Si1MgMn), and 5083 (Al
Mg4.5Mn0.7). The experiments revealed that increasing welding speed and alloy
content allow the growth of small, equiaxed grains, particularly in the weld center.
Furthermore, increasing grain refiner additions led to a strong reduction of the weld
metal mean grain size and hence facilitated the columnar to equiaxed transition
(CET). In addition, wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS) and transmis-
sion electron microscopy (TEM) analysis revealed in the weld metal TiB
2
particles
that were surrounded by Al
3
Ti. This suggests the duplex nucleation theory for nu-
cleation of aluminum grains in GTA weld metal.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
mentioned TiB
2
and Al
3
Ti particles are
known to need a low undercooling (< 1 K)
to get activated in comparison to other par-
ticles, which is a further explanation for
their effectiveness (Refs. 24, 28, 30, 31). Sev-
eral analytical approaches were developed
that describe the influence of the chemical
composition on the final grain size of cast-
ings (Refs. 3236). These approaches were
applied elsewhere to weld metal
microstructure (Ref. 37).
Besides the presence of effective nucle-
ant particles and alloying elements, the
third control variable regarding the weld
microstructure are the solidification condi-
tions. In arc welds, these conditions are con-
trolled, in addition to weld geometry, by the
welding parameters arc current, arc voltage,
and welding speed. These parameters con-
trol the solidification parameters in the
weld metal, where
Thermal G (in K mm
1
)
gradient (local)
Solidification R (in mm s
1
)
growth rate
are particularly important. It is of note
that these solidification parameters and
corresponding microstructures vary
widely within the weld metal. Figure 1
shows the weld pool boundary of an arc
weld (seen from above) where the welding
direction is to the left. At the weld inter-
face, the weld pool is in direct contact with
the cold base metal, which causes high
heat extraction and thus high Gvalues. At
the centerline, the just-solidified material
extracts less heat, re-
sulting in a minimum
in G. As a conse-
quence, the weld pool
shape can vary from
circular or elliptical
(at low welding speed
v, as shown in Fig. 1) to
teardrop shaped (high
v). Also, Fig. 1 illus-
trates that the grain
substructure usually
grows nearly parallel
to the maximum tem-
perature gradient that
is perpendicular to the
advancing weld pool boundary (Ref. 38).
If one assumes that the dendrite solidifi-
cation velocity corresponds to the solidifi-
cation growth rate R due to competitive
growth (Ref. 38), Rcan be approximated for
the weld pool surface with Equation 1
where is the angle between the directions
of welding speed v and R at a particular
point at the solid-liquid interface (Fig. 1).
Thus, it becomes clear that R is zero at the
weld interface and maximum (R= v) at the
centerline.
R = vcos () (1)
The large variation in both G and R
along the pool boundary is often expressed
as G/R (Refs. 39, 40) and has a significant
influence on nucleation and grain growth. It
was suggested that the extent of constitu-
tional undercooling is inversely propor-
tional to G/R
0.5
(Ref. 39). Thus, high G/R
values can be related to little constitutional
undercooling ahead of the solid-liquid in-
terface (Ref. 41) that favors planar or cellu-
lar growth (Ref. 42). Low G/R values, how-
ever, result in a large zone of constitutional
undercooling (Ref. 41), which allows
columnar dendritic, dendritic, or (at low
G/R values) equiaxed dendritic structure to
form (Ref. 42). As a consequence, one usu-
ally finds, dependent upon alloy content
and welding conditions, two main grain
morphologies: Columnar grains (with
columnar dendritic or dendritic substruc-
ture) next to the weld interface and
equiaxed grains (with equiaxed dendritic
substructure) at the centerline Fig. 1.
This columnar to equiaxed transition
(CET) is often observed in aluminum weld
metal (Refs. 37, 43, 44).
Large, columnar grains provoke
anisotropic mechanical properties of the
weld and facilitate the propagation of solid-
ification cracks (Ref. 38). Consequently, it is
of interest to know how to limit columnar
grain growth and facilitate equiaxed grain
growth, dependent upon nucleant particles,
alloy composition, and welding conditions.
This paper presents results from gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) three alu-
minum alloys where welding speed and
grain refiner additions were varied to inves-
tigate their influence on microstructure and
nucleant particles. The second part of this
study (Ref. 45) deals with an extensive ther-
mal analysis that reveals the thermal condi-
tions in the weld metal dependent upon
welding speed. This data is used at the end
in an analytical model to predict critical
conditions for the prevention of columnar
grain growth.
Experimental
Materials and Welding Conditions
In this study, the wrought base metals
used were Alloy 1050A (Al 99.5, temper
H14), Alloy 6082 (Al Si1MgMn, temper
T6), known for applications in the automo-
tive industry or plant construction, and
Alloy 5083 (Al Mg4.5Mn0.7, temper H111),
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 Variation in thermal gradient G, solidification growth rate R, and
corresponding grain substructure along solidification front of GTA weld
pool (top-sectional view).
Fig. 2 GTAW setup showing weld coupon and
cast insert (dimensions in mm).
Table 1 Chemical Composition of Three Base Metals and the Grain Refiner (Al Ti5B1) as Measured by Optical Emission Spectrometer
Chemical Composition in wt-%
Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti B V Zr Al
1050A 0.09 0.24 0.01 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.004 0.01 0.008 0.0003 0.01 0.001 Bal.
(Al 99.5)
6082 0.86 0.42 0.09 0.43 0.75 0.06 0.01 0.07 0.032 0.0001 0.01 0.003 Bal.
(Al Si1MgMn)
5083 0.25 0.40 0.07 0.58 4.57 0.09 0.01 0.07 0.027 0.002 0.006 0.002 Bal.
(Al Mg4.5Mn0.7)
Al Ti5B1 0.06 0.11 4.98 0.99 0.02 Bal.
frequently used in shipbuilding or as vessel
material. The plate thickness was 3 mm for
all alloys. Al Ti5B1 was used as a commer-
cial grain refiner and delivered as rods (di-
ameter 9.5 mm). The chemical composi-
tion of all alloys as measured by an optical
emission spectrometer (ICP-OES) is
given in Table 1.
To vary the weld metals content of grain
refining elements Ti and B, ingots were
cast consisting of the corresponding base
metal plus additions of Al Ti5B1. Each
cast ingot was then machined into several
small inserts (140 2 1.5 mm). Further-
more, a groove was milled into the bottom
surface of weld coupons (140 60 3 mm)
made from base metal plates. Afterward
both inserts and coupons were cleaned by
degreasing and etching them for 15 min
with an etchant consisting of 869 mL H
2
O,
125 mL 65% HNO
3
, and 6.25 mL 48%
HF. Each insert was placed into the
groove of a coupon and fixed with a ham-
mer and punch. Then, the weld coupon
was clamped in a fixture with the cast in-
sert on the bottom side. The deposited
cast insert was fused completely in a sin-
gle-pass, complete-joint-penetration
GTA weld as illustrated in Fig. 2. A backing
made of copper was used to avoid unwanted
root drop-through.
The GTAW parameters are listed in
Table 2. The welding speed was varied from
2 to 11.5 mm s
1
whereby the arc current was
adjusted to allow a similar weld bead size at
different welding speeds.
Metallographic, Chemical, and EPMA
Examination
Metallographic samples were prepared
from the middle of some welds (mid-length)
to obtain cross-sectional and top-sectional
views of the weld metal. Each of these sam-
ples was ground, polished mechanically,
and etched anodically with a solution con-
taining 2% HBF
4
and 98% H
2
O to reveal
the grain structure. Micrographs were
made with a microscope using polarized
light, which helped to differentiate grains.
Grain size measurements were carried out
in no less than four different positions on
each weld metal cross section through a
circular intercept procedure according to
the standard (Ref. 46), and an average
value for each weld metal was calculated.
The chemical composition (particularly
the Ti content) of pieces cut from the welds
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 3 Schematic weld pool shape (top surface) dependent upon welding
speed (bead width at top surface is approximately 8 mm). GTAW, Alloy 6082,
plate thickness 3 mm.
Fig. 4 Weld metal grain structure (horizontal cross section) in the middle of
weld metal (mid-length and depth) dependent upon welding speed (welding to
the left). GTA bead-on-plate welds (no grain refiner addition), Alloy 6082, plate
thickness 3 mm.
Table 2 GTA Welding Parameters
Parameter Alloy 1050A Alloy 6082 Alloy 5083
(Al 99.5) (Al Si1MgMn) (Al Mg4.5Mn0.7)
Welding
speed 2.0 4.2 6.0 8.0 10.0 11.5 2.0 4.2 6.0 8.0 10.0 11.5 2.0 4.2 6.0 8.0 10.0
in mm s
-1
Current in A 174 180 186 190 192 195 170 175 181 184 190 196 155 175 180 185 190
Voltage in V 11.1 11.3 11.6 11.6 11.7 11.6 10.7 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.8 10.7 11.3 10.9 11.2 11.8
( 0.2 V)
Polarity AC (80% electrode negative, 20% electrode positive)
Frequency 50 Hz
Electrode W + 2% CeO
2
, diameter 3.2 mm, point angle 30 deg
Shielding gas 50% Ar, 50% He
Flow rate 26 L min
-1
Distance 3 mm
electrode-coupon
Fig. 5 GTA weld metal cross sections (optical micro-
graphs) with low (A) and high (B) Ti/B content. A and
B indicate regions where EBSD measurements were
made later. Alloy 1050A, plate thickness 3 mm, welding
speed 4.2 mm s
1
, mean heat input 484 J mm
1
.
A
B
was determined by an optical emission spec-
trometer (ICP-OES). Electron probe micro
analysis (EPMA) of pieces cut from the
weld metal involved wavelength dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy (WDS), electron
backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and trans-
mission electron microscopy (TEM) analy-
sis. The WDS was used to determine size
and distribution of titanium and boron par-
ticles in the weld metal. The EBSD meas-
urements were made to reveal the atomic
lattice orientation of the weld metal grains,
and TEM measurements disclosed the size
and shape of particles such as TiB
2
.
Results and
Discussion
Grain Size and Shape Response
In a first set of experiments, the chem-
ical composition of the cast inserts was
held constant (base metal composition, no
grain refiner additions). To investigate the
influence of the welding parameters on
the weld microstructure, the welding
speed was varied from 2 to 11.5 mm s
1
. As
outlined in the introduction, the shape of
the weld pool top surface changed with in-
creasing welding speed from circular to el-
liptical and, at high welding speeds, to
teardrop shaped (Fig. 3) (weld pool shape
for Alloy 6082). Thereby, the weld pool
width varied from 8 mm (at 2 mm s
1
) to 7
mm (at 11.5 mm s
1
), and the weld pool
length increased from 8 to 11 mm.
Increasing welding speed caused a strong
change in the weld metal microstructure
(Fig. 4). These micrographs reveal for Alloy
6082 both grain size and shape in the hori-
zontal cross section in the middle of several
welds (mid-length and depth). In accor-
dance with Fig. 1 and previous studies
(Refs. 47, 48), columnar grain structure was
found predominantly at the weld interface
and, if present,
equiaxed grains
formed in the weld
center. At low weld-
ing speeds (2 mm s
1
),
the heat input was
high (Table 2), which
caused high thermal
gradients G, low so-
lidification growth
rates R, and conse-
quently a fully colum-
nar grain structure
Fig. 4 left. Increasing
welding speed led to a
strong decrease in
both heat input and
ratio G/R, which al-
lowed a higher de-
gree of constitutional
undercooling to form
during solidification
(Ref. 41). This under-
cooling activated a higher amount of nucle-
ant particles present (Ref. 28), which is an
important requirement for the formation of
small, equiaxed grains (Ref. 42) that was
also observed in several previous studies on
aluminum GTAW (Refs. 43, 4749).
In addition, increasing the welding
speed did not only facilitate equiaxed
grain growth, but it also reduced volume
fraction and size (length and thickness) of
