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13
Fouling and Corrosion
Fouling is an accumulation of undesirable material (deposits) on heat exchanger surfaces. Undesirable material may be crystals, sediments, polymers, coking products, inorganic salts, biological growth, corrosion products, and so on. This process influences heat transfer and flow conditions in a heat exchanger. Fouling is a synergistic consequence of transient mass, momentum and heat transfer phenomena involved with exchanger fluids and surfaces, and depends significantly on heat exchanger operation conditions. However, most manifestations of these various phenomena lead to similar consequences. In general, fouling results in a reduction in thermal performance, an increase in pressure drop, may promote corrosion, and may result in eventual failures of some heat exchangers. Corrosion represents mechanical deterioration of construction materials of heat exchanger surfaces under the aggressive influence of flowing fluids and environment in contact. In addition to corrosion, other mechanically induced phenomena are important for heat exchanger design and operation, such as fretting (corrosion occurring at contact areas between metals under load subjected to vibration and slip). Fouling and corrosion represent heat exchanger operation-induced effects and should be considered for both the design of a new heat exchanger and operation of an existing exchanger. In this chapter, we explain the impact of fouling and corrosion on heat transfer and pressure drop in Section 13.1. In Section 13.2, we present a detailed description of various fouling mechanisms and phenomenological considerations of fouling. The methodology to take into account the effect of fouling on exchanger performance and design is outlined in Section 13.3. Various techniques of prevention and mitigation of detrimental effects of fouling are summarized in Section 13.4. Finally, a brief account of the importance of corrosion, in particular its influence on heat exchanger operation and design practices, is provided in Section 13.5.
13.1 FOULING AND ITS EFFECT ON EXCHANGER HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
Thermal fouling (in the presence of a temperature gradient) means accumulation of any undesirable deposition of a thermally insulating material (which provides added thermal resistance to heat flow) on a heat transfer surface occurring over a period of time.+ This solid layer adds an additional thermal resistance to heat flow and also increases hydraulic resistance to fluid flow. Also, the thermal conductivity of fouling deposits is usually lower
'There are other types of fouling phenomena in nature (e.g., clogging of arteries) that are not of importance in heat exchanger design.
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FOULING AND CORROSION
than that for the metals used for heat transfer surfaces. Fouling is an extremely complex phenomenon characterized by combined heat, mass, and momentum transfer under transient conditions. Liquid-side fouling occurs on the exchanger side where liquid is being heated, and gas-side fouling occurs on the gas cooling side; however, reverse examples can be found. Fouling is very costly since it (1) increases capital costs due to the need to oversurface the heat exchanger and for cleaning; (2) increases maintenance costs resulting from cleaning, chemical additives, or troubleshooting; (3) results in loss of production due to shutdown or reduced capacity; and (4) increases energy losses due to reduced heat transfer, increased pressure drop, and dumping of dirty streams present. Gas-side fouling can also be a potential fire hazard in a fossil-fired exhaust environment, resulting in catastrophic lost production and repair costs. In some applications, increased pressure drop due to fouling may reduce gas flows affecting adversely heat transfer and increasing solvent concentration (such as during waste heat recovery from paint oven exhausts) which is not acceptable environmentally. Fouling significantly reduces heat transfer with a relatively small increase in fluid pumping power in systems with liquid flows and high heat transfer coefficients. For systems having low heat transfer coefficients, such as with gases, fouling increases the fluid pumping power significantly with some reduction in heat transfer. Note that plugging will also increase pressure drop substantially but doesn't coat the surface and still may be considered as fouling in an application. Let us first discuss only qualitatively the influence of a deposit on a heat transfer surface. We consider either fully developed laminar or turbulent flows. Using the results/ correlations for laminar flow (Nu = constant; see Table 7.3) and turbulent flow [the Dittus-Boelter correlation, Eq. (7.79) in Table 7.61, we express the heat transfer coefficient as follows:
Nu '
h=(
with Nu = constant Pro.']
for laminar flow (13.1) for turbulent flow
Dh
Dh
- 0.023
[ (E)o'8 - .
Note that in the turbulent flow expression of Eq. (13.1), we substituted Re = mDh/Aop= 4m/Pp using the definition of Dh. Here P is the wetted perimeter of all flow passages in the exchanger. In general, we treat P as independent of Dh. For example, having a double number of 5 m m diameter tubes compared to a specified number of 10 mm diameter tubes in an exchanger will have the same total P but different Dh.A similar situation can exist for an extended surface. Using Eqs. (6.29) and (6.67b), we express the following pressure drop relationships:
In Eq. (13.2), f .Re is approximately constant for fully developed laminar flow (a theoretical value for a circular tube is f . Re = 16), while the following relationship is
FOULING ON EXCHANGER HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP
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applied for turbulent flow: f = 0.046Re-'.'. The most important physical outcome of fouling is the flow cross section getting plugged and resulting in a reduced hydraulic diameter of flow passages. Therefore, for a given mass flow rate h, fluid flow length L, heat transfer area A (= PL), and known fluid properties, one gets from Eqs. (13.1) and (13.21, hm-
Dh
1 APKD;
(13.3)
The functional relationships given by Eq. (13.3) are obtained assuming total wetted perimeter as constant regardless of the change in the hydraulic diameter. In practice, when Dh for an exchanger changes, A may change as well as for a circular tube. In that case, since P = TdiNt = TDhN, for a tubular exchanger ( N , = total number of tubes), Ap 0: 1 Di from Eq. (13.2) for laminar flow and Ap 0: l/D;.* for turbulent flow instead of 1/Dh of Eq. (13.3) for a tubular exchanger. Alternatively, the Ap expression for turbulent flow in a circular tube can be expressed as follows using Eq. (6.29) with the definitions G = m / A , , A , = ( ~ / 4 ) d f and Dh = di:
(13.4) Substitution off = 0.046Re-'.* will change the exponent of m in Eq. (13.4) to 1.8 and the exponent of di to 4.8. Also, the surface roughness change due to fouling on the f factors should be included as an additional effect (generally, we neglect the effect of surface roughness on the heat transfer coefficient for conservatism). Actual influences of fouling on the heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop are substantially more complex than those presented by Eqs. (13.3) and (13.4), due to inherently transient nature of fouling processes. The pressure drop ratio Apf/Apc of a fouled and a clean exchanger for a constant mass flow rate, from Eq. (13.4), is given by (13.5) If we consider that fouling does not affect the friction factor (i.e., fc x f r ) and also consider that reduction in the tube inside diameter due to fouling is only 10 to 20%, the resulting pressure drop increase will be approximately 69% and 205%, respectively, according to Eq. (13.5), regardless of whether the fluid is liquid or gas [note that in contrast, h 0: l/Dh, as shown in Eq. (13.1) or (13.3)]. This increased Ap can be translated into increased fluid pumping power using Eq. (6.1); and for liquids, the density being significantly higher than that for gases, a substantially higher Ap due to fouling can be allowed for liquids for a reasonable increase in liquid pumping power. Also, the equipment cost of fluid pumping power is lower for liquids than for gases for a given amount of pumping power.+ Now let us review the impact of fouling on exchanger heat transfer. As fouling will reduce the free-flow area and hence the passage Dh, it will increase the convection heat
For example, for a midsized automobile, the cost of a 300-W fan for the radiator airflow was $35 to 40, compared to $20 to 25 for an equivalent power radiator coolant water pump in 2001,
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transfer coefficient h [of Eq. (13. l)] between the fluid and heat transfer surface (which may be covered with a fouling layer), for two reasons: increased flow velocity with a reduction in the flow area, and increased surface roughness due to the fouling layer. Both these effects would increase the pressure drop substantially. Fouling layers (deposits) on one or both fluid sides increase thermal resistance to heat flow from the hot fluid to cold fluid by conduction through the fouling layers (see Fig. 3.4), which also have lower thermal conductivity. The added thermal resistances in general reduce the exchanger overall UA substantially compared to the increase in h due to fouling, as mentioned above.+ Due to a large uncertainty, transient nature, variations in the fouling resistance (Rf = l/hf), and no accurate means of its measurement, the increase in h due to fouling is ignored or lumped into the reported values of fouling resistances. Hence, the heat transfer coefficients hh and h, for hot and cold fluids are determined for unfouled clean surfaces for the U A computation of fouled surfaces. From the overall thermal resistance Eq. (3.20) or (3.24), we find that fouling deposits will reduce U A and hence q more significantly in liquids than in gases. This is because liquids have h an order of magnitude higher than that for gases in general. To understand this, consider a process plant heat exchanger with clean U = 1500 W/m2 . K or the overall unit thermal resistance R, = 6 x m2 . K/W. If the fouling resistances Rf,h Rf,, = 3 x [a reasonable value from TEMA (1999)] are considered, 50% extra heat transfer m2 . K/W and area is chargeable to fouling since R,,ne, = (6 + 3) x q = A AT,,,/R,,new. In contrast, for a gas-to-gas clean compact heat exchanger, consider U, = 300 W/m2 . K or R, = 3 x m2 . K/W. For the same fouling resistances, Rf,h Rf,, = 3 x m2 . K/W, the heat transfer surface area chargeable to fouling is only 10%. Based on the foregoing discussion, fouling in liquids has a significant detrimental effect on heat transfer with some increase in fluid pumping power. In contrast, fouling in gases reduces heat transfer somewhat (5 to 10% in general) but increases pressure drop and fluid pumping power significantly (up to several hundred percent) from the cost point of view. It should be emphasized that the same magnitude of a fouling factor (or fouling unit thermal resistance)$ can have a different impact on performance for the same or different applications. For example, the same fouling factor may represent heavy fouling in a clean service (such as a closed-loop refrigerant system) or low fouling in a dirty service (such as a refinery crude preheat train). As another example, the same fouling factor in two different plants may have radically different fouling rates because of different feedstocks, preprocessing, or equipment design.
13.2 PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING
As noted in Section 13.1, fouling is an extremely complex phenomenon characterized by a combined heat, mass, and momentum transfer under transient conditions. Fouling is affected by a large number of variables related to heat exchanger surface, operating conditions, and involved fluid streams. Despite the complexity of the fouling process, a general practice is to include the effect of fouling on the exchanger thermal performance
For example, see the added thermal resistance terms ( l / q e h f A )for the hot and cold fluid sides in Eq. (3.20) or (3.24), which may reduce l / U A more than the increase in hh and/or h, due to fouling, depending on their relative magnitudes in the equation. The concept of fouling resistance introduced in Section 3.2.4 is explained further in Section 13.2.6.
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by adding thermal resistances of fouling layers in the thermal circuit using empirical data, as explained through Fig. 3.4 and discussed further in Section 13.3. The problem, though, is that this simplified modeling approach does not (and cannot) reflect a real transient nature of the fouling process. The current practice is to use fouling factors or fouling unit thermal resistances from TEMA Standards (1999) (see Section 13.3 and Table 9.4 for tubular and shell-and-tube heat exchangers). However, probably a better approach would be to perform cost analysis for cleaning frequency by taking into account any initial overdesign (by including fouling resistances). This overdesign may provide added heat transfer performance initially due to larger surface area and flow area than required for a clean exchanger but will reduce the flow velocity and hence may accelerate initial fouling in some applications. Let us now consider in detail different types of fouling mechanisms, sequential events in fouling, and modeling of a fouling process as an example.
13.2.1 Fouling Mechanisms
There are six types of liquid-side fouling mechanisms: (1) precipitation or crystallization fouling, (2) particulate fouling, (3) chemical reaction fouling, (4) corrosion fouling, (5) biological fouling, and ( 6 )freezing (solidification) fouling. Only biological fouling does not occur in gas-side fouling since there are in principle no nutrients in the gas flows. In reality, more than one fouling mechanisms is present in many applications and their synergistic effect makes the fouling even worse than predicted/expected with a single fouling mechanism present. Note that there are additional examples of fouling that may not fall in the foregoing categories, such as accumulation of noncondensables in a condenser. In addition, plugging will also increase pressure drop substantially, but doesnt coat the surface and still may be considered as fouling in applications. Refer to Melo et al. (1988) and Bott (1990) for a detailed study of fouling. In precipitation or crystallization fouling, the dominant mechanism is the precipitation of dissolved salts in the fluid on the heat transfer surface when the surface concentration exceeds the solubility limit. Thus, a necessary prerequisite for an onset of precipitation is the presence of supersaturation. Precipitation of salts can occur within the process fluid, in the thermal boundary layer, or at the fluid-surface (fouling-film) interface. It generally occurs with aqueous solutions and other liquids of soluble salts which are either being heated or cooled. When the solution contains normal solubility salts (the salt solubility and concentration decrease with decreasing temperature such as wax deposits, gas hydrates and freezing of water/water vapor), the precipitation fouling occurs on the cold surface (i.e., by cooling the solution). For inverse solubility salts (such as calcium and magnesium salts), the precipitation of salt occurs with heating the solution. Precipitation/crystallization fouling is common when untreated water, seawater, geothermal water, brine, aqueous solutions of caustic soda, and other salts are used in heat exchangers. This fouling is characterized by deposition of divalent salts in cooling water systems. Crystallization fouling may occur with some gas flows that contain small quantities of organic compounds that would form crystals on the cold surface. If the deposited layer is hard and tenacious (as often found with inverse solubility salts such as cooling water containing hardness salts), it is often referred to as scaling. If it is porous and mushy, it is called sludge, softscale, or powdery deposit. The most important phenomena involved with precipitation or crystallization fouling include the following. Crystal growth during precipitation require formation of a primary nucleus. The mechanism controlling that process is nucleation, as a rule heterogeneous in the presence
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of impurities and on the heat transfer surface. Transfer of particulate solids to the fouled surface is accomplished by diffusion. Simultaneously with deposition, removal phenomena caused by shear stress are always present. Deposit mechanical integrity changes over time either by strengthening or by weakening it due to crystalization/recrystalization, temperature change, and so on. All these phenomena are controlled by numerous factors, the most dominant being local temperature and temperature gradient levels, composition of the fluid including concentration of soluble species. Particulate fouling refers to the deposition of solids suspended in a fluid onto a heat transfer surface. If the settling occurs due to gravity, the resulting particulate fouling is called sedimentation fouling. Hence, particulate fouling may be defined as the accumulation of particles from heat exchanger working fluids (liquids and/or gaseous suspensions) on the heat transfer surface. Most often, this type of fouling involves deposition of corrosion products dispersed in fluids, clay and mineral particles in river water, suspended solids in cooling water, soot particles of incomplete combustion, magnetic particles in economizers, deposition of salts in desalination systems, deposition of dust particles in air coolers, particulates partially present in fire-side (gas-side) fouling of boilers, and so on. The particulate fouling caused by deposition of, for example, corrosion products is influenced by the following factors: metal corrosion process factors (at heat transfer surface), release and deposition of the corrosion products on the surfacet; concentration of suspended particles, temperature conditions on the fouled surface (heated or nonheated), and heat flux at the heat transfer surface. Chemical reaction fouling is referred to as the deposition of material (fouling precursors) produced by chemical reactions within the process fluid, in the thermal boundary layer, or at the fluid-surface (fouling-film) interface in which the heat transfer surface material is not a reactant or participant. However, the heat transfer surface may act as a catalyst as in cracking, coking, polymerization, and autoxidation. Thermal instabilities of chemical species, such as asphaltenes and proteins, can also induce fouling precursors. Usually, this fouling occurs at local hot spots in a heat exchanger, although the deposits are formed all over the heat transfer surface in crude oil units and dairy plants. It can occur over a wide temperature range from ambient to over 1000C (1800F) but is more pronounced at higher temperatures. Foulant deposits are usually organic compounds, but inorganic materials may be needed to promote the chemical reaction. This fouling mechanism is a consequence of an unwanted chemical reaction that takes place during the heat transfer process. Examples of chemical fouling include deposition of coke in petrochemical industries in cracking furnaces where thermal cracking of hydrocarbons is realized. This fouling mechanism is found in many applications of process industry, such as oil refining, vapor-phase pyrolysis, cooling of gas and oils, polymerization of process monomers, and so on. Furthermore, fouling of heat transfer surface by biological fluids may involve complex heterogeneous chemical reactions and physicochemical processes. The deposits from chemical reaction fouling may promote corrosion at the surface if the formation of the protective oxide layer is inhibited. All fouling deposits may promote corrosion. In corrosion fouling (in situ), the heat transfer surface itself reacts with the process fluid or chemicals present in the process fluid. Its constituents or trace materials are carried by the fluid in the exchanger, and it produces corrosion products that deposit on the surface. Hence, corrosion fouling could be considered as chemical reaction fouling
It should be borne in mind that corrosion products may be soluble in a working fluid, and hence both precipitation and particulate fouling would usually occur concurrently.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING
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in which heat transfer fouling affects the exchanger mechanical integrity, and the corrosion products add thermal resistance to heat flow from the hot fluid to the cold fluid. If corrosion products are formed upstream of the exchanger and then deposited on the heat transfer surface, the fouling mechanism refers to particulate or precipitation fouling, depending on whether the corrosion products are insoluble or soluble at the bulk fluid conditions. The interaction of corrosion and other types of fouling is the major concern for many industrial applications. Corrosion fouling is dependent on the selection of exchanger surface material and can be avoided with the right choice of materials (such as expensive alloys) if the high cost is warranted. Corrosion fouling is prevalent in many applications where chemical reaction fouling takes place and the protective oxide layer is not formed on the surface. Corrosion fouling is of significant importance in the design of the boiler and condenser of a fossil fuel-fired power plant. The important factors for corrosion fouling are the chemical properties of the fluids and heat transfer surface, oxidizing potential and alkalinity, local temperature and heat flux magnitude, and mass flow rate of the working fluid. It should be noted that although growth of corrosion influenced deposit has a detrimental effect on heat transfer, this influence is less important than fouling caused by particulate fouling of corrosion products formed elsewhere within the system. For example, fouling on the water side of boilers may be caused by corrosion products that originate in the condenser or feedtrain. Biological fouling or biofouling results from the deposition, attachment, and growth of macro- or microorganisms to the heat transfer surface; it is generally a problem in water streams. In general, biological fouling can be divided into two main subtypes of fouling: microbial and macrobial. Microbial fouling is accumulation of microorganisms such as algae, fungi, yeasts, bacteria, and molds, and macrobial fouling represents accumulation of macroorganisms such as clams, barnacles, mussels, and vegetation as found in seawater or estuarine cooling water. Microbial fouling precedes macrobial deposition as a rule and may be considered of primary interest. Biological fouling is generally in the form of a biofilm or a slime layer on the surface that is uneven, filamentous, and deformable but difficult to remove. Although biological fouling could occur in suitable liquid streams, it is generally associated with open recirculation or once-through systems with cooling water. Since this fouling is associated with living organisms, they can exist primarily in the temperature range 0 to 90C (32 to 194F) and thrive in the temperature range 20 to 50C (68 to 122F). Biological fouling may promote corrosion fouling under the slime layer. Transport of microbial nutrients, inorganic salts, and viable microorganisms from the hulk fluid to the heat transfer surface is accomplished through molecular diffusion or turbulent eddy transport, including organic adsorption at the surface. Freezing or solid$cation fouling is due to freezing of a liquid or some of its constituents, or deposition of solids on a subcooled heat transfer surface as a consequence of liquid-solid or vapor-solid phase change in a gas stream. Formation of ice on a heat transfer surface during chilled water production or cooling of moist air, deposits formed in phenol coolers, and deposits formed during cooling of mixtures of substances such as paraffin are some examples of solidification fouling (Bott, 1981).This fouling mechanism occurs at low temperatures, usually ambient and below depending on local pressure conditions. The main factors affecting solidification fouling are mass flow rate of the working fluid, temperature and crystallization conditions, surface conditions, and concentration of the solid precursor in the fluid. Combined fouling occurs in many applications, where more than one fouling mechanism is present and the fouling problem becomes very complex with their synergistic