columnar grains, which was reported else-
where (Ref. 50). The effects of welding
speed variation on the thermal conditions
in aluminum GTA welds and their rela-
tionship to the weld metal microstructure
is presented in detail in the second part of
this study (Ref. 45).
Also, Fig. 4 reveals the influence of
high welding speed (low heat input) and
corresponding fine-grain structure on the
base metals weldability. For Alloy 6082,
the formation of centerline solidification
cracks was prevented at welding speeds
8 mm s
1
, which supports results from
literature (Refs. 1, 68).
In a second set of experiments, the weld-
ing speed variation was expanded to two
further Al alloys (1050A and 5083) and an
additional parameter was varied: the grain
refiner content of the cast inserts. The re-
sults of these experiments are summarized
in Table 3 shows the predominant weld
metal grain morphology, dependent upon
alloy, welding speed, and weld metal grain
refiner content, where the latter is repre-
sented by the Ti content as measured by
ICP-OES (the weld metal B contents were
about one fifth of the Ti contents due to a
grain refiner Ti/B ratio of 5/1). Predomi-
nantly equiaxed means, for instance, that
the area fraction of equiaxed grains in the
corresponding horizontal weld metal cross
section was > 50%. As a result from Table
3, increasing welding speed and grain re-
finer content allowed the formation of pre-
dominantly equiaxed (E) instead of pre-
dominantly columnar (C) grain morphol-
ogy for all three alloys, confirming the mi-
crographs in Fig. 4.
Beside welding speed, the chemical
composition played a key role in deter-
mining the weld microstructure. Accord-
ingly, commercial pure Al (Alloy 1050A,
approximately 0.4 wt-% total alloy con-
tent, Table 1) showed a much higher ten-
dency for columnar growth than Alloy
5083 (approximately 6.0 wt-% total alloy
content), with Alloy 6082 (approximately
2.7 wt-% total alloy content) in between
(Table 3). This high influence of solute
content on the subsequent grain morphol-
ogy can also be explained with the forma-
tion of constitutional undercooling, which
is provided by element partitioning during
solidification (Ref. 27). The undercooling
again activates more of the nucleant sub-
strates present (Ref. 28) and hence facili-
tates equiaxed growth (Ref. 42).
Additions of commercial Al Ti5B1 grain
refiner to the cast inserts resulted in a sig-
nificant decrease in the weld metal mean
grain size up to 90%, which is presented in
depth (Ref. 37). This grain refinement can
be explained with two effects: 1) an increase
in the amount of active solidification nuclei
such as TiB
2
(Ref. 51) and Al
3
Ti (Ref. 28)
and 2) an increase in the constitutional un-
dercooling, particularly provided by solute
titanium (Ref. 29). Titanium partitioning is
believed to restrict grain growth (Ref. 33),
which results in a higher degree of constitu-
tional undercooling (Ref. 52), providing
eventual grain refinement. Furthermore,
Table 3 clearly shows that low grain refiner
addition levels changed the weld metal
grain morphology significantly from pre-
dominantly columnar to equiaxed. For
Alloy 1050A, when the weld metal grains
were at a base metal composition, the grain
structure was mainly columnar even at high
welding speeds, whereas a small increase in
the weld metal Ti/B content (0.06 wt-% Ti)
allowed a predominantly equiaxed grain
structure.
A further beneficial effect of weld
metal grain refinement, beside better
weldability (Ref. 5), is the improvement in
the weld mechanical properties. Accord-
ingly, a recent study revealed that both
ductility and toughness of 1050A and 5083
welds can be increased through weld
metal grain refinement (Ref. 1).
Texture Formation
The grain refinement effect is illustrated
in Fig. 5, which shows optical micrographs
from cross-sectional areas of two Alloy
1050A welds with coarse (Fig. 5A) and fine
(Fig. 5B) grain structure. Remarkably, both
micrographs suggest a crystall graphic tex-
ture in both refined and unrefined weld
metal, indicated by a segregation of yellow
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 6 Optical and EBSD images of regions A and B from Fig. 5A and cor-
responding pole figures of <100> direction in FCC crystals. GTAW, Alloy
1050A, plate thickness 3 mm, welding speed 4.2 mm s
1
, mean heat input 484
J mm
1
.
A B C
D
E F
(left) and blue (right) grains. Here, it should
be noted that the color of each grain is af-
fected by its crystallographic orientation
due to the use of an etching technique and
optical microscope with polarized light as
described in the metallographic, chemical,
and EPMA examination section. It is of in-
terest that such a texture was observed in all
Alloy 1050A welds as well as in the coarse-
grained Alloy 6082 welds (Fig. 4). The welds
made from Alloy 5083, however, did not
produce any crystallographic texture at all.
The EBSD analysis was performed to
determine the exact orientation angle of
the yellow and blue grains. The results
from this analysis are shown in Fig. 6,
which shows etched micrographs from re-
gions A and B (Fig. 5A) at a higher mag-
nification (Fig. 6A and D). Furthermore,
Fig. 6B, C, E, and F contain the EBSD re-
sults from both regions.
Accordingly, the optical images (etched
micrographs) show for each region many
neighboring grains that have a similar color
and hence a similar atomic lattice orienta-
tion; only a few grains are oriented com-
pletely different. In the EBSD images (Fig.
6B and E), each color reveals how each
grain is oriented; the exact orientation can
be understood with the color key and FCC
aluminum unit cell at the bottom of Fig. 6.
The three arrows are surface normals that
are perpendicular to the cross-sectional
area of the micrographs in Fig. 6A, B, D,
and E. Furthermore, the color and position
of each arrow in the FCC unit cell indicate
how each arrow is located in the FCC
atomic lattice of the grains with the corre-
sponding color in Fig. 6B and E. Accord-
ingly, a virtual FCC unit cell that has the
same atomic lattice orientation as the red
grains in Fig. 6B and E, for instance, stands
with one of its cube faces on the cross-
sectional areas in Fig. 6B and E (because
the red <100> arrow is located at the cube
edge); the FCC unit cell that represents
green grains stands on one of its cube
edges, and the unit cell that represents blue
grains stands on one of its body diagonals,
respectively.
The crystallographic orientation of all
grains from region A and B is summarized
in Fig. 6C and F. These two pole figures re-
veal the distribution of the <100> direction
of all detected lattice orientations as a stere-
ographic projection.
Looking at both pole figures (Fig. 6C
and F), one can see that 1) they are approx-
imately mirror images of each other (mirror
axis z) and 2) there is a frequency maximum
close to the point of origin. This maximum
represents the predominant lattice orienta-
tion (texture). If one compares these results
with both typical weld solidification behav-
ior (recall Fig. 1) and the position of regions
A and B in the weld metal (recall Fig. 5), the
following becomes clear: The crystallo-
graphic texture in regions A and B is equal
to the local growth direction during solidifi-
cation of each region.
The observed texture is likely related to
competitive growth during solidification.
Grains with favorable lattice orientation
(yellow in Fig. 6A and blue in Fig. 6D) grow
with minimum undercooling because their
easy growth direction <100> in aluminum
FCC crystals (Ref. 53), is similar to the di-
rection of the thermal gradient and hence to
the maximum heat extraction (Ref. 54). In
contrast, grains with unfavorable lattice ori-
entation grow at higher undercooling and
become overgrown by more favorable ori-
ented grains (Fig. 6A and D). Competitive
growth is known to form in aluminum fu-
sion welds (Refs. 38, 54) although one
would generally expect completely random
grain orientation for equiaxed grains that
form ahead of the solid-liquid interface.
One reason why the texture was ob-
served not only in coarse, columnar, but also
in fine, equiaxed grain structure could be re-
peated epitaxial nucleation. This means
that new grains nucleate epitaxially on ex-
isting grains (that have recently formed in
the fusion zone) resulting in many grains
with equal lattice orientations. This nucle-
ation mechanism competes with equiaxed
nucleation on particles present such as TiB
2
or Al
3
Ti. In this regard, it is of note that epi-
taxial nucleation needs much less under-
cooling than equiaxed nucleation (Ref. 54).
Since undercooling is provided particularly
by alloying elements, one can conclude the
following: For low-alloy contents (Alloy
1050A), the ability to activate nucleating
particles was low and thus epitaxial nucle-
ation was dominating. At higher alloy con-
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Table 3 Grain Morphology in GTA Weld Metal Dependent upon Welding Speed and Weld Metal
Ti Content (C: Predominantly Columnar, E: Predominantly Equiaxed, C/E: Mixture of Both),
Determined in Top-Sectional Micrographs
Alloy 1050A Alloy 6082 Alloy 5083
Welding
Speed Ti Content in wt-% Ti Content in wt-% Ti Content in wt-%
in mm s
-1
0.01 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.07
2.0 C C E C E E C E E
4.2 C C E C E E C/E E E
6.0 C C E C E E E E E
8.0 C C/E E C/E E E E
10.0 C C/E E E E E
11.5 C E
Fig. 7 Ti distribution in GTA weld metal depend-
ent upon mean Ti content (WDS images). Alloy
6082, plate thickness 3 mm, welding speed 4.2 mm
s
1
, mean heat input 467 J mm
1
.
Fig. 8 GTA weld metal with mean contents of 0.137 wt-% Ti and 0.045 wt-% B revealing the fol-
lowing: A Ti (black) and B (colored) distribution; B TiB
2
particle covered by a thin, white Al
3
Ti
layer; and C TiB
2
particle adjacent to an intermetallic phase rich in Si and Fe (A is the WDS image
while B and C are TEM images). Alloy 6082, plate thickness 3 mm, welding speed 4.2 mm s
1
, mean
heat input 467 J mm
1
.
A
A
B
B
C
C
tents (Alloy 6082 and particularly 5083), the
undercooling provided by the alloying ele-
ments was sufficiently high to activate par-
ticles present for equiaxed nucleation. The
above experimental results confirm this sug-
gestion because the texture formation was
most pronounced for Alloy 1050A and not
present in Alloy 5083 welds, with Alloy
6082 in between.
In addition, welding speed did not show
any influence on the development of the ob-
served crystallographic texture, even
though a variation of welding speed came
along with major changes in heat input and
thus solidification conditions, as shown in
the second part of this study (Ref. 45). Also,
the weld pool shape changed significantly
with increasing welding speed (Fig. 3). In-
stead, the chemical composition and corre-
sponding promotion of constitutional un-
dercooling seem to be the key factors
regarding the texture formation. Decreas-
ing alloy content (from Alloy 5083 to 6082
and to 1050A) and thus decreasing under-
cooling increased the tendency for epitaxial
nucleation.
Particle Size, Distribution, and
Composition
This study and other results (Refs. 9, 37,
55) clearly show that grain refiner additions
to the weld metal can significantly decrease
the weld metal mean grain size. After fo-
cusing on the influencing factors alloy com-
position and solidification conditions, it is of
note to consider the potential nucleant par-
ticles in the weld metal. It is clear that Al
Ti5B1 grain refiner additions introduce in-
soluble TiB
2
particles and soluble Al
3
Ti
particles to the weld pool. Some amount of
such Al
3
Ti particles was expected to dis-
solve during welding and provide solute Ti
and hence constitutional undercooling, de-
pendent upon welding conditions. It is,
however, not known how much Al
3
Ti was
dissolved exactly since Al
3
Ti was found by a
WDS analysis in 6082 weld metal (Fig. 7).
These three WDS images show the titanium
concentration and distribution from three
different welds low Al Ti5B1 additions
and large mean grain size (Fig. 7A) to high
Al Ti5B1 additions and low mean grain size
Fig. 7C.
It is of interest that high grain refiner ad-
dition levels (needed to achieve a minimum