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effects. Some combined fouling mechanisms found in industrial applications are (Panchal, 1999):
0
0 0
Particulate fouling combined with biofouling, crystallization, and chemicalreaction fouling Crystallization fouling combined with chemical-reaction fouling Condensation of organic/inorganic vapors combined with particulate fouling in gas streams Crystallization fouling of mixed salts Combined fouling by asphaltene precipitation, pyrolysis, polymerization, and/or inorganic deposition in crude oil Corrosion fouling combined with biofouling, crystallization, or chemical-reaction fouling
Some examples of the interactive effects of corrosion and fouling are as follows (Panchal, 1999):
0
Microfouling-induced corrosion (MIC) (sustained-pitting corrosion) Under-deposit corrosion in petroleum and black liquor processing (concentration buildup of corrosion-causing elements) Simultaneous corrosion and biofouling in cooling water applications Fouling induced by corrosion products
It is obvious that one cannot talk about a single, unified theory to model the fouling process wherein not only the foregoing six types of fouling mechanisms are identified, but in many processes more than one fouling mechanism exists with synergistic effects. However, it is possible to extract a few variables that would most probably control any fouling process: (1) fluid velocity, (2) fluid and heat transfer surface temperatures and temperature differences, (3) physical and chemical properties of the fluid, (4) heat transfer surface properties, and (5) geometry of the fluid flow passage. The other important variables are concentration of foulant or precursor, impurities, heat transfer surface roughness, surface chemistry, fluid chemistry (pH level, oxygen concentration, etc.), pressure, and so on. For a given fluid-surface combination, the two most important design variables are the fluid velocity and heat transfer surface temperature. In general, higher flow velocities may cause less foulant deposition and/or more pronounced deposit erosion, but at the same time may accelerate corrosion of the surface by removing the heat transfer surface material. Higher surface temperatures promote chemical reaction, corrosion, crystal formation (with inverse solubility salts), and polymerization, but reduce biofouling and prevent freezing and precipitation of normal solubility salts. Consequently, it is frequently recommended that the surface temperature be maintained low.
13.2.2 Single-Phase Liquid-Side Fouling
Single-phase liquid-side fouling is most frequently caused by (1) precipitation of minerals from the flowing liquid, (2) deposition of various particles, (3) biological fouling, and (4) corrosion fouling. Other fouling mechanisms are also present. More important, though,
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TABLE 13.1 Influence of Operating Variables on Liquid-Side Fouling"
Operating
Variable
Precipitation
Freezing
Particulate
Chemical
Corrosion
Biological
Temperature Velocity Supersaturation

PH
Impurities Concentration Roughness Pressure Oxygen
tl lT T
T T
1 Tl T 1 T T
T 1 1
T l
-
c)
t
T-
tl 1
T l tlTl
TlT 1
-
Tl
-
c)
t
T
c)
TT T
T Tl TI
Source: Data from Cannas (1986). When the value of an operating variable is increased, it increases (7). decreases (J), or has no effect (++) on the specific fouling mechanism listed. Dashes - indicate that no influence of these variables has been reported in the literature.
is the combined effect of more than one fouling mechanism present. The qualitative effects of some of the operating variables on these fouling mechanisms are shown in Table 13.1. The quantitative effect of fouling on heat transfer can be estimated by utilizing the concept of fouling resistance and calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient under both fouling and clean conditions (see Section 13.3). An additional parameter for determining this influence, used frequently in practice, is the cleanliness factor. It is defined as a ratio of an overall heat transfer coefficient determined for fouling conditions to that determined for clean (fouling-free) operating conditions. The effect of fouling on the pressure drop can be determined by the reduced free-flow area due to fouling and the change in the friction factor, if any, due to fouling.
13.2.3 Single-Phase Gas-Side Fouling

Gas-side fouling may be caused by precipitation (scaling), particulate deposition, corrosion, chemical reaction, and freezing. Formation of hard scale from the gas flow occurs if a sufficiently low temperature of the heat transfer surface forces salt compounds to solidification. Acid vapors, high-temperature removal of an oxide layer by molten ash, or salty air at low temperatures may promote corrosion fouling. An example of particulate deposition is accumulation of plant residues. An excess of various chemical substances, such as sulfur, vanadium, and sodium, initiates various chemical reaction fouling problems. Formation of frost and various cryo-deposits are typical examples of freezing fouling on the gas side. An excellent overview of gas-side fouling of heat transfer surfaces is given by Marner (1990, 1996). Qualitative effects of some of the operating variables on gas-side fouling mechanisms are presented in Table 13.2.
13.2.4 Fouling in Compact Exchangers

Small channels associated with compact heat exchangers have very high shear rates, perhaps three to four times higher in a plate heat exchanger than in a shell-and-tube
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TABLE 13.2 Influence of Operating Variables on Gas-Side Foulinga

Operating Variable Temperature Velocity Impurities Concentration Fuel-air ratio Roughness Oxygen Sulfur Particulate Freezing Chemical Corrosion
Tl
TI++
-
1 1 1
c *
t
Tl-
tlT-
T T T*
c)
t t t
tt
Source: Data from Cannas (1986).

a
When the value of an operating variable is increased, it increases (T), decreases (I), or has no effect (+-+) on the specific fouling mechanism listed. Dashes - indicate that no influence of these variables has been reported in the literature.
exchanger. This reduces fouling significantly. However, small channel size creates a problem of plugging the passages. To avoid plugging, the particle size must be restricted by filtering or other means to less than one-third the smallest opening of heat exchanger passages. Even with this guideline, particulate fouling can occur and agglomerate, such as with waxy substances.
13.2.5 Sequential Events in Fouling From the empirical evidence involving various fouling mechanisms discussed in Section 13.2.1, it is clear that virtually all these mechanisms are characterized by a similar sequence of events. The successive events occurring in most cases are the following: (1) initiation, (2) transport, (3) attachment, (4) removal, and (5) aging, as conceptualized by Epstein (1978). These events govern the overall fouling process and determine its ultimate impact on heat exchanger performance. In some cases, certain events dominate the fouling process, and they have a direct effect on the type of fouling to be sustained. Let us summarize these events briefly (Cannas, 1986). Initiation of the fouling, the first event in the fouling process, is preceded by a delay period or induction period Td as shown in Fig. 13.1. The basic mechanism involved during this period is heterogeneous nucleation, and Td is shorter with a higher nucleation rate. The factors affecting Td are temperature, fluid velocity, composition of the fouling stream, and nature and condition of the heat exchanger surface. Low-energy surfaces (unwettable) exhibit longer induction periods than those of high-energy surfaces (wettable). In crystallization fouling, Td tends to decrease with increasing degree of supersaturation. In chemical reaction fouling, Td appears to decrease with increasing surface temperature. In all fouling mechanisms, Td decreases as the surface roughness increases due to available suitable sites for nucleation, adsorption, and adhesion. Transport of species means transfer of a key component (such as oxygen), a crucial reactant, or the fouling species itself from the bulk of the fluid to the heat transfer surface. Transport of species is the best understood of all sequential events. Transport of species takes place through the action of one or more of the following mechanisms:
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Dzfusion: involves mass transfer of the fouling constituents from the flowing fluid toward the heat transfer surface due to the concentration difference between the bulk of the fluid and the fluid adjacent to the surface. 0 Electrophoresis: under the action of electric forces, fouling particles carrying an electric charge may move toward or away from a charged surface depending on the polarity of the surface and the particles. Deposition due to electrophoresis increases with decreasing electrical conductivity of the fluid, increasing fluid temperature, and increasing fluid velocity. It also depends on the pH of the solution. Surface forces such as London-van der Waals and electric double layer interaction forces are usually responsible for electrophoretic effects. 0 Thermophoresis: a phenomenon whereby a thermal force moves fine particles in the direction of negative temperature gradient, from a hot zone to a cold zone. Thus, a high-temperature gradient near a hot wall will prevent particles from depositing, but the same absolute value of the gradient near a cold wall will promote particle deposition. The thermophoretic effect is larger for gases than for liquids. 0 Dzfusiophoresis: involves condensation of gaseous streams onto a surface. 0 Sedimentation: involves the deposition of particulate matters such as rust particles, clay, and dust on the surface due to the action of gravity. For sedimentation to occur, the downward gravitational force must be greater than the upward drag force. Sedimentation is important for large particles and low fluid velocities. It is frequently observed in cooling tower waters and other industrial processes where rust and dust particles may act as catalysts and/or enter complex reactions. 0 Inertial impaction: a phenomenon whereby large particles can have sufficient inertia that they are unable to follow fluid streamlines and as a result, deposit on the surface. 0 Turbulent downsweeps: since the viscous sublayer in a turbulent boundary layer is not truly steady, the fluid is being transported toward the surface by turbulent downsweeps. These may be thought of as suction areas of measurable strength distributed randomly all over the surface. Attachment of the fouling species to the surface involves both physical and chemical processes, and it is not well understood. Three interrelated factors play a crucial role in the attachment process: surface conditions, surface forces, and sticking probability. It is the combined and simultaneous action of these factors that largely accounts for the event of attachment.