grain size) produced large Ti-rich agglom-
erates with a thickness up to 15 m Fig.
7C. These particles were determined with
WDS to be certainly Al
3
Ti (Ref. 37), al-
though the Ti content of this weld was below
the Ti concentration above which Al
3
Ti may
form (0.15 wt-%) according to the equilib-
rium binary phase diagram of Al-Ti (Ref.
29). Al
3
Ti originates from the grain refiner
and likely formed agglomerates at high
grain refiner addition levels through colli-
sion upon entry to the weld pool. Al
3
Ti ag-
glomerates of a similar size and shape are
known from Al-Ti-B grain refiners (Ref.
10), and they were also observed in similar
experiments with GTA weld metal that was
inoculated by a Ti-bearing grain refiner
(Ref. 56).
Besides titanium, boron plays a key
role in the grain refinement efficiency of
Al Ti5B1 grain refiners (Refs. 19, 57). The
WDS image in Fig. 8A shows both Ti and
B distribution from the weld in Fig. 7C
(high grain refiner content). The Ti-bear-
ing particles in Fig. 8A are black, and the
B-bearing particles are colored whereby
the color scale indicates the B concentra-
tion. Figure 8A shows both Ti, and B- dis-
tribution. An important result from this
analysis is that boron-rich particles were,
in particular, found in the center of tita-
nium-rich particles. This observation sup-
ports the duplex nucleation theory, which
suggests that TiB
2
particles are covered
with an Al
3
Ti layer that again nucleates -
aluminum (Refs. 20, 22, 23). Due to the
TEM lamellae preparation technique, it is
not known if these particles were in the
center of Al grains or not.
Further evidence for the duplex nucle-
ation mechanism are the results from TEM
analysis of 6082 weld metal, which revealed
the size (about 1 m) and shape of two TiB
2
particles Fig. 8B and C. Interestingly, a
thin Al
3
Ti layer was found on one of these
two TiB
2
particles Fig. 8B. This suggests
the B-rich particles from Fig. 8A to be TiB
2
particles that are surrounded by an Al
3
Ti
layer. The other TiB
2
particle in Fig. 8C was
covered partially by an intermetallic phase
rich in Si and Fe, which is probably Al
5
FeSi
or, due to the two-dimensional view, possi-
bly Al
8
Fe
2
Si (Refs. 28, 58).
These results are an important exten-
sion of former studies on aluminum
GTAW that revealed Ti-rich particles
(Ref. 48) and Al
3
Ti particles (Ref. 59) in
the center of weld metal grains (Ref. 48).
Furthermore, this study showed, on the
basis of WDS and TEM analysis, that both
TiB
2
(Ref. 13) and Al
3
Ti (Ref. 14) are
likely important particles for nucleation of
aluminum grains in GTA weld metal.
Moreover, the results suggest the duplex
nucleation theory as main nucleation
mechanism in aluminum weld metal that
is refined with an Al Ti5B1 grain refiner.
Conclusions
The GTA bead-on-plate welding was ac-
complished with aluminum Alloys 1050A,
6082, and 5083. The influence of welding
speed and grain refiner content on the weld
metal grain morphology was investigated
with the use of cast inserts that contained
controlled amounts of commercial Al
Ti5B1 grain refiner and were fused in the
welding process. Increasing welding speeds
from 2 to 11.5 mm s
1
revealed for the case
of no grain refiner additions the following
results:
Change of the weld pool shape from
slightly elliptical to teardrop shaped.
Transition from predominantly
columnar to predominantly equiaxed
grain growth.
Increased tendency for equiaxed grain
morphology with increasing alloy content.
Increasing grain refiner contents facili-
tated predominantly equiaxed grain growth
even at low addition levels (< 0.1 wt-% Ti).
Furthermore, a crystallographic texture was
observed in some welds, which was found to
be caused by competitive growth during
weld pool solidification. It was suggested
that the corresponding nucleation mecha-
nism is repeated epitaxial nucleation. The
tendency for the formation of such a texture
did not depend on the welding conditions
but decreased strongly with increasing alloy
content and grain refiner additions leading
to the nucleation of equiaxed grains.
The WDS and TEM analysis disclosed
in Alloy 6082 weld metal TiB
2
particles that
were likely surrounded by Al
3
Ti. These re-
sults suggest the duplex nucleation theory
for nucleation of aluminum grains in GTA
weld metal that is refined with an Al Ti5B1
grain refiner. Furthermore, the following
heterogeneous nucleation mechanisms are
proposed:
For alloys with low alloy content
predominantly repeated epitaxial nucle-
ation on existing grains.
For alloys with high alloy content
and/or high grain refiner content nucle-
ation on Ti-bearing particles.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to H. Hayen
from Aljo Aluminum-Bau Jonuscheit
GmbH, Germany, and P. Gudde from KBM
Affilips B.V., Netherlands, for the kind do-
nation of Alloy 5083 plates (Alijo) and grain
refiner (KBM Affilips). They also would
like to thank H. Strehlau (ICP-OES chemi-
cal analysis) and D. Khler (casting of in-
gots) for their great support at BAM.
In addition, the authors are thankful to
the German Research Association on
Welding and Allied Processes of the DVS
for their support and the Program for Fund-
ing of Industrial Research and Technology
(IGF) of the German Federal Ministry of
Economics and Technology for funding the
research project 16.242N.
References
1. Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Pittner, A., and
Rethmeier, M. 2013. Influence of grain size on
mechanical properties of aluminum GTA weld
metal. Welding in the World 57(3): 293304.
2. Arata, Y., Matsuda, F., Mukae, S., and
Katoh, M. 1973. Effect of weld solidification
mode on tensile properties of aluminum weld
metal. Transactions of the JWRI 2: 5561.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
3. Janaki Ram, G. D., Mitra, T. K., Shankar,
V., and Sundaresan, S. 2003. Microstructural re-
finement through inoculation of type 7020 Al-
Zn-Mg alloy welds and its effect on hot cracking
and tensile properties. Journal of Materials Pro-
cessing Technology 142(1): 174181.
4. Seshagiri, P.C., Nair, B. S., Reddy, G. M.,
Rao, K. S., Bhattacharya, S. S., and Rao, K. P.
2008. Improvement of mechanical properties of
aluminum-copper-alloy (AA2219) GTA welds by
Sc addition. Science and Technology of Welding
and Joining 13(2): 146158.
5. Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Schwenk, C., and
Rethmeier, M. 2012. Influence of Ti and B addi-
tions on grain size and weldability of aluminum
Alloy 6082. Welding in the World 56(910):
95104.
6. Dvornak, M. J., Frost, R. H., and Olson, D.
L. 1989. The weldability and grain refinement of
Al-2.2Li-2.7Cu. Welding Journal 68(8): 327-s to
335-s.
7. Mousavi, M. G., Cross, C. E., and Grong,
. 1999. Effect of scandium and titanium-boron
on grain refinement and hot cracking of alu-
minum Alloy 7108. Science and Technology of
Welding and Joining 4(6): 381388.
8. Janaki Ram, G. D., Mitra, T. K., Raju, M.
K., and Sundaresan, S. 2000. Use of inoculants to
refine weld solidification structure and improve
weldability in type 2090 Al-Li alloy. Materials Sci-
ence and Engineering A 276(1-2): 4857.
9. Schempp, P., Cross, C. E., Schwenk, C., and
Rethmeier, M. 2011. Weld metal grain refine-
ment of aluminum Alloy 5083 through controlled
additions of Ti and B. MP Materials Testing
53(10): 604609.
10. Murty, B. S., Kori, S. A., and Chakraborty,
M. 2002. Grain refinement of aluminum and its
alloys by heterogeneous nucleation and alloying.
International Materials Reviews 47(1): 329.
11. Delamore, G. W., and Smith, R. W. 1971.
The mechanisms of grain refinement in dilute
aluminum alloys. Metallurgical Transactions A
2(6): 17331738.
12. Easton, M. A., and St. John, D. H. 2001.
A model of grain refinement incorporating alloy
constitution and potency of heterogeneous nu-
cleant particles. Acta Materialia 49(10):
18671878.
13. Cibula, A. 1949. The mechanism of grain
refinement of sand castings in aluminum alloys.
Journal of the Institute of Metals 76(4): 321.
14. Crossley, F. A., and Mondolfo, L. F. 1951.
Mechanism of grain refinement in aluminum al-
loys. Journal of Metals 191: 11431148.
15. Arnberg, L., Bckerud, L., and Klang, H.
1982. Grain refinement of aluminum, 2: Inter-
metallic particles in Al-Ti-B-type master alloys
for grain refinement of aluminum. Metals Tech-
nology 9(11): 713.
16. Johnsson, M., and Bckerud, L. 1992. Nu-
cleants in grain refined aluminum after addition
of Ti- and B-containing master alloys. Zeitschrift
fr Metallkunde 83: 774780.
17. Johnsson, M., and Eriksson, L. 1998.
Thermal expansion of Al and TiB
2
in the tem-
perature range 300 to 900 K and calculated lat-
tice fit at the melting temperature for Al.
Zeitschrift fr Metallkunde 89(7): 478480.
18. Davies, I. G., Dennis, J. M., and Hellawell,
A. 1970. The nucleation of aluminum grains in al-
loys of aluminum with titanium and boron. Met-
allurgical Transactions 1: 275280.
19. Schloz, J. D. 2010. Fundamentals of grain
refining aluminum alloys. Light Metal Age 4:
3037.
20. Schumacher, P., Greer, A. L., Worth, J.,
Evans, P. V., Kearns, M. A., Fisher, P., and Green,
A. H. 1998. New studies of nucleation mecha-
nisms in aluminum alloys: Implications for grain
refinement practice. Materials Science and Tech-
nology 14(5): 394404.
21. Sigworth, G. K., and Kuhn, T. A. 2007.
Grain refinement of aluminum casting alloys.
AFS Transactions: 177188.
22. Schumacher, P., and Greer, A. L. 1994.
Enhanced heterogeneous nucleation of -Al in
amorphous aluminum alloys. Materials Science
and Engineering A 182: 13351339.
23. Mohanty, P. S., and Gruzleski, J. E. 1995.
Mechanism of grain refinement in aluminum.
Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 43(5): 20012012.
24. Bunn, A. M., Evans, P. V., Bristow, D. J.,
and Greer, A. L. 1998. Modeling of the effective-
ness of Al-Ti-B refiners in commercial purity alu-
minum. Proc. 128th TMS Annual Meeting. Ed. B.
J. Welch, pp. 963968. Warrendale, Pa.
25. Schneider, W. A., Quested, T. E., Greer,
A. L., and Cooper, P. S. 2003. A comparison of the
family of AlTiB refiners and their ability to
achieve a fully equiaxed grain structure in DC
castings. Proc. 132nd TMS Annual Meeting. Ed. P.
N. Crepeau, pp. 953959. Warrendale, Pa.
26. Mondolfo, L. F., Farooq, S., and Tse, C.
1987. Grain refinement of aluminum alloys by ti-
tanium and boron. Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Solid.
Proc., pp. 133136.
27. Rutter, J. W., and Chalmers, B. 1953. A
prismatic substructure formed during solidifica-
tion of metals. Canadian Journal of Physics 31:
1539.
28. Bckerud, L., Krl, E., and Tamminen, J.
1986. Solidification Characteristics of Aluminum
Alloys Vol. 1: Wrought Alloys. Oslo, Norway,
Skanaluminum.
29. McCartney, D. G. 1989. Grain refining of
aluminum and its alloys using inoculants. Inter-
national Materials Reviews 34(5): 247260.
30. Moriceau, J. 1972. Rev. Aluminum 12:
977988.
31. Johnsson, M., Bckerud, L., and Sigworth,
G. K. 1993. Study of the mechanism of grain re-
finement of aluminum after additions of Ti- and
B-containing master alloys. Metallurgical Trans-
actions A 24: 481491.
32. Tarshis, L. A., Walker, J. L., and Rutter, J.
W. 1971. Experiments on the solidification struc-
ture of alloy castings. Metallurgical Transactions 2:
25892597.
33. Maxwell, I., and Hellawell, A. 1975. A sim-
ple model for grain refinement during solidifica-
tion. Acta Metallurgica 23(2): 229237.
34. Desnain, P., Fautrelle, Y., Meyer, J.-L., Ri-
quet, J.-P., and Durand, F. 1990. Prediction of
equiaxed grain density in multicomponent alloys,
stirred electromagnetically. Acta Metallurgica et
Materialia 38(8): 15131523.
35. Spittle, J. A., and Sadli, S. 1995. Effect of
alloy variables on grain refinement of binary alu-
minum alloys with Al-Ti-B. Materials Science and
Technology 11: 533537.
36. Bckerud, L., and Johnsson, M. 1996. The
relative importance of nucleation and growth
mechanisms to control grain size in various alu-
minum alloys. Proc. 125th TMS Annual Meeting.
Ed. W. Hale, pp. 679685. Warrendale, Pa.
Rethmeier, M. 2013. Influence of solute content
and solidification parameters on grain refine-
ment of aluminum weld metal. Metallurgical and
Materials Transactions A 44(7): 31983210.
38. Savage, W. F., and Aronson, A. H. 1966.