0
0
The properties of surface conditions important for attachment are the surface free energy, wettability (contact angle, spreadability), and heat of immersion. Wettability and heat of immersion increase as the difference between the surface free energy of the wall and the adjacent fluid layer increases. Unwettable or low-energy surfaces have longer induction periods than wettable or high-energy surfaces, and suffer less from deposition (such as polymer and ceramic coatings). Surface roughness increases the effectivecontact area of a surface and provides suitable sites for nucleation and promotes initiation of fouling. Hence, roughness increases the wettability of wettable surfaces and decreases the unwettability of the unwettable ones. There are several surface forces. The most important one is the London-van der Waals force, which describes the intermolecular attraction between nonpolar mole-
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cules and is always attractive. The electric double layer interaction force can be attractive or repulsive. Viscous hydrodynamic force influences the attachment of a particle moving to the wall, which increases as it moves normal to the plain surface. Sticking probability represents the fraction of particles that reach the wall and stay there before any reentrainment occurs. It is a useful statistical concept devised to analyze and explain the complicated event of attachment.
Removal of the fouling deposits from the surface may or may not occur simultaneously with deposition. Removal occurs due to the single or simultaneous action of the following mechanisms: shear forces, turbulent bursts, re-solution, and erosion.
0
Shear forces result from the action of the shear stress exerted by the flowing fluid on the depositing layer. As the fouling deposit builds up, the cross-sectional area for flow decreases, thus causing an increase in the average velocity of the fluid for a constant mass flow rate and increasing the shear stress. Fresh deposits will form only if the deposit bond resistance is greater than the prevailing shear forces at the solid-fluid interface. Randomly distributed (about less than 0.5% at any instant of time) periodic turbulent bursts act as miniature tornadoes lifting deposited material from the surface. By continuity, these fluid bursts are compensated for by gentler fluid back sweeps, which promote deposition. The removal of the deposits by re-solution is related directly to the solubility of the material deposited. Since the fouling deposit is presumably insoluble at the time of its formation, dissolution will occur only if there is a change in the properties of the deposit, or in the flowing fluid, or in both, due to local changes in temperature, velocity, alkalinity, and other operational variables. For example, sufficiently high or low temperatures could kill a biological deposit, thus weakening its attachment to a surface and causing sloughing or re-solution. The removal of corrosion deposits in power-generating systems is done by re-solution at low alkalinity. Re-solution is associated with the removal of material in ionic or molecular form. Erosion is closely identified with the overall removal process. It is highly dependent on the shear strength of the foulant and on the steepness and length of the sloping heat exchanger surfaces, if any. Erosion is associated with the removal of material in particulate form. The removal mechanism becomes largely ineffective if the fouling layer is composed of well-crystallized pure material (strong formations); but it is very effective if it is composed of a large variety of salts each having different crystal properties.
Aging of deposits begins with attachment on the heat transfer surface, and refers to any changes the fouling material undergoes as time elapses. The aging process includes both physical and chemical transformations, such as further degradation to a more carbonaceous material in organic fouling, and dehydration and/or crystal phase transformations in inorganic fouling. A direct consequence of aging is change in the thermal conductivity of the deposits.+ Aging may strengthen or weaken the fouling deposits.
' A common nonfouling example of aging is the transformation of fresh, soft, fluffy snow in an open field into hard, crystalline, yellowish ice after a week or so of exposure to the sun resulting differences in its material properties.
875
1 3 . 2 . 6 Modeling of a Fouling Process

Regardless of the type of fouling process, the principal characteristic feature of any type of fouling is that the net mass fouling rate (i.e., the change of the mass rn of foulant deposited on the heat transfer surface for a given time, drnldr, is a consequence of a net difference between the foulant deposit rate md and the foulant reentrainment rate kr: (13.6) In Eq. (13.6), s denotes symbolically the spatial dependence (say, x, y , and z ) of the mass of foulant. Note that the mass m of the foulant deposited uniformly is given as a simple equation:
rn =
(13.7)
where pf represents foulant mass density, A denotes heat transfer surface area covered 6 is the thickness of the foulant layer. In general, all three terms of with the foulant, and' Eq. (13.6) are spatially nonuniform and dependent on time. Equation (13.6) can conveniently be reformulated in terms of mass per unit heat transfer surface area, M A = m / A , and for a uniform spatial distribution of deposit, it is (13.8) Equation (13.8) is a direct consequence of Eq. (13.6) after idealizing a uniform distribution of the fouling deposit over the surface A . Furthermore, mass per unit heat transfer surface (uniformly distributed along the heat transfer surface) can be written as
M A = pf sf = p f k f
Rf
(13.9)
where Rf = 6 , / k f , the fouling factor, represents fouling unit thermal resistance; it represents the thermal resistance of the layer of foulant deposited for a unit area of heat transfer surface. Concisely, we refer to this entity as fouling resistance. From the fouling , = k f R f . Consequently, factor definition, we obtain 6 (13.10) In Eq. (13.10), it is assumed that both mass density and thermal conductivity of the deposited layer are invariant with time. Combining Eqs. (13.8) and (13.10), we obtain (13.11) where kj= A?A,j/pfkfrepresents deposition ( j = d ) and removal ( j = r ) fouling resistance rates. To solve either Eq. (13.8) or (13.1 l), one needs the explicit forms of either mass rates per unit heat transfer area (for both deposit or reentrainment process) or unit thermal resistances [the terms on the right-hand sides of Eqs. (13.8) and (13.1 l)]. A number of
876
models for determining these variables have been developed; some of them are summarized in Table 13.3. Let us consider the model of Taborek et al. enlisted in that table as an illustration. According to Taborek et al. [as reported by Epstein (1978)], the deposition and removal mass rates have the form (13.12) where cI and bl are constants, p 1 is a deposition probability function related to the velocity and adhesion properties of the deposit, R" is the water quality factor, E is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, T, is the absolute temperature of the deposit at the surface, T~ denotes fluid shear stress at the deposit surface, 1c, represents removal resistance of the deposit (scale strength factor), m is the foulant mass, and i is an exponent. Equation (1 3.12) can be represented in terms of deposition and removal thermal resistance rates of Eq. (13.1 1) in form as follows [as reported by Knudsen (1998)l:
In Eq. (13.13), c2 and b2 are constants. It should be noted that both sets of equations [Eqs. (13.12) and (1 3.13)], are semiempirical, to include the variables that govern fouling. Introducing the expressions for mass per unit heat transfer surface area for both deposit and reentrainment processes (or their thermal resistance) into Eq. (13.8) or (13.1 l), we could integrate these governing equations and subsequently determine either deposited mass or their thermal resistance. These solutions have to fit empirical evidence that can be generalized as presented in Fig. 13.1. In Fig. 13.1, four characteristic scenarios for the growth of the fouling resistance are presented (Knudsen, 1998). In this figure, 7 d is the delay period for the onset of fouling deposits for non-negligible
4.