Preferred orientation in the weld fusion zone.
39. Tiller, W. A., and Rutter, J. W. 1956. The
effect of growth conditions upon the solidifica-
tion of a binary alloy. Canadian Journal of Physics
34: 96121.
40. Savage, W. F. 1980. Solidification, segre-
gation and weld imperfection. Welding in the
World 18(56): 89113.
41. Tiller, W. A., Jackson, K. A., Rutter, J. W.,
and Chalmers, B. 1953. The redistribution of
solute atoms during the solidification of metals.
Acta Metallurgica 1(4): 428437.
42. Winegard, W. C., and Chalmers, B. 1954.
Supercooling and dendritic freezing in alloys.
Transactions of the ASM46: 12141224.
43. Savage, W. F., Lundin, C. D., and Hrubec,
R. J. 1968. Segregation and hot cracking in low-
alloy quench and tempered steels. Welding Jour-
nal 47: 420-s to 425-s.
44. Kou, S., and Le, Y. 1986. Nucleation
mechanisms and grain refining of weld metal.
Rethmeier, M. 2014. Solidification of GTA alu-
minum weld metal: Part II Thermal conditions
and model for columnar to equiaxed transition.
To be published in the March 2014 Welding Jour-
nal.
46. ASTM E112. 2004. Standard Test Methods
for Determining Average Grain Size. ASTM.
47. Ganaha, T., Pearce, B. P., and Kerr, H. W.
1980. Grain structures in aluminum alloy GTA
welds. Metallurgical Transactions A 11(8):
13511359.
48. Kou, S., and Le, Y. 1988. Welding param-
eters and the grain structure of weld metal A
thermodynamic consideration. Metallurgical
Transactions A 19(4): 10751082.
49. Arata, Y., Matsuda, F., and Matsui, A.
1974. Effect of welding condition on solidifica-
tion structure in weld metal of aluminum alloy
sheets. Transactions of the JWRI 3: 8997.
50. Arata, Y., Matsuda, F., and Nakata, K.
1976. Effect of solidification structure in weld
metal. Transactions of the JWRI 5: 4752.
51. Schneider, W., St John, D. H., and Greer,
A. L. 2008. Solidification processing of foundry
alloys: Mechanism of grain refinement of alu-
minum Almost all you need to know. Proc.
11th Intern. Conf. on Aluminum Alloys, Their
Physical and Mechanical Properties 1: 383392.
52. Easton, M., and St. John, D. 1999. Grain
refinement of aluminum alloys: Part II. Confir-
mation of, and a mechanism for, the solute para-
digm. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
30: 16251633.
53. Chalmers, B. 1964. Principles of Solidifica-
tion. New York, N.Y.: Wiley.
54. Kou, S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy. New Jer-
sey: Wiley.
55. Schempp, P., Tang, Z., Cross, C. E., Pit-
tner, A., Seefeld, T., and Rethmeier, M. 2012. In-
fluence of base metal and solidification parame-
ters on grain refinement in aluminum weld metal
due to inoculation. Proc. 9th Int. Conf. on Trends
in Welding Research: 98107.
56. Dvornak, M. J., Frost, R. H., and Olson,
D. L. 1990. Effects of grain refinement of alu-
minum weldability. Proc. of the Materials Weld-
ability Symposium: 289295. ASM International.
57. Guzowski, M. M., Sigworth, G. K., and
Sentner, D. A. 1987. The role of boron in the
grain refinement of aluminum with titanium.
Metallurgical Transactions A 18: 603619.
58. Aluminum-Zentrale Dsseldorf. 1983.
Aluminum-Taschenbuch. Dsseldorf, Germany,
Aluminum-Verlag.
59. Yunjia, H., Frost, R. H., Olson, D. L., and
Edwards, G. R. 1989. Grain refinement of alu-
minum weld metal. Welding Journal 68(7): 280-s
to 289-S.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
60-s
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Introduction
The superalloy Inconel 718 (IN718)
is one of the most frequently used materi-
als in critical aero-engine and space appli-
cations for high-temperature, creep-resis-
tant applications such as in nuclear power
plants and the petrochemical industry
(Ref. 1). The strength of IN718 is gov-
erned by both solid-solution and precipi-
tation-hardening mechanisms. While both
ordered face-centered cubic (FCC) -
Ni
3
(Al,Ti) and metastable ordered body-
centered tetragonal (BCT) -Ni
3
Nb
precipitates are formed during the aging
cycle of the alloy, the predominant contri-
bution to precipitation hardening is pro-
vided by the latter (Ref. 2).
Fusion welding and brazing are two pri-
mary repairing/joining techniques for su-
peralloys that have been commonly ap-
plied in industry (Ref. 3). Conventionally,
high-temperature brazing, using nickel-
based filler alloys, are extensively used as
a standard repair/regeneration technique
for superalloy components (Refs. 4, 5). In
order to lower the liquidus temperature of
nickel-based superalloys and increase the
fluidity of the braze, melting point depres-
sants (MPD) and modifiers such as phos-
phorus, silicon, and boron are added to
the braze alloy. However, these elements
are incorporated into intermetallic phases
such as borides, silicides, and phosphides
during nonequilibrium eutectic-type so-
lidification of the liquid phase during cool-
ing stage of the brazing process (Refs. 6,
7). The presence of intermetallic phases in
the brazed joints centerline is known to
detrimentally affect the performance of
the joint in several ways:
Reducing the mechanical properties
(Refs. 811).
Lowering the remelting temperature and
service temperature of the brazed com-
ponent due to segregation of melting
point depressants into low melting point
eutectic (Ref. 12).
Reducing the corrosion and oxidation re-
sistance of the brazed component (Ref.
12).
While the sluggish kinetics of pre-
cipitation make IN718 welds free of strain
age cracking (Ref. 13), the welding of IN718
suffers from some problems, including
1. Microfissuring and liquation crack-
ing in the HAZ (Refs. 14, 1).
2. The segregation of Nb during non-
equilibrium solidification of the fusion
zone and the consequent formation of the
Nb-rich Laves phase: It has been shown
that the formation of the Laves phase 1)
depletes principal alloying elements re-
quired for precipitation hardening from
the matrix, 2) acts as preferential sites for
easy crack initiation and propagation due
to its inherent brittleness, and 3) deterio-
rates the mechanical properties, especially
tensile ductility, fracture toughness, fa-
tigue, and creep rupture properties (Refs.
1, 15, 16).
Transient liquid phase bonding or dif-
fusion brazing is considered as preferred
repairing/joining process for nickel-based
superalloys (Refs. 3, 12, 1722), which is a
hybrid process that combines the benefi-
cial features of liquid phase bonding and
solid-state bonding. In general, it is con-
sidered that there are three distinct stages
during diffusion brazing: base metal disso-
lution, isothermal solidification, and solid-
state homogenization (Ref. 18). Combin-
ing isothermal solidification with a
subsequent solid-state homogenization
treatment offers the possibility of produc-
ing bonds that are almost chemically iden-
Diffusion Brazing Metallurgy of
IN718/Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718
Correlation between solute redistribution, microstructure development, and shear
strength properties of diffusion brazed cast IN718 is studied
BY M. POURANVARI, A. EKRAMI, AND A. H. KOKABI
ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the effect of microstructure development on me-
chanical properties of diffusion brazed IN718 nickel-based superalloy using a Ni-
Cr-Si-B-Fe filler metal. The phase transformations during diffusion brazing of
IN718/Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718, which dictate the microstructure of the bonds are
governed by diffusion-induced isothermal solidification, cooling-induced ather-
mal solidification, and diffusion-induced solid-state precipitation. It was found
that when partial isothermal solidification occurs at the bonding temperature,
the residual liquid is transformed into eutectic-type microconstituents. Consid-
ering solute redistribution and segregation behavior of the melting point de-
pressant elements (Si and B), the solidification behavior of the liquid phase is
discussed. Moreover, extensive Cr-Mo-Nb-rich boride precipitates were formed
in the substrate region due to solid-state boron diffusion into the base metal dur-
ing the bonding process. Increasing bonding time resulted in progress of isother-
mal solidification and an intermetallic-free joint centerline was obtained after 40
min holding at 1050C. Mechanical properties of the joints are described using
hardness profile and room-temperature shear testing. It was found that the pres-
ence of a continuous network of intermetallic-containing eutectic-type micro-
constituents in the joint centerline acts as the preferential failure source and
leads to a semi-cleavage brittle fracture with low load-bearing capacity. Com-
pletion of isothermal solidification, which guarantees the formation of a ductile
single-phase solid-solution joint centerline, improves the shear strength of the
bond up to 75% of the base metal.
M. POURANVARI (mpouranvari@yahoo. com)
is with Materials and Metallurgical Engineering
Department, Dezful Branch, Islamic Azad Uni-
versity, Dezful, Iran. A. EKRAMI and A. H. KOK-
ABI are with Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran.
KEYWORDS
Diffusion Brazing
Isothermal Solidification
Inconel 718 (In718)
Solute Redistribution
Mechanical Properties
FEBRUARY 2014, VOL. 93
tical to the base material and have no dis-
cernable microstructural discontinuity at
the bond line (Refs. 12, 18).
Despite extensive application of IN718
in various industries, there are few pub-
lished works (Ref. 9) on diffusion brazing
of this superalloy. There are some model-
ing efforts regarding isothermal solidifica-
tion time of wrought IN718 alloy (Ref. 9);
however, there is limited information re-
garding microstructure development and
mechanical properties during diffusion
brazing of this superalloy. Therefore, this
paper aims at investigating the metallurgy
of diffusion brazing of cast IN718 nickel-
based superalloy using Ni-Cr-Fe-B-Si
filler metal.
Experimental Procedure
A cast IN718 nickel-based superalloy
was used as the base metal in this investi-
gation. The chemical composition of the
base metal is Ni-20Fe-18Cr-5Nb-3Mo-
0.2Si (wt-%). A 50-m-thick amorphous
Ni-based filler metal of BNi-2 (Ni-7Cr-
4.5Si-3.2B-3Fe) was used as the interlayer
for diffusion brazing. In this filler metal,
both B and Si play important roles, being
very effective melting-point depressant el-
ements that facilitate wetting.
Coupons sized at 10 5 5 mm were
sectioned from the base metal using an
electrodischarge machine. Thereafter, in
order to remove the oxide layer, contact-
ing surfaces were ground using 600-grade
SiC paper and then ultrasonically
cleaned in an acetone bath. An interlayer
was then inserted between two base
metal coupons. A brazing operation was
carried out in a vacuum furnace under a
vacuum of approximately 10
5
torr. The
brazing temperature was selected as
1050C. The brazing time was varied
from 10 to 40 min.
Specimens were sectioned perpendi-
cular to the bond and then microstruc-
tural observations were made on cross
sections using an optical microscope and
a field emission scanning electron micro-
scope (FESEM). For microstructural ex-
aminations, specimens were etched using
10 mL HNO
3
10 mL C
2
H
4
O
2
15 mL
HCl. Semiquantitative chemical analyses
of phases formed in the centerline of the
bond region and adjacent to base metal
were conducted using a JEOL 5900
FESEM equipped with an ultrathin win-
dow Oxford energy-dispersive X-ray
spectrometer (EDS). Element distribu-
tion across the joint region was analyzed
using a JEOL JXA-8900R electron probe
X-ray microanalyzer equipped with line
scan wavelength dispersive spectrometry
(WDS).
Microhardness testing was used to de-
termine the joint region hardness profile.
The test was conducted on sample cross
sections using a 10-g load on a Buehler
microhardness tester. To evaluate the
mechanical strength of TLP bonds, shear
testing was used instead of tensile testing.
Tensile testing is not strict to the bond
line. Indeed, a minimal amount of the
bond line is oriented on the plane experi-
encing the maximum resolved shear
stress (i.e., plane that oriented 45 deg to
the tensile axis) (Ref. 22). Therefore, it
can be deduced that tensile testing of a
TLP bond with a thin interlayer (i.e., 50
m) does not effectively test the bond
line. Therefore, a fixture was designed
for shear testing Fig. 1. The designed
fixture subjects the sample to a pure
shear stress at the bond line. Despite the
fact that this testing method is not a stan-
dard one and is primarily comparative,
the results are sensitive to the joint mi-
crostructure. Room-temperature shear
testing was performed employing an In-
stron tensile machine with a cross-head
speed of 2 mm/min. The edge effects
were eliminated by machining before the
shear test.
Results and Discussion
Typical Microstructure of Diffusion
Brazed IN718
During diffusion brazing, the following
metallurgical phenomena occurs:
1. Melting of filler metal
2. Dissolution of the base metal
3. Diffusion of MPD elements into the
base metal
4. Solidification of liquid phase, which
can occur via two different mechanisms,
isothermal solidification at the brazing
temperature and athermal solidification
upon cooling.
When the base metal/filler metal as-
sembly is heated to the brazing tempera-
ture, the filler metal melts. This is because
the liquidus temperature of the filler
metal is lower than the brazing tempera-
ture. To achieve equilibrium at the
solid/liquid interface, the composition of
the solid base metal is brought to the
solidus at brazing temperature via dissolu-
tion of the base metal (Ref. 18). This
process modifies the chemical composi-
tion of the liquid phase adjusting it to the
liquidus composition at brazing tempera-
ture. Once local equilibrium is achieved,
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 1 Schematic of shear test fixture (Ref. 10).
Fig. 2 Microstructure of diffusion brazed IN718/Ni-Cr-Si-B-Fe/IN718 after partial isothermal so-
lidification. A Backscattered electron micrograph of joint cross section indicating four distinct
zones: ASZ, ISZ, DAZ, and BM; B optical micrograph showing detailed view of ASZ microcon-
stituents; C SEM micrograph of Ni-rich boride and Cr-rich boride (M and N indicate Ni-rich boride
and Cr-rich boride, respectively); D SEM micrograph showing detailed view of Ni-Si-B ternary eu-
tectic (R and S indicate Ni-rich silicide and Ni-rich boride, respectively).
dissolution ceases. This is followed by in-
terdiffusion of base metal and liquid
phase. The diffusion of MPD elements
(e.g., B and Si) from the liquid phase into
the base metal and diffusion of Cr and Fe
from the base metal into the liquid phase,
increases the liquidus temperature (T
L
) of
the liquid phase. Once the liquidus tem-
perature reaches the brazing temperature,
the liquid resolidifies during holding at
brazing temperature (i.e., isothermal so-
lidification starts). Due to the absence of
solute rejection at the solid/liquid inter-
face during isothermal solidification
under equilibrium condition, the only
solid phase that forms is the solid solution
phase, and formation of other phases is
basically prevented (Ref. 11). In situations
where the brazing time is not sufficient to
allow complete diffusion of MPD ele-
ments in the base metal, some amount of
liquid remains at the joint centerline,
which can undergo eutectic-type solidifi-
cation during cooling .
The joint microstructure is signifi-
cantly affected by the above-mentioned
phenomena. Figure 2A shows a backscat-
tered electron SEM image of the brazes
made at 1050C for 10 min indicating four
distinct microstructural zones in the joint
region, namely:
1. Isothermal solidification zone (ISZ)
in which the solidification of the liquid
phase occurs at the brazing temperature.
The driving force for isothermal solidifi-
cation is a compositional change induced
by interdiffusion between substrate and
interlayer during holding at the brazing
temperature.
2. Athermal solidification zone (ASZ)
in which the solidification of the liquid
phase occurs on cooling. The presence of
intermetallic phases and eutectic-type
morphologies are the main feature of this
region.
3. Diffusion-affected zone (DAZ) in
which the microstructure is influenced by
the solid-state diffusion of MPD elements
into the base metal (BM). This zone is fea-
tured by secondary phase precipitates
(mainly boride in the case of B-containing
filler metals).
4. Base metal in which the microstruc-
ture is not affected by diffusion of MPD el-
ements during the brazing process.
The corresponding element redistribu-
tion across the joint region is shown in Fig.
3 indicating significant chemical composi-
tion inhomogeneity across the braze re-
gion. In the following section, the mi-
crostructural evolution in each zone is
described and analyzed.
Isothermal Solidification Zone (ISZ)
As can be seen in Fig. 2A, the mi-
crostructure of the ISZ consists of a single-
phase solid solution. This zone is formed
due to diffusion-induced isothermal solid-
ification. According to the typical EDS
spectrum (Fig. 4A) and typical WDS
analysis (Table 1), the ISZ consists of a Ni-
rich phase. Presence of elements such as
Mo, Nb, Al, and Ti that were not present
in the initial interlayer composition (Ni-
7Cr-3Fe-4.5Si-3.2B) indicates dissolution
of the base metal. According to EPMA
line scan analysis (Fig. 5), this region con-
tains a higher amount of Ni but smaller
amounts of Cr, Fe, Nb, and Mo compared
to the base metal. No B was detected in the
ISZ using the WDS technique (Table 1);
however, Si tends to build up in the ISZ
(Fig. 3) due to its relatively low diffusion
coefficient compared to B.
Athermal Solidified Zone (ASZ)
Figure 2B shows an optical micrograph
of athermal solidification products. Figure
2C, D shows the SEM images indicating
the details of ASZ microconstituents. Due
to their specific morphologies, it can be in-
ferred that they were formed during eu-
tectic-type reactions. Based upon the
chemical analysis of the phases, it can be
inferred that the microstructure of ASZ
consisted of (1) binary eutectic of Ni-rich
boride (marked by M in Fig. 2C) and
solid solution, (2) binary eutectic of Cr-
rich boride (marked by N in Fig. 2C) and
solid solution, and (3) ternary eutectic of
Ni-rich boride (marked by R in Fig. 2D),
Ni-rich silicide (marked by S in Fig. 1D),
and solid solution. A typical EDS spec-
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 3 EPMA line scan across the BM, DAZ, ISZ, and ASZ in material diffusion brazed at 1050C
for 10 min.
Table 1 EPMA/WDS Based Chemical Composition of Microconstituents in the ISZ and
ASZ of Diffusion Brazed IN718 at 1050 for 10 Min
Element ISZ Ternary Eutectic Eutectic Nickel-Rich Cr
Boride Boride
Ni 73.55 64.82 75.3 62.26 8.59
Cr 10.95 4.55 6.74 4.54 29.57
Si 6.93 12.57 11.92 0.57 0.02
B 12.52 27.28 49.47
Nb 0.34 1.2 0.42 1.5 0.89
Mo 0.26 0.06 0.18 0.07 9.14
Fe 7.52 3.88 5.2 2.97 2.13
Ti 0.19 0.32 0.12 0.69 0.19
Al 0.26 0.08 0.12 0.12
trum is shown in Fig. 4 for each inter-
metallic phase. The chemical composi-
tions of the intermetallic phases and eu-
tectic- were determined using EPMA
and are listed in Table 1. The chemical
compositions of individual phases in ter-
nary eutectic could not be determined
using EPMA due to their very fine size.
The microstructure development dur-
ing athermal solidification is controlled by
two interlinked phenomena: formation of
-Ni rich dendrites and the subsequent
segregation of elements (Ref. 23). During
continuous formation of dendrites,
solute elements with partitioning coeffi-
cient k < 1 are rejected into liquid. Con-
tinuous solute enrichment of liquid could
cause solute concentration to exceed the
solubility limit of solute in the phase;
therefore, secondary solidification con-
stituents are formed between dendrites
(Refs. 23, 24). Therefore, to explain the
solidification behavior of the residual liq-
uid, it is necessary to study the segregation
behavior of elements during solidification.
Here, two parameters are used to describe
the segregation tendency of the elements:
Distribution coefficient (k): The distri-
bution coefficient (k) describes the extent
and direction of microsegregation during
solidification of the alloy. Values of k less
than unity indicate that dendrite cores will
be depleted in the particular alloying ele-
ment relative to interdendritic regions,
while values greater than unity imply the
opposite behavior. A k value of unity im-
plies that no dendritic microsegregation
will occur. Under equilibrium conditions
and by neglecting undercooling at the den-
drite tips and neglecting the solid-state
backdiffusion, the first solid to form from
the liquid, which is the dendrite core, will
have a composition of kC
0
, where C
0
is the
nominal composition of the alloy and k is
the equilibrium partition coefficient (Ref.
24). Therefore, the ratio between dendrite
core composition and the nominal com-
position will yield the partition coefficient
at the beginning of the solidification
process. Since it is difficult to determine
the k values for the diffusion brazing re-
gion, they were calculated for the cast base
metal. The composition of the dendrite
core in cast base metal was determined
using EPMA analysis. The calculated k
values are reported in Fig. 5. The obtained
k values are in good agreement with the
published k value for IN718 in the litera-
ture (Refs. 25, 26). The B concentration
profile cannot be unequivocally deter-
mined using the used analytical tech-
niques. However, it is expected that B will
segregate to the liquid phase during solid-
ification based on the behavior of B in the
Ni-B binary system where the value of k of
B in hypoeutectic Ni-B binary alloy is ap-
proximately 0.008 indicating severe posi-
tive segregation behavior.
Partitioning coefficient (P): In addi-
tion to the distribution coefficient, a good
guide to determining which element pro-
motes stability in which phase is given by
the segregation behavior of components
among the phases present (Ref. 25). A
partition coefficient can be defined for a
partial isothermally solidified joint as the
ratio of element concentration in a micro-
constituent in athermally solidified prod-
ucts to its concentration in the isother-
mally solidified zone. The partition
coefficient were calculated for each phase
except boron and are given in Table 2.
Now, considering the distribution coef-
ficient and partition coefficient, the solid-
ification sequence can be explained in four
stages:
Stage 1 Formation of Ni-rich pri-
mary solidification phase: The solidifica-
tion path begins with primary enriching
the remaining liquid in elements with k <
1. According to Fig. 5, therefore, the liq-
uid is enriched in B, Si, Nb, Mo, and Ti.
Stage 2 Formation of binary eu-
tectic of Ni-rich boride and Ni-rich solid
solution: The growth of dendrites con-
tinues until the liquid composition at the
/liquid interface satisfies the three-phase
noninvariant eutectic reaction of L Ni-
rich Boride + . According to the EPMA
map (Fig. 3) and calculated partitioning
coefficient (Fig. 5), the Ni-rich boride is
enriched in Nb and Ti. The high value of
P for Nb and Ti in Ni-rich boride indicates
they promote the formation of Ni-rich
boride. According to EPMA analysis, the
amount of B in Ni-rich boride is about 27
at.-%, which is much higher than the ini-
tial composition of filler metal (i.e.,
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 4 Typical EDS spectrum: A ISZ; B Ni-rich boride in binary eutectic; C Cr-rich boride in
binary eutectic; D Eutectic gamma () solid solution; E Ni-rich boride in ternary eutectic; F Ni-
rich silicide in ternary eutectic in TLP bonded IN718 after partial isothermal solidification.
Table 2 Partition Ratio of Various Elements in Ni-Rich Boride, Cr-Rich Boride, and in
Ternary Eutectic
Element In Ni-Rich Boride In Cr-Rich Boride In Ternary Eutectic
Ni 0.85 0.12 0.88
Cr 0.41 2.7 0.41
Si 0.08 0.00 1.81
Nb 4.41 2.62 3.53
Mo 0.27 35.15 0.23
Fe 0.4 0.28 0.52
Ti 3.63 1 1.68
Al 0.46 0 0.31
14.4%) indicating severe segregation of B
during athermal solidification. Consider-
ing the boron content in the Ni-rich
boride, it can be deduced that this boride
phase is the Ni
3
B type.
Stage 3 Formation of binary eu-
tectic of Cr-rich boride and solid solu-
tion: According to Table 2, formation of
Ni-rich boride enriches the remaining liq-
uid in Si, Cr, and Mo. This shifts the liquid
composition toward formation of a