1. Linear characteristics (i.e., Rf is linearly dependent on time) indicate that the deposition rate is constant and there is no reentrainment rate (or at least their difference is invariant in time). A linear fouling behavior is generally associated with the crystallization of a well-formed deposit consisting of a substantially pure salt that is largely uncontaminated by the presence of coprecipitated impurities. The strong bonds characterizing the structure of such deposits make removal mechanisms somewhat ineffective. If heat duty is kept constant linear fouling behavior is also often observed for reaction fouling. 2. Falling rate fouling normally occurs in situations where the deposition rate is decreasing but always greater than the removal rate. This type of fouling mechanism has been observed in crystallization fouling in a plate exchanger and also in particulate fouling. 3. The curve characterizedAby asymptotic behavior reflects the situation represented by the expression for l i d of Eq. (13.13), which corresponds to fragile deposits exposed to shear stress of the flowing fluid. The asymptotic fouling growth model is often observed in cooling water heat exchangers. In these heat exchangers, the conditions leading to the formation of a scale layer of a weak, less coherent
TABLE 13.3 Deposition and Reentrainment Models"

Deposition Flux
M d
Reentrainment Flux
ni,
bOT@
Sourceb Kern and Seaton (1959a,b)
Comments' a, deposition constant; ub, fluid bulk velocity; Cb, bulk concentration; bo, reentrainment constant; particulate and other fouling ( u d ) ; spalling (hk,); mass of foulant rn given by Eq. (13.7) Kd, deposition coefficient; k,, mass transfer coefficient; b3, reentrainment constant; convective mass transfer of depositable species (h?d); erosion and bond fracture (kr) b, reentrainment coefficient; iron oxide deposition in flow boiling ( & f d ) ; erosion, spalling (A?,) S, sticking probability; u,, particle velocity normal to wall; b4, reentrainment coefficient; rnIoow, loose deposit mass per unit heat transfer area; particle deposition by eddy and Brownian diffusion and inertial coasting ( h ? d ) / erosion ( f i r , ) b5, reentrainment coefficient; C,, surface concentration; dissolution
aubCb Kdcb = k,Cb
b3 ~d
Bartlett (BNWL)
Kd cb
bm Ilk,,, + 1/Su,
cb
b4rn100x
Charlesworth (1970)
Kdcb =
Beal(1970, 1972, 1973)
b5(C,- Cb)m
,,p,~"e-(EI"T')
Burrill (1977) Taborek et al. (1972), Taborek and Ritter (1972) Characklis (1990) Panchal et al. (1997)
(u,)
617;
m' 0
klm K,FC,
+ km
klk2rn2
b6rsrn
See text for the description of symbols; cooling-water service (ifd); spalling k l and k Z ,constants; biofouling process K,, transport coefficient; F,fraction of microorganisms settled on the surface; C,, concentration of microorganisms; k, rate constant; b6, constant
(u,)
Specific symbols used in this table are all local and refer to the source cited for the units and detailed physical meaning. The list of models in this table illustrates the variety of models reported in the literature. D. Q. Kern and R. E. Seaton (1959a), Brit. Chem. Eng., Vol. 4, p. 258; D. Q. Kern and R. E. Seaton (1959b), Chem. Eng. Progr., Vol. 55, p. 71; J. W. Bartlett (1968), BNWL-676, UC-80, Reactor Technology, Battelle Northwest, Richland, Wash.; D. H. Charlesworth (1970), Chem. Eng. Prog. Symp. Ser., Vol. 66, No. 104, p. 21; S.K. Beal(1970). Nucl. Sci. Eng., Vol. 40,p. 1; S. K.Beal(1972). Paper 76-C, 65th Annual Meeting AIChE; S. K. Beal(1973), Trans. Am. Nucl. Soc., Vol. 17, p. 163; K. A. Burrill (1977), Can. J . Chem. Eng., Vol. 55, p. 54; J. Taborek et al. (1972), Chem. Eng. Progr., Vol. 68, pp. 59.69; J. Taborek and R. B. Ritter (1972), Paper 76-A, 65th Annual Meeting, AIChE, New York; W. G. Characklis (1990) Biofilm Process, in Biofims, W. G. Characklis and K. C. Marshall, eds., Wiley, New York, pp. 19W31; C. B. Panchal et al. (1997), in Fouling Mitigarion oflndustrial HealExchange Equipment, C. Panchal, ed., Begell House, New York, pp. 201-212. ' Specific fouling/deposition/removaltypes are mentioned for each model for n;ld and Ak,.
a
878
sd
Time 7
FIGURE 13.1 Time dependence of the fouling resistance.
structure are associated with simultaneous crystallization of salts of different crystal shapes or with the presence of suspended particles embedded in the crystalline structure. The growth of such deposits is expected to create internal stresses in the scale layer so that the removal processes become progressively more effective with deposit thickness. Such considerations lead to asymptotic scale thickness, at which the deposition is balanced by the scale removal mechanism. 4. Having a sawtooth pattern due to the aging process of the fouling deposits (decrease in strength and coherence) results in susceptibility to the removal process; this is found in corrosion fouling of copper tubes by seawater and in desalination evaporators.
Example 13.1 A fluid stream, rich in inert particles, flows through a tubular heat exchanger. The deposits form inside the tube surface due to particulate fouling. Assume that after a prolonged period of time, an asymptotic value of thermal resistance is reached at a level of R f , r , . Also consider that fouling resistance reaches 63% of its asymptotic value in 194 hours. Model this fouling process determining the relationship between fouling resistance and time. Assume the validity of the model given by Eqs. (13.11) and (13.13). How many hours of operation would be needed for the fouling resistance to reach within 90% of the asymptotic fouling resistance?
SOLUTION
Problem Data: Fouling takes place in a tubular heat exchanger. An asymptotic value of fouling resistance is Rf,T+,. It is known that 63% of this asymptotic value is reached in 194 hours. Determine: The fouling process model determining the relationship between fouling resistance and time.
879
Assumptions: The assumptions invoked by the model of Taborek et al. (see Table 13.3), as presented in Section 13.2.6, are valid. That includes the fact that all parameters and variables for the problem are invariant in time.
Analysis: According to Eqs. (13.1 1) and (13.13), the model of fouling process is
-A, - c 2 p l0"exp
dr with an initial condition
(- &)
at
- b2rs k,
7Rf
(2)
R,=o
T=O
The initial condition defined by Eq. (2) deserves an additional comment. In most fouling cases, fouling resistance is often noticed after a certain delay period (i.e., for 0 5 T 5 Td, where Td represents the delay period for the onset of fouling deposits or a buildup of the fouling resistance; see Fig. 13.1). This is attributed to simultaneous influence of both initial nucleation of the deposited material on the heat transfer surface and its influence on heat transfer reduction due to lower thermal conductivity of the foulant material. Consequently, Td does not represent the delay of an actual fouling process, but it signifies a delay in reduction of the heat transfer rate due to fouling. In our analysis we treat Td = 0. A solution of the problem defined by Eqs. (1) and (2) can easily be found by using any of techniques for solving this linear, first-order ordinary differential equation. Let us introduce the set of new parameters defined as follows:
Substituting a and b from Eq. (3) into Eq. (l), we get
dRf = b - aR, dr
(4)
Integrating this linear first-order ordinary differential equation and simplifying, we get
The integration constant C in Eq. ( 5 ) can be determined by applying the initial condition of Eq. (2) to Eq. ( 5 ) :
Substituting the constants a, b, and C, Eq. (5) results in
880
Equation (7) represents the time history of the fouling thermal resistance. For large enough time (T + m), an asymptotic value of thermal resistance, Rf,T3m is obtained:
Finally, Eq. (7) can be rearranged by using Eq. (8) in a more convenient form as follows:
where T~ = $/b27,kf. Equation (9) is commonly referred as the Kern-Seaton correlation. Note that the right-hand side of Eq. (9) becomes 0.63 for T = T ~ This . means that the fouling resistance reaches 63% of the asymptotic value for the time T equal to the time , value given in the problem formulation (i.e., T~ = 194 hours). Therefore, constant T ~the the number of hours of operation needed for the fouling thermal resistance to reach 90% of the asymptotic fouling resistance can be determined from Eq. (9) as follows: 0.9 = 1 - e-r/194 therefore,
T
= 447 h
Ans.
Discussion and Comments: In this example, we did not emphasize the influence of physical variables that are inherent in the original model [all the variables and constants introduced in Eq. (13.12)] since the values of these variables and constants are actually not known. Still, the model based on Eq. (9) describes quite well some fouling processes (e.g., particulate or crystallization fouling) having an asymptotic thermal resistance represented by a time constant. Note that when T~ has a large value, Eq. (9) reduces to
This equation represents the limiting value; here higher-order terms are neglected. Thus, in this case, the fouling resistance Rf depends linearly on T . For all cases for which the parameters of the differential equation given by Eq. (1) are constant (as implied by the set of assumptions in this example), the fouling process assumes the known deposit, defined fluid quality, and fixed-flow conditions. It should be added that many other models of fouling processes areavailable, as summarized by Epstein (1978). Most of them provide the expressions for Rd and R, of Eq. (13.11). If these are known, the procedure for obtaining the time history of a fouling process will be similar to that demonstrated in this example after utilizing the expressions specified for deposition and removal fouling resistance rates and integrating the resulting differential equation. All these solutions, as a rule, can be treated at best as indicators of the fouling trend. However, the complexity of the process and involved nonlinearities (not included in the simple model discussed) prevent a reliable prediction.
FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH
881
13.3 FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH Various practices relevant for heat exchanger design have been used to describe the influence of fouling on the thermal performance of a heat exchanger. The earliest one (around 1910) was the use of two combined coefficients, the cleanliness coefficient C and material coefficient p, to correct the overall heat transfer coefficient U, defined for a clean heat transfer surface. The resulting overall heat transfer coefficient for a fouled exchanger becomes Uf = pCU,. The earliest values assigned to these coefficients, as reported by Somerscales (1990), were between 0.17 and 1.00 for the material coefficient and 0.5 and 1.0 for the cleanliness coefficient. Soon it became evident that introduction of a single coefficient, the cleanliness factor CF, would be more appropriate. Hence, an overall heat transfer coefficient under fouling conditions was predicted by the simple relation U - C F x U,,where C F < 1.00. CF values between 0.8 and 0.9 may be considered f . typical in the power industry. Next we describe the modern practice of taking the influence of fouling into account.
13.3.1 Fouling Resistance and Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculation As we have introduced in Section 3.2.4, the overall thermal resistance for a heat exchanger involves a series of thermal resistances from the hot fluid to the cold fluid, including thermal resistances due to fouling on both fluid sides, as shown in Fig. 3.4. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is based on the fluid 1-side heat transfer surface area A l , the following relation holds in the absence of fins on both fluid sides:
( 13.14)
In Eq. (13.14), it is assumed that the wall thermal resistance is for a flat plate wall [see Eq. (3.31) for a tubular surface]. For a more general case, see Eq. (3.30), which includes the fin effects on both fluid sides. Equation (13.14) is further rearranged and simplified as
-1= - 1
u1 h, +R/J
A 6 A 1 A 1 fi l +xl+--!=-+R
+
f,2
A2
k , A,
h2 A2
hl
+R
Al 1Al -+-W A , h2 A2
(13.15)
Note that RJ = Rf,, Rf,2(Al/,42) represents the total fouling resistance, a sum of fouling resistances on both sides of the heat transfer surface, as shown. It should again be reiterated that the aforementioned reduction in the overall heat transfer coefficient due to fouling does not take into consideration the transient nature of the fouling process. According to Chenoweth (1990), use of the fouling resistance concept as represented by Eqs. (1 3.14) and (1 3.15) must be based on the following recommendations;
0
Fouling resistances should reflect fouling alone and not uncertainties in the design of the heat exchanger. Appropriate values of fouling resistances should be based on operating experience and modified by economic considerations where possible. The buyer/user, not the manufacturer, should be responsible for selecting the fouling resistances because he or she may know his or her own application better.
882
The effects of corrosion fouling and biofouling due to their complexity and a questionable predictability should always be controlled externally. That means that this control should be a system based on reducing or preventing fouling. The current practice is to assume a value for the fouling resistance on one or both fluid sides as appropriate and to design a heat exchanger accordingly by providing extra surface area for fouling, together with a cleaning strategy (see Section 13.4.3). The complexity in controlling a large number of internal and external factors of a given process makes it very difficult to predict the fouling growth as a function of time using deterministic (well-known kinetic) models. A more realistic fouling growth model can be devised by postulating fouling as a time-dependent random processt and analyzing using the probabilistic approaches (Zubair et al., 1997) in conjunction with the cleaning strategies as discussed in Section 13.4.3. A note of caution is warranted at this point. There is an ongoing discussion among scholars and engineers from industry as to whether either fouling resistance or fouling rate concepts should be used as the most appropriate tool in resolving design problems incurred by fouling. One suggestion in resolving this dilemma would be that the design fouling-resistance values used for sizing heat exchangers be based on fouling-rate data and estimated cleaning-time intervals (Rabas and Panchal, 2000). 13.3.2 Impact of Fouling on Exchanger Heat Transfer Performance In current practice, based on application and need, the influence of fouling on exchanger heat transfer performance can be evaluated in terms of either (1) required increased surface area for the same q and AT,, ( 2 ) required increased mean temperature difference for the same q and A , or (3) reduced heat tranfer rate for the same A and AT,.* For these approaches, we now determine expressions for A f l A , , A T , , f / A T , , and qf/qr as follows.5 In the first two cases, the heat transfer rate in a heat exchanger under clean and fouled conditions are the same. Hence,
q = U,A, AT, = UA,f AT,
for constant AT,
(13.16)
Therefore. (13.17) According to Eq. (1 3.15), the relationships between overall heat transfer coefficients (based on tube outside surface area) and thermal resistances for clean and fouled conditions are defined as follows. For a clean heat transfer surface, (13.18)
The randomness in fouling process is due to time-dependent scatter in fouling resistance from a replicate to a replicate (repeat tests). The first case is the design of an exchanger where an allowance for fouling can be made at the design stage by increasing surface area. The other two cases are for an already designed exchanger in operation, and the purpose is to determine the impact of fouling on exchanger performance. $Throughout this chapter, the subscript c denotes a clean surface andf the fouled surface.
883
For a fouled heat transfer surface.
Ai, = Ai,c = A i , and Note that we have idealized that h,,f = h,,,, hi,, = hi,c, A , J = A,,c = A,. Here A , represents the tube outside surface area and not free-flow area in the exchanger. The difference between Eqs. (13.18) and (13.19) is
Rf
=--v, U f
(13.20)
It should be added that Eq. (13.20) is valid as long as clean overall heat transfer coefficients are constant. If this assumption is not satisfied, the right-hand side in Eq. (13.20) does not represent only the overall fouling resistance but a quantity that includes other influences on overall heat transfer coefficients in addition to fouling. In that case, the fouling assessment will be incorrect. Combining Eqs. (13.17) and (13.20), we get
Af = UCRf
+1
A C
(13.21)
Similarly, when q and A are the same and AT, is different for clean and fouled exchangers, we have
Hence. (13.23) Combining Eqs. (13.23) and (13.20), we get

-AT,, - UCRf
+1
ATm,c
(1 3.24)
Finally, if one assumes that heat transfer area and mean temperature differences are fixed, heat transfer rates for the same heat exchanger under fouled and clean conditions are given by qf = U f A AT, and qc = U c AAT,, respectively. Combining these two relationships with Eq. (13.20), we get
(1 3.25)
Alternatively, Eq. (1 3.25) can be expressed as
-qc_- UCRf+ 1
q/
(13.26)
884
300
--- q lines
I I I I I I I
I I I
I
I I
s6'
'-0.1
We find that the right-hand sides of Eqs. (13.21), (13.24), and (13.26) are the same. Equations (13.21), (13.24), and (13.25) are shown in Fig. 13.2 in terms of the percentage increase in A and AT, and the percentage reduction in q for the fouled exchanger over that for the clean exchanger. From this figure, it is clear that fouling has a significant impact on the exchanger performance for high values of Rf and/or U,. The cleanliness factor C F is related to the fouling resistance Rf as
Example 13.2 Overall heat transfer coefficient of a heat exchanger operating under clean conditions is calculated as 800 W/m2 . K. Following industrial experience, the cleanliness factor for this exchanger is 0.7. Determine the magnitude of the corresponding fouling resistance.
SOLUTION Problem Data: The following data are given: U, = 800 W/m2 ' K and C F = 0.7. Determine: The fouling resistance Rf of the deposit formed by this heat exchanger. Assumptions: The convective heat transfer coefficients on the hot- and cold-fluid sides are the same for both fouled and clean heat transfer surfaces. Thermal resistance of the wall is unchanged under fouled conditions. The change in heat transfer surface areas due to fouling deposit formation is negligible. The fin efficiency is equal to unity. All idealizations adopted for heat exchanger design theory are valid (see Section 3.2.1). Analysis: The relationship between fouling resistances and overall heat transfer coefficients for clean and fouled conditions is given by Eq. (13.20):
Rf
=--v, Uf
Using the definition of C F from Uf = C F x U,, Eq. (1) reduces to

1 1 11-CF --=-Rf =C F x U, U, U, C F
Thus, substituting data given into Eq. (2), we get

Rf=m(T) 1
1 - 0.7 = 5 ~ 1 0 - ~ m ~ . K / W
Discussion and Comments: In some industries (such as power industry), use of the cleanliness factor has been prevalent for assessing the influence of fouling. The reason for this is the practice of the industry and the difficulties associated with experimental determination of fouling thermal resistances (Somerscales, 1990). Equation (2) can be used to calculate fouling resistance or unit thermal resistance if the cleanliness factor is known (or vice versa) under the conditions governed by the above-mentioned assumptions.
Example 23.3 Determine how much will change the required heat transfer area of an exchanger under fouling conditions if the fouling resistance changes from m2 . K/W to m2 . K/W. The heat transfer rate and mean temperature difference remain the same, and U, = 1000W/m2 K. Consider no extended surface on either fluid side of the exchanger.
SOLUTION
Problem Data: The following data are given:
U, = 1000W/m2 . K
4 c = 4f
Rf,l =
m2 . K/W
Rf,2 =
%,I
m2 . K/W
AT,, = ATm,f
= %,2 = 1
Determine: The change in heat transfer surface area required if the fouling resistance changes from m2 . K/W to m2 . K/W. Assumptions: The convection heat transfer coefficients are the same for fouled and clean heat transfer surfaces. The thermal resistance of the wall is unchanged under fouled conditions. Change in heat transfer surface areas due to deposit formation is negligible. All assumptions adopted for heat exchanger design theory are valid (see Section 3.2.1). Analysis: The heat transfer rate and mean temperature differences in this exchanger
under clean and fouled conditions are the same. Hence, from Eq. (13.21), we get
- _ - UCRf+ 1
A,
From Eq. (l), it follows that the change in total fouling resistance from Rf,l to Rf,2 causes a change in heat transfer area from A f , ] to Af,2 as follows:
886
From Eq. ( 2 ) , inserting the data given, we get

~ f . 2
--
+.I
U,.Rf.2 1 - lo3 W/m2 . K x 1 0 - ~m2 . K/W UcRf,, + 1 lo3 W/m2 . K x 10-4m2 . K / W
+ 1 = 1.82 +1
Ans.
Thus an increase in the fouling resistance by a factor of 10 requires a surface area increase for this exchanger of 82%.
Discussion and Comments: This example clearly shows a significant increase in the surface area requirement for this exchanger when the total fouling resistance is increased by an order of magnitude. Inversely, a significant reduction in surface area can be achieved (by about one-half) if the total fouling resistance is reduced by an order of magnitude. Note that the result provides a direct information on how large percent change in heat transfer area would be compared to that for a clean heat exchanger for a given fouling resistance, as shown in Fig. 13.2.
13.3.3 Empirical Data for Fouling Resistances

Empirical data for fouling resistances have been obtained over many decades by industry since its first compilation by TEMA in 1941 for shell-and-tube heat exchangers. Selected data are summarized in Table 9.4 and hence are not repeated here. Many of the original values of TEMA fouling factors or fouling resistances established in 1941 for a typical exchanger service length of three months are still in use for a current typical service length of five years (Chenoweth, 1990)! TEMA fouling resistances are supposed to be representative values, asymptotic values, or those manifested just before cleaning to be performed. Chenoweth (1990) analyzed the current practice of customers specifying fouling resistances on their specification sheets to manufacturers. He compiled the combined shell- and tube-side fouling resistances (by summing each side entry) of over 700 shelland-tube heat exchangers and divided them into nine combinations of liquid, two-phase, and gas on each fluid side regardless of the applications. He then simply took the arithmetic average of total Rf for each two-fluid combination value and plotted dimensional values in his Fig. 1-3. His results are presented in Fig. 13.3 after normalizing with respect to the maximum combined shell- and tube-side R, of liquid-liquid applications so that the ordinate ranges between 0 and 1. For gases on both sides, the relative fouling resistance can be as high as 0.5 (the lowest value in Fig. 13.3) compared to liquids on both sides (relative total fouling resistance represented as 1.0 in Fig. 13.3). If liquid is on the shell side and gas on the tube side, the relative fouling resistance is 0.65. However, if liquid is on the tube side and gas on the shell side, it is 0.75. Since many process industry applications deal with liquids that are dirtier than gases, the general practice is to specify larger fouling resistances for liquids compared to those for the gases. Also, if fouling is anticipated on the liquid side of a liquid-gas exchanger, it is generally placed in the tubes for cleaning purposes and a larger fouling resistance is specified. These trends are clear from Fig. 13.3. It should again be emphasized that Fig. 13.3 indicates the current practice and has no scientific basis. Specification of larger fouling resistances for liquids (which
887
Relative resistance
,0.4-1
0.8
0.6
0.2.
0 LiquidTwo-phase Shell side
Tube side
FIGURE 13.3 Combined tube- and shell-side relative fouling resistances. (Based on data from Chenoweth, 1990.)
have higher heat transfer coefficients than those of gases) has even more impact on the surface area requirement for liquid-liquid exchangers than for gas-gas exchangers. It should be reiterated that the recommended fouling resistances are believed to represent typical fouling resistances for design. Consequently, sound engineering judgment has to be made for each selection of fouling resistances, keeping in mind that actual values of fouling resistances in any application can be either higher or lower than the resistances calculated. Finally, it must be clear that fouling resistances, although recommended following the empirical data and a sound model, are still constant, independent of time, while fouling is a transient phenomenon. Hence, the value of RJ selected represents a correct value only at one specific time in the exchanger operation. As indicated by Chenoweth (1990): . . . the new proposed (constant, independent of time) values reflect a careful review and the application of good engineering judgment by a group of knowledgeable engineers involved with the design and operation of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. . . . It needs to be emphasized that the tables may not provide the applicable values for a particular design. They are only intended to provide guidance when values from direct experience are unavailable. With the use of finite fouling resistance, the overall U value is reduced, resulting in a larger surface area requirement, larger flow area, and reduced flow velocity which inevitably results in increased fouling. Thus, allowing more surface area for fouling in a clean exchanger may accelerate fouling initially. Typical fouling resistances are roughly 10 times lower in plate heat exchangers than in shell-and-tube heat exchangers (Zubair and Shah, 2001). Some fouling resistances for PHEs are compared with those for shell-and-tube heat exchangers in Table 13.4. TEMA (1999) presents fouling resistances for some gases used in process and petrochemical industries and Marner and Suitor (1987) summarize the literature data for gases used in many industries, as reported in Table 13.5.
Example 13.4 A heat exchanger with water-to-phase change fluid is designed keeping in mind that the fluid that changes its phase must be on the outside of the tube. The empirical data available reveal that an average heat transfer coefficient on the water side is 2715 W/m2K. On the tube outside, the heat transfer coefficient is 3200 W/m2 . K.
888
TABLE 13.4 Liquid-Side Fouling Resistances for PHEs vs. TEMA Values
(m2.K/kW)
Process Fluid Soft water Cooling tower water Seawater River water Lube oil Organic solvents Steam (oil bearing) PHEs
0.018 0.044 0.026 0.044 0.053 0.018-0.053 0.009
R,-TEMA
0.18-0.35 0.18-0.35 0.18-0.35 0.35-0.53 0.36 0.36 0.18
Source: Data from Panchal and Rabas (1999).
TABLE 13.5 Gas-Side Fouling Resistances R,(m2 . K/kW)" Weierman

(1982)
Zink
(1981) 0.176 -
TEMA
(1978)
Rogalski
(1979)
Henslee and Bouge (1983)
Clean gas Natural gas Propane Butane Gas turbine Average gas No. 2 oil
0.0881-0.528 0.176-0.528 0.176-0.528 0.176 0.352-0.704 0.264 0.528 0.528-1.23 0.7062.64 0.881-3.52 0.88 1-8.8 1
0.528 0.881
-
Dirty gas No. 6 oil Crude oil Residual oil Coal Miscellaneous Sodium-bearing waste Metallic oxides FCCU catalyst fines
1.76
-
5.28 1.76 1.41
Source: Data from Marner and Suitor (1987). R. C. Weierman (1982), JPL Publ. 82-67, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institure of Technology, Pasadena, CA.; Jon Zink Co., Tulsa, OK (1981); R. D. Rogalski (1979), S A E Trans., Vol. 88, pp, 2223-2239; S. P. Henslee and J. L. Bouge (1983), Report EGG-FM-6189, Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID.
Tubes are made of steel with thermal conductivity of 40 W / m . K. The tube outside diameter is 19mm with 1.6mm wall thickness. The asymptotic value of the fouling resistance on the water side is 4 x m2 . K/W. There is no fouling on the tube outside. Based on past experience, the fouling phenomenon is of asymptotic nature for this exchanger, and the time constant for the fouling process is 280 hours for the KernSeaton model. Determine percentage unit thermal resistance distribution contributing to the overall unit thermal resistance for the following two cases: (a) after 280 hours of fouling initiation, and (b) for the asymptotic fouling condition.
889
SOLUTION
Problem Data: The following data are provided:
hi = 2715W/m2 . K
6, = 1.6mm
h, = 3200W/m2. K
k , = 40W/m. K
T + 00
do = 19mm
T~ = 280 h
Rf,i = 4 x 1 0 - ~ m2 . K/W for
Determine: The distribution of thermal resistances for two cases: (1)

T = T ~ where , T~ is
T + 00,
and (2)
the time constant for asymptotic fouling.
Assumptions: The set of assumptions introduced for heat exchanger analysis (see Section
3.1.2) and the Kern-Seaton model (see Section 13.2.5) is valid; the tube wall is thin.
Analysis: The overall unit thermal resistance for the exchanger, from Eq. (13.14), is
Let us first calculate the missing information (area ratios, R, and Rf,i) for this equation:
di = do - 2 6 , = 19mm - 2 x 1.6mm = 15.8mm
A , ird,L -=-=-Ai
rdiL
19mm - 1.203 15.8mm
2M
A A,
.[(do
19mm ird, L + di)/2]L - [(19 + 15.8)/2]mm = 1.092
8 ,
& = 1.6 x
k,
m =4 x 10-~ m2 K/W 40W/mK
Since the asymptotic fouling resistance is given, the actual fouling resistance on the water side for T = T~ = 280 hours can be determined from Eq. (9) of Example 13.1 as follows:
Now the individual unit thermal resistances of the last equality of Eq. (l), in absolute values and in percentages, are computed and summarized for this problem for T = 00 and T = 7,:
RC.0
=ho
Fouling Time
r-cc 7 = re
r-+m 7 = re
(m2 . K/W)
3.125 x 3.125 x 24 28
- A R, 2 A, (m2 . K/W) 4.368 x 4.368 x 3 4
Rf,i
Ai
R .--a 1 A Overall
hi Aj (m2 K/W) 4.429 x 4.429 x 35 40
e.1
(m2 . K/W)
4.810 x 3.042 x Percentages 38 28
1IUo (m2 . K/W) 12.801 x 11.033 x 100 100
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Discussion and Comments: From the results of this problem, it is obvious that fouling has quite a significant influence on the total unit thermal resistance l/Uo. If cleaning is not going to be performed, the fouling resistance will ultimately reach 38% of the total resistance, more than any other contribution. Note that the thermal resistance of the tube wall is an order of magnitude smaller, and hence our approximation of considering determination is reasonable. Distribution of thermal the thin wall of the tube for RK, resistances would be different if the foulant deposition is allowed to continue only up to the deposition time that equals the time constant. In that case, the fouling thermal resistance would be smaller compared to both the outside and inside tube convective resistances. Still, it would have the same order of magnitude.