pseudo-binary eutectic of Cr-rich boride
and phase. According to the EPMA map
and partition coefficient given in Table 2,
the Cr-rich boride is highly enriched in Mo
compared to the isothermally solidified
zone. The B content of Cr-rich boride (i.e.,
49 at.-%) is also much higher than its value
in the initial composition in the filler metal
indicating severe positive segregation of B
during solidification. Considering the B
content in the Cr-rich boride, it can be de-
duced that this boride phase is CrB.
Stage 4 Formation of ternary eu-
tectic of Ni-boride, Ni-silicide and : Ac-
cording to the low distribution coefficient
of Si and low partition coefficient of Si in
Ni-rich boride and Cr-rich boride, forma-
tion of boride phases is accompanied by Si
rejection into the residual liquid. Al-
though the B content in the residual liquid
is consumed largely during stage 2 and
stage 3, some amount of B remains in the
last portion of the liquid. The enrichment
of liquid in Si and B, shifts the composition
of the melt toward ternary eutectic com-
position and thus Ni-rich boride, Ni-rich
silicide, and -solid solution are formed. It
is interesting to note that initial Si content
of the filler metal (~7.8 at.-%) is much
lower than the solubility limit of Si in Ni
(~ 15 at.-%); therefore, formation of sili-
cide phase during solidification can be re-
lated to the segregation behavior of Si and
rejection of Si due to the formation of
boride phase. According to the EPMA
line scan (Fig. 3), the boride phases are al-
most Si free; therefore, their formation in-
creases the Si content in the liquid phase
and subsequently promotes formation of
silicide during solidification.
Accordingly, the solidification se-
quence can be summarized as follows:
L + L + Ni-rich Boride + L
+ Ni-rich Boride + Cr-rich Boride + L
+ Ni-rich Boride + Cr-rich Boride + Ni-
rich Silicide
It is interesting to note that eutectic-
and proeutectic contain extensive fine
precipitation Fig. 6A. Figure 6B, C
shows a high-magnification view of the
morphology of these precipitates. Due to
their small sizes (20 to 30 nm), they cannot
be directly analyzed. However, WDS
analysis Table 1 and EPMA map of Si in
Fig. 3 showed a high concentration of Si in
this region. Moreover, an EDS X-ray line
scan across the eutectic- and its adjacent
Ni-rich boride (Fig. 6D) clearly shows a
high concentration of Si in this region. The
high Si content of eutectic- is due to seg-
regation of Si during solidification and its
tendency to partition in the boride phase,
as explained above. The morphology of
these fine precipitates suggests they were
formed during a solid-state precipitation
reaction during cooling, not directly from
solidification of the remaining liquid. Ac-
cording to the Ni-Si binary phase diagram
(Ref. 28), the solubility of Si in Ni at
1050C is about 15 at.-%, while its solubil-
ity is decreased to 8 at.-% at room tem-
perature. Consequently, the
1
-Ni
3
Si
phase precipitated from Si-rich solid so-
lution during cooling. Unlike the inter-
metallic phases formed during athermal
solidification that formed interlinked net-
works, the isolated Ni
3
Si precipitates
would not be expected to have a detri-
mental effect on joint mechanical
strength.
Diffusion-Affected Zone (DAZ)
In addition to the centerline eutectic,
significant secondary phase precipitates
were observed at the bond line and base
metal. Figure 7 shows the interface mi-
crostructure of the joint/base metal. It is
seen that microstructure of the DAZ con-
sists of second-phase particles with both
Widmansttten (Fig. 7A) and blocky (Fig.
7B) morphologies. These precipitates ap-
peared close to the joint interface. The
size of this region is about 40 m. Figure
8 shows the X-ray line scan across a blocky
precipitate in the DAZ indicating parti-
tioning tendencies of various elements
that are present in the particle compared
to that of the adjacent austenitic matrix.
As can be seen, the precipitate is enriched
with Cr, Mo, Nb, and B, while it is lean in
Fe and Ni. No partitioning tendency was
detected for Si and Ti. Therefore, this con-
firms that these secondary phases are Cr-
Mo-Nb based borides. Moreover, accord-
ing to the EPMA line scan (Fig. 3), the
discrete peaks of B, Nb, Cr, and Mo in the
DAZ correspond to the formation of
boride precipitates in this region.
The morphology of these suggests that
these precipitates are not formed during
solidification. Formation of boride precip-
itates in the DAZ is directly associated
with B diffusion out of liquid into the base
metal during the brazing process. Consid-
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 6 A Formation of Ni
3
Si in eutectic gamma solid solution; B, C higher magnification view
of Ni-silicide; D X-ray elemental map across the Ni-rich boride/eutectic gamma solid solution.
Fig. 5 Calculated distribution coefficient of
alloying elements in cast IN718.
ering the fact the isothermal solidification
is controlled by diffusion of B into the base
metal, the formation of boride precipi-
tates in the DAZ is possible. Moreover,
Gale and Wallach (Ref. 29) in their work
on microstructural development in tran-
sient liquid phase brazing of Ni substrate
with a Ni-Si-B interlayer at 1065C have
observed formation of Ni
3
B particles at
the original joint/base metal interface.
They suggested that contrary to the pre-
dictions of currently available diffusion
brazing models, a significant solid-state
diffusion of B occurs in the base metal be-
fore completion of the dissolution process
such that the solubility limit of B in the
base metal was exceeded at brazing
temperature.
Due to diffusion of B into the base
metal, a B-containing alloy is formed in a
narrow region in the substrate zone adja-
cent to the ISZ. The solubility of B in this
alloy is limited. This fact coupled with the
presence of Cr, Mo, and Nb in the matrix
that are strong boride formers can explain
the formation of Cr-Mo-Nb-rich precipi-
tates. Gale and Wallach (Ref. 29) provided
some evidence confirming that these pre-
cipitates are formed at the brazing tem-
perature not during cooling.
It is interesting to note that the forma-
tion of secondary precipitates in the DAZ
is not associated with the diffusion of Si, as
a MPD element in filler metal. This is due
to the following reasons:
1. The solubility limit of Si in nickel-
based alloy is higher than that of the B in
nickel-based alloys. According to the Ni-Si
binary phase diagram, the solubility of Si
in Ni is 8 at.-%, which is much higher than
the solubility of B in Ni (0.3 at.-%, ac-
cording to binary Ni-B equilibrium phase
diagram (Ref. 28)). This prevents the for-
mation of silicides in the DAZ.
2. The diffusion coefficient of Si in Ni
is much lower than that of B in Si. As can
be seen in the EPMA pro-
file in Fig. 2, there is no Si
buildup in the DAZ. Most
of the Si is concentrated in
the ISZ due to its low diffu-
sion coefficient. Accord-
ingly, it can be concluded
that the maximum solubil-
ity of Si in the substrate re-
gion cannot be exceeded
and thus formation of sili-
cide secondary phases in
the DAZ is
prohibited.
Formation of Cr-Mo-Nb
in the DAZ leads to a signif-
icant depletion of Cr and Mo
around these precipitates.
This reduces the local corro-
sion resistance of the matrix
(Cr and Mo are two key ele-
ments in corrosion behavior
of IN718). Moreover, the
aging behavior of IN718
strongly depends on the Nb
content of the alloy (Ref.
30). Therefore, the presence
of extensive Cr-Mo-Nb-
based borides present in the
DAZ that depletes the adja-
cent matrix from Nb can af-
fect the aging behavior of
this region (Refs. 31, 32).
Effect of Brazing Time on
Bond Microstructure and
Hardness Characteristics
Joint microstructure that significantly
affects the joint performance depends on
elemental interdiffusion between base
metal and interlayer, which in turn is gov-
erned by brazing time. The average width
of the isothermally solidified zone is meas-
ured at each brazing time and its variation
with respect to square root of brazing time
is plotted in Fig. 9A. As can be seen, there
is a linear relation between ISZ size and
root of brazing time. The implication is
that the formation of gamma solid solu-
tion is a diffusion-controlled process. In-
deed, in the case of diffusion brazing of
IN718/Ni-Cr-Fe-Si-B/IN718, the isother-
mal solidification process is controlled by
formation and growth of -solid solution,
which is governed by MPD element diffu-
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 7 Precipitation in DAZ. A Widmansttten-type borides; B blocky borides.
Fig. 8 X-ray line scan across blocky secondary precipitates in the
DAZ.
A B
sion in the base metal. Increasing brazing
time reduces the volume fraction of eu-
tectic-type microconstituent in the joint
centerline. When brazing time increased
to 40 min, no eutectic structure was ob-
served in the bond region Fig. 9B.
Therefore, it is concluded that a holding
time of 40 min at 1050C is sufficient for
isothermal solidification completion.
Figure 10 shows the hardness distribu-
tion across the braze region for brazes
made at 1050C for 10 min. The hardness
distribution across the joint can be well
correlated to the microstructural gradient
across the braze region. The average base
metal hardness is 230 HV, which corre-
sponds to the matrix of cast IN718. The
average hardness of the ASZ is about 700
HV, which is related to the formation of in-
termetallic-containing eutectic-type solid-
ification products. The hardness of ISZ
averaged 120 HV, which is lower than the
base metal. According to the EPMA line
scan (Fig. 3), the ISZ exhibits a lack of suf-
ficient Nb, Al, Ti, Cr, and Mo
compared to the base metal,
which explains its lower hard-
ness. The average hardness of
the DAZ is 440 HV. The
higher hardness of the DAZ
compared to the base metal is
directly associated to the for-
mation of Cr-Mo-Nb rich
boride phase in the matrix.
The effect of isothermal so-
lidification on the hardness
profile is also superimposed
in Fig. 10. Since the isother-
mal solidification eliminates
the eutectic-type microcon-
stituent, it is not surprising
that the peak hardness in the
joint centerline is not present.
The hardness of ISZ after
completion of isothermal so-
lidification is increased com-
pared to ISZ of joints made at
1050C for 10 min. This can be related to
more diffusion of alloying elements (e.g.,
Nb, Cr, Mo, Al, and Ti) from base metal
into the bond region with increasing braz-
ing time enhancing the solid solution
strengthening contribution. However,
completion of isothermal solidification
does not influence the peak hardness in
DAZ. This is due to the fact that boride
precipitates in DAZ are still stable even
after isothermal solidification
completion.
Shear Strength
The mechanical properties of the dif-
fusion brazed joint are described in terms
of maximum shear strength, total strain at
failure point (fracture strain), and fracture
energy (defined as the area under stress-
strain curve up to failure point). The joint
strength and fracture of diffusion brazed
joints depend on the bond microstructure.
Since the microstructure development is
significantly affected by brazing time (Fig.
9A), it is expected that the brazing time
may have a significant effect on the me-
chanical properties of the joints. Effect of
brazing time on the shear strength, failure
elongation, and failure energy of joined
cast IN718 is shown in Fig. 11. As can be
seen, the shear strength, failure elonga-
tion, and failure energy of joints made at
1050C for 10 min are the lowest. Metal-
lographic examination of the cross section
of the fractured sample (Fig. 12A, B)
showed the failure occurred via crack
propagation through the ASZ. High hard-
ness of eutectic products (Fig. 10) coupled
with the fact that nickel boride phase
forms an interlinked network, provide a
metallurgical notch that significantly de-
creases the load-carrying capacity of the
joint. The low ductility of the intermetal-
lic leads to low fracture strain and fracture
energy of partially isothermally solidified
joints. Scanning electron micrograph frac-
torgraphy of the fracture surface along
with an X-ray map are shown in Fig.
12CE. As can be seen, the fracture sur-
face exhibits a semi-cleavage morphology
that confirms the low failure energy of this
joint. The X-ray map of the fracture sur-
face (Fig. 12E) also indicates crack prop-
agation through athermal solidification
products. Based upon the X-ray elemental
map (Fig. 12E) and SEM-EDS chemical
analysis (not shown here), it can be in-
ferred that the locations marked as X, Y,
and Z (Fig. 12D) are Cr-rich boride, eu-
tectic- and Ni-rich boride precipitates. As
can be seen, the interlinked network of Ni-
rich boride is the main source for the frac-
ture of the joint. Therefore, it is necessary
to eliminate the eutectic products in order
to improve joint strength.
According to Fig. 11, increasing braz-
ing time improves the mechanical proper-
ties of the joints in terms of shear strength,
fracture strain, and fracture energy. This
can be related to the decrease in the width
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 9 A Variation of width of isothermally solidified gamma
solid solution with root of bonding time; B microstructure of
isothermally solidified diffusion brazed IN718 at 1050C for 40
min showing a eutectic-free joint centerline.
Fig. 10 Hardness distribution across the bond region for diffu-
sion brazed IN718 at 1050C for 10 min with partial isothermal so-
lidification and 1050C for 40 min with complete isothermal
solidification.
A
B
of the eutectic-type microconstituents.
According to Fig. 11AC, there is an in-
verse relation between width of the ASZ
and mechanical properties of the joint.
Therefore, it can be deduced that in a
brazing condition in which isothermal so-
lidification is not completed, the extent of
the eutectic constituent (ASZ) is the con-
trolling factor for the shear strength, frac-
ture strain, and fracture energy.
When brazing time increased to 40 min
at 1050C, a joint with a shear strength of
about 497 MPa was achieved. This can be
related to the complete removal of the eu-
tectic-type microconstituents in the joint
centerline producing a single-phase solid-
solution microstructure across the joint
region. The shear strength of base metal
heat treated at 1050C for 40 min is about
660 MPa. Therefore, a joint efficiency of
75% was obtained after completion of
isothermal solidification. The lower shear
strength of the joint in this condition com-
pared to the base metal is related to the
soft ISZ relative to the base metal. Higher
joint efficiency can be achieved via de-
signing a proper postbraze heat treatment
to improve the homogenization across the
braze region via enhancing the interdiffu-
sion of alloying elements, particularly Nb,
Cr, and Mo, and eliminating the boride
precipitates in the DAZ.
Conclusions
For this study, microstructure develop-
ment and mechanical properties of diffu-
sion brazed IN718 nickel-based superalloy
were investigated. The following conclu-
sions can be drawn from this study:
1) The joint microstructure is influ-
enced by complicated phase transforma-
tions including diffusion-induced isother-
mal solidification, cooling-induced
athermal solidification, and difusion-
induced solid-state precipitation. After
partial isothermal solidification, three dis-
tinct microstructural zones were formed in
the brazing-affected zone: isothermal so-
lidification zone (ISZ), which consisted of
Ni-rich solid solution; athermal solidifi-
cation zone (ASZ), which consisted of eu-
tectic-type microconstituents; and diffu-
sion-affected zone (DAZ), which con-
sisted of extensive boride precipitates
distributed in the matrix.
2) When the brazing time is not suffi-
cient to complete solidification of the liq-
uid phase at the brazing temperature, the
residual liquid is solidified on cooling. The
solidification behavior of residual liquid is
governed by low solubility of Si and B and
their segregation behavior. Solidification
of the residual liquid is started by solidifi-
cation of Ni-rich dendrites enriching the
remaining melt with B and Si. This follows
by formation of binary eutectic of -Ni-
rich and Ni-rich boride and then by for-
mation of binary eutectic of -Ni-rich and
Cr-rich boride. The formation of boride
phases enriches the remaining melt in Si
leading to formation of ternary eutectic of
Ni-Si-B as the last solidified portion.
3) Extensive fine Ni-rich silicide (-
Ni
3
Si) formed within the eutectic by
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H
Fig. 11 Effect of joining time and width of eutectic-type microconstituents (ASZ size) on the mechanical properties of diffusion brazed IN718: A Shear
strength; B fracture strain; C fracture energy.
Fig. 12 A Fracture path during shear testing of cast IN718 diffusion brazed at 1050C for 10 min; B
magnified view of fracture location in A; C morphology of fracture surface; D
higher magnification view of fracture morphology; E X-ray map of Ni, Si, and Cr from selected loca-
tion (D) of fracture surface. The locations marked as X, Y, and Z are Cr-rich boride, eutectic- and Ni-
rich boride.
A B C
solid-state precipitation due to the de-
creased solubility of Si in nickel at lower
temperatures. Unlike the intermetallic
phases formed during athermal solidifica-
tion, which formed interlinked networks,
the isolated Ni
3
Si precipitates would not
be expected to have a detrimental effect
on joint mechanical strength.
4) Extensive Cr-Mo-Nb-rich boride
precipitates were formed in the substrate
region due to boron diffusion into the base
metal during the brazing process. The for-
mation of these precipitates in the DAZ
can affect the local corrosion behavior and
aging response of the alloy.
5) Mechanical strength of the joint de-
pends on the microstructure development
in the joint region, which in turn is con-
trolled by brazing time. In situations
where the brazing time is insufficient to
achieve complete isothermal solidifica-
tion, the fracture occurs via crack propa-
gation through the hard and brittle eutec-
tic-type microconstituents in the joint
centerline. An inverse relation between
width of the ASZ and mechanical proper-
ties in terms of shear strength, fracture
strain, and fracture energy is established.
Completion of isothermal solidification,
which resulted in a eutectic-free joint cen-
terline improved the mechanical proper-
ties of the bonds.
Acknowledgment
One of the authors, M. Pouranvari,
gratefully acknowledges the support from
Prof. H. N. Han during his sabbatical leave
in Department of Materials Science & En-
gineering, Seoul National University.
References
1. Rivaux, B., Cao, X., Jahazi, M., Cuddy, J.,
and Birur, A. 2009. Effect of pre- and post-weld
heat treatment on metallurgical and tensile
properties of Inconel 718 alloy butt joints
welded using 4 kW Nd:YAG laser. J Mater Sci
44: 45574571.
2. Yeh, A. C., Lu, K. W., Kuo, C. M., Bor, H.
Y., and Wei, C. N. 2011. Effect of serrated grain
boundaries on the creep property of Inconel
718 superalloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A530: 525529.
3. Pouranvari, M., Ekrami, A., and Ekrami,
A. H. 2008. Microstructure development dur-
ing transient liquid phase bonding of GTD-111
nickel-based superalloy. J Alloys Comp 461:
641647.
4. Matthij, J. H. G. 1985. Role of brazing in
repair of superalloy components Advantages
and limitations. Mater. Sci. Technol. 1: 608612.
5. Rabinkin, A. 2004. Brazing with (NiCo
Cr)-B-Si amorphous brazing filler metals: Al-
loys, processing, joint structure, properties, ap-
plications. Sci. Technol. Weld. Joining 9:
181199.
6. Tung, S. K., Lim, L. C., and Lai, M. O.
1996. Solidification phenomena in nickel base
brazes containing boron and silicon. Scripta
Mater. 34: 125133.
7. Philips, N. R., Levi, C. G., and Evans A.
G. 2008. Mechanisms of microstructure evolu-
tion in an austenitic stainless steel bond gener-
ated using a quaternary braze alloy. Metall
Mater Trans A 39(1): 1429.
8. Sakamoto, A., Fujiwara, C., Hattori, T.,
and Sakai, S. 1989. Optimizing processing vari-
ables in high-temperature brazing with nickel-
based filler metals. Welding Journal 68(3): 63
71.
9. Arafin, M. A., Medraj, M., Turner, D. P.,
and Bocher, P. 2007. Transient liquid phase
bonding of Inconel 718 and Inconel 625 with
BNi-2: Modeling and experimental investiga-
tions. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 447: 125133.
10. Pouranvari, M., Ekrami, A., and Kokabi,
A. H. 2008. Microstructure-properties relation-
ship of TLP-bonded GTD-111 nickel-base su-
peralloy. Mater Sci Eng A 490: 229234.
11. Ojo, O. A., Richards, N. L., and Char-
turvedi, M. C. 2004. Effect of gap size and
process parameters on diffusion brazing of In-
conel 738. Sci. Technol. Weld. Joining 9: 209
220.
12. Duvall, D. S., Owczarski, W. A., and
Paulonis, D. F. 1974. TLP Bonding: A new
method for joining heat resistant alloys. Weld-
ing Journal 53(4): 203214.
13. Thambury, R., Wallace, W., and Goldak,
J. A. 1983. Post weld heat treatment cracking in
superalloys. Int. Met. Rev. 28: 122.
14. Richards, N. L., Huang X., and
Chaturvedi, M. C. 1992. Heat affected zone
cracking in cast Inconel 718. Mater Charact 28:
17987.
15. Radhakrishna, C. H., and Rao, K. P.
1997. The formation and control of Laves phase
in superalloy 718 welds. J Mater. Sci. 32 (8):
19771984.
16. Ram, G. D. J., Reddy, A. V., Rao, K. P.,
and Reddy, G. M. 2004. Control of Laves phase
in Inconel 718 GTA welds with current pulsing.
Sci. Technol.Weld. Joining 9: 390398.
A. H. 2009. Effect of bonding temperature on
microstructure development during TLP bond-
ing of a nickel base superalloy. J Alloys Comp
469: 270275.
18. Gale, W. F., and Butts, D. A. 2004. Tran-
sient liquid phase bonding. Sci. Technol. Weld.
Joining 9: 283300.
19. Idowu, O. A., Ojo, O. A., and
Chaturvedi, M. C. 2006. Microstructural study
of transient liquid phase bonded cast Inconel
738LC superalloy. Metall. Matter. Trans A 37:
278796.
20. Idowu, O. A., Richards, N. L., and
Chaturvedi, M. C. 2005. Effect of bonding tem-
perature on isothermal solidification rate dur-
ing transient liquid phase bonding of Inconel
738LC superalloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 397: 98
112.
21. Pouranvari, M., Ekrami, A., and Kokabi
A. H. 2008. Microstructure-properties relation-
ship of TLP-bonded GTD-111 nickel-base su-
peralloy. Materials Science and Engineering A
490: 229234.
22. Butts, D. A. 2005. Transient liquid phase
bonding of a third generation gamma-titani-
mum aluminium alloy-Gamma Met PX. PhD
thesis. Auburn University, Auburn, Ala.
23. Cieslak, M. J., Stephens, J. J., and Carr,
M. J. 1988. A study of the weldability and weld
related microstructure of Cabot Alloy 214. Met-
all. Matter. Trans A 19A: 657667.
24. Ojo, O. A., Richards, N. L., and
Chaturvedi, M. C. 2004. Microstructural study
of weld fusion zone of TIG welded IN 738LC
nickel-based superalloy. Scripta Mater 51:
683688.
25. Cieslak, M. J., Headley, T. J., Knorovsky,
G. A., Romig, A. D., and Kollie, T. 1990. A com-
parison of the solidification behavior of Incoloy
909 and Inconel 718. Metall Mater Trans A 21:
47988.
26. Knorovsky, G. A., Cieslak, M. J.,
Headley, T. J., Roming, A. D. Jr., and Ham-
metter, W. E. 1989. Inconel 718 A solidification
diagram. Metall Mater Trans A 20: 21492158.
27. Nakao, Y., and Shinozaki, K. 1990. Pro-
ceedings of International Conference on High
Temperature Materials, Belgium, p. 24.
28. Massalski, T. B. (ed.). 1986. Binary alloy
phase diagrams. Metals Park, Ohio: ASM
International.
29. Gale, W. F., and Wallach, E. R. 1991. Mi-
crostructural development in transient liquid-
phase bonding. Metall. Trans. A 22: 24512457.
30. Alam, T., Chaturvedi, M., Ringer, S. P.,
and Cairney, J. M. 2010. Precipitation and clus-
tering in the early stages of ageing in Inconel
718. Mater Sci Eng A 527: 77707774.
A. H. 2013. Solidification and solid state phe-
nomena during TLP bonding of IN718 using
ternary Ni-Si-B filler alloy. Journal of Alloys and
Compounds 563: 143149.
A. H. 2013. Phase transformation during diffu-
sion brazing of IN718/Ni-Cr-B/IN718. Materials
Science and Technology 29: 980984.
A. H. 2013. Transient liquid phase bonding of
wrought IN718 nickel based superalloy using
standard heat treatment cycles: Microstructure
and mechanical properties. Materials and De-
sign 50: 694701.
W
E
L
D
I
N
G