13.4 PREVENTION AND MITIGATION OF FOULING
Ideally, a heat exchanger should be designed to minimize or eliminate fouling. For example, heavy-fouling liquids can be handled in a direct contact heat exchanger since heat and mass transfer takes place due to direct contact of the fluids over the fill or the surface in such an energy exchanger. The fill can get fouled without affecting energy transfer between the fluids in direct contact. In fluidized-bed heat exchangers, the bed motion scours away the fouling deposit. Gasketed plate-and-frame heat exchangers can easily be disassembled for cleaning. Compact heat exchangers are not suitable for fouling service unless chemical cleaning or thermal baking is possible. When designing a shelland-tube heat exchanger, the following considerations are important in reducing or cleaning fouling. The heavy fouling fluid should be kept on the tube side for cleanability. Horizontal heat exchangers are easier to clean than vertical ones. Geometric features on the shell side should be such as to minimize or eliminate stagnant and low-velocity regions. It is easier to clean square or rotated square tube layouts mechanically on the shell side [with a minimum cleaning lane of tin. (6.35 mm)] than to clean other types of tube layouts. Some control methods are now summarized for specific types of fouling. Crystallization fouling can be controlled or prevented by preheating the stream so that crystallization does not occur. To control particulate fouling, use a filter or similar device to capture all particles greater than about 25% of the smallest gap size in the flow path. Eliminate any dead zones and low-velocity zones. Use back flushing, puffing, or chemical cleaning, depending on the application. Chemical cleaning is probably the most effective cleaning method for chemical reaction fouling. For corrosion fouling, initial selection of corrosion-resistant material is the best remedy. For example, use proper aluminum alloy to prevent mercury corrosion in a plate-fin exchanger. Biofouling is usually easy to control with biocides, but must check compatibility with the exchanger construction materials. Chlorination aided by flow-induced removal of disintegrated biofilm is the most common mitigation technique. General techniques to prevent or control fouling on the liquid or gas side are summarized briefly.
13.4.1 Prevention and Control of Liquid-Side Fouling
Among the most frequently used techniques for control of liquid-side fouling is the online utilization of chemical inhibitors/additives. The list of additives includes (1) dispersants to maintain particles in suspension; (2) various compounds to prevent polymerization
PREVENTION AND MITAGATION OF FOULING
891
and chemical reactions; (3) corrosion inhibitors or passivators to minimize corrosion; (4) chlorine and other biocide/germicides to prevent biofouling; and (5) softeners, polycarboxylic acid and polyphosphates, to prevent crystal growth. Alkalis dissolve salts. Finally, filtration can be used as an efficient method of mechanical removal of particles. An extensive review of fouling control measures is provided by Knudsen (1998). Mitigation of water fouling and the most recent review of the related issues are discussed extensively by Panchal and Knudsen (1998), where they suggest the following methods.
0
Chemical additives: dispersants or coagulators for particulate fouling; dispersants, crystal modifiers, and chelating agents for crystallization fouling; inhibitors or surface filming for corrosion fouling; and biocides, biodispersants, and biostats for biofouling. Process adjustments: monitoring, modifications and replacements of devices, water flow reduction, and recirculation strategies. Physical devices for cleaning: sponge-ball cleaning and the use of reversing-flow shuttle brushes. Utilization of enhanced heat transfer surfaces and devices: It has sizable influence on fouling mitigation. The use of tube inserts (in particular, in refinery processes), such as wire mesh, oscillating wires, and rotating wires, is a standard method. Various alternative devices and/or methods: magnetic fields, radio-frequency, ultraviolet and acoustic radiation, and electric pulsation. Surface treatment and fluidized-bed designs are also used. The most frequently used technique for preventing water-side fouling is still the conventional water treatment. Strict guidelines have been developed for the quality of water for environmental concerns (Knudsen, 1998).
Heat transfer surface mitigation techniques can be applied either on- or offline. Online techniques (usually used for tube-side applications) include various mechanical techniques (flow-driven or power-driven rotating brushes, scrapers, drills, acoustic/mechanical vibration, air or steam lancing on the outside of tubes, chemical feeds, flow reversal, etc.). In some applications, flows are diverted in a bypass exchanger, and then the fouled exchanger is cleaned offline. Other offline techniques (without opening a heat exchanger) include chemical cleaning, mechanical cleaning by circulating particulate slurry, and thermal baking to melt frost/ice deposits. Offline cleaning with a heat exchanger opened or removed from the site include (1) high-pressure steam or water spray for a shell-andtube heat exchanger, and (2) baking compact heat exchanger modules in an oven (to burn the deposits) and then rinsing. If fouling is severe, a combination of methods is required. 13.4.2 Prevention and Reduction of Gas-Side Fouling The standard techniques for control and/or prevention of fouling on the gas side are (1) techniques for removal of potential residues from the gas, (2) additives for the gas-side fluid, (3) surface cleaning techniques, and (4) adjusting design up front to minimize fouling. Details regarding various techniques for gas-side fouling prevention, mitigation, and accommodation are given by Marner and Suitor (1987). Control of gas (or liquid)-side fouling should be attempted before any cleaning method is tried. The fouling control procedure should be preceded by (1) verification
892
of the existence of fouling, (2) identification of the feature that dominates the foulant accumulation, and (3) characterization of the deposit. Some of the methods for mitigation of gas-side fouling are as follows:
0
Crystallization fouling can be prevented if the surface temperature is kept above the freezing of vapors from the gaseous stream; the solidification can be minimized by keeping a "high" velocity of freezable species, having some impurities in the gas stream, and decreasing the foulant concentration, if possible. Particulate fouling can be minimized (1) by increasing the velocity of the gas stream if it flows parallel to the surface and decreasing the velocity if the gas flow impinges on the surface, (2) by increasing the outlet temperature of the exhaust gases from the exchanger above the melting point of the particulates, (3) by minimizing the lead content in gasoline or unburned hydrocarbons in diesel fuel, (4) by reducing the fuel-air ratio for a given combustion efficiency, and (5) by minimizing flow impact (e.g., flow over a staggered tube bank) or ensuring the narrowest dimension in the flow cross section, to three to four times the largest particle size anticipated. Chemical reaction fouling can be minimized (1) by maintaining the right temperature range in the exhaust gas within the exchanger, (2) by increasing or decreasing the velocity of the gaseous stream, depending on the application, (3) by reducing the oxygen concentration in the gaseous stream, (4) by replacing the coal with fuel oil and natural gas (in that order), and (5) by decreasing the fuel-air ratio. Corrosion fouling is strongly dependent on the temperature of the exhaust stream in the exchanger. The outlet temperature of the exhaust gas stream from the exchanger should be maintained in a very narrow range: above the acid dew point [above 150C (300"F)I for sulfuric or hydrochloric acid condensation or below 200C (400F) for attack by sulfur, chlorine, and hydrogen in the exhaust gas stream. Since sulfur is present in all fossil fuels and some natural gas, the dew point of sulfur must be avoided in the exchanger, which is dependent on the sulfur content in the fuel (Shah, 1985). From the electrochemical condition of the metal surface, the corrosion rate increases with velocity up to a maximum value for an active surface and no sizable effect for a passive surface. The pH value has a considerable role in the corrosion fouling rate; the corrosion rate is minimum at a pH of 11 to 12 for steel surfaces. Low oxygen concentrations in the flue gases promote the fire-side corrosion of mild steel tubes in coal-fired boilers. Stainless steel, glass, plastic, and silicon are highly resistant to low-temperature corrosion [ T,,, < 260C (SOOOF)], stainless steel and superalloys to medium-temperature corrosion [260C (5OOOF) < T,,, < 815C (1500F)], and superalloys and ceramic materials to high-temperature corrosion [T,,, > 815C (1500"F)]. Chrome alloys are suitable for high-temperature sulfur and chlorine corrosion, and molybdenum and chrome alloys protect against hydrogen corrosion.
13.4.3 Cleaning Strategies
An important element in mitigating a fouling problem is selection of a cleaning strategy (i.e., the cleaning-cycle period). The cleaning-cycle period is delineated by the operation of an exchanger until the performance reaches the minimum value acceptable. Subsequently, the exchanger must be cleaned by one of the methods summarized in Section 13.4.1 or 13.4.2. In the case of asymptotic fouling in a given application, gen-
CORROSION IN HEAT EXCHANGERS
893