R
E
S
E
A
R
C
H

1-800-233-8460 www.arcos.us
Supplying the World with
Stainless for over 90 Years
Arcos Stainless Steel
Electrodes

Arcos produces a compr
line of premium bar
covered and tubular stainless steel alloy welding
electrodes. Whatever your demanding application fr

oduces a comprehensive
emium bare wire,
ed and tubular stainless steel alloy welding
odes. Whatever your demanding application fr

ed and tubular stainless steel alloy welding
odes. Whatever your demanding application from
work, with or without shielding gas.
Metal cored wir

Flux cored wires for at and
horizontal or out-of-position
work, with or without shielding gas.
ed wir TA es for use in GTAW AWW GMA

es for at and
horizontal or out-of-position
AW AWand

electrodes. Whatever your demanding application fr
nuclear or militar
petrochemical plants, pipelines to car exhaust systems,
shipbuilding to paper pr
Arcos has the right stainless steel electr
exacting requir
These outstanding, made-in-America Ar
are available in a br
consisting of austenitic, duplex and super
martensitic and ferritic grades and ar
to your specic needs. They include:

odes. Whatever your demanding application fr
nuclear or military construction to power generation or
ochemical plants, pipelines to car exhaust systems,
shipbuilding to paper production, and so many others
cos has the right stainless steel electrode to meet your
ements.
These outstanding, made-in-America Arcos electr
e available in a broad range of compositions
consisting of austenitic, duplex and superduplex,
martensitic and ferritic grades and are manufactur

odes. Whatever your demanding application from
y construction to power generation or
ochemical plants, pipelines to car exhaust systems,
oduction, and so many others
ode to meet your
cos electrodes
oad range of compositions
duplex,
e manufactured
Metal cored wir
submerged ar
And, of course, all Ar
experienced team of technical specialists and customer
service professionals.
For more information on the entir
Arcos stainless steel electr
1-800-233-8460

ed wir TA es for use in GTAW AW, W, GMA
ged arc processes.
And, of course, all Arcos electrodes are backed by our
ofessionals.
e information on the entire spectrum of
cos stainless steel electrode products, contact us at
1-800-233-8460 or visit our website at www

AW AW and
e backed by our
e spectrum of
oducts, contact us at
w. w.arcos.us.

Covered electr
coating options.
Solid wires for use in GT
submerged ar

ed electrodes in -15, -16 and -17
coating options.
TA for use in GTAW AW, W AW , GMAW and
ged arc processes.

T
H
I
S

I
C
O
N

M
A
D
E

P
O
S
S
I
B
L
E

W
I
T
H

L
I
N
C
O
L
N

E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
G
e
t

t
h
e

w
h
o
l
e

s
t
o
r
y

a
t

w
w
w
.
m
a
d
e
p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e
w
i
t
h
.
c
o
m
A
R
1
3
-
9
8

T
h
e

L
i
n
c
o
l
n

E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

C
o
.

A
l
l

R
i
g
h
t
s

R
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.

P
h
o
t
o

C
r
e
d
i
t
:

K
a
r
i
n
a

C
h
a
p
m
a
n

F
o
r

I
n
f
o
,

g
o

t
o

w
w
w
.
a
w
s
.
o
r
g
/
a
d
-
i
n
d
e
x

Aws WJ 201402

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Aws WJ 201402

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING

MIG guns and Velocity

weco and Fabricator are registered trademarks of Victor Technologies

Tw with reliable Tweco Fusion

MIG guns and V y

Ninth Edition, Volume 1, Welding Science

e lle b iib xxi

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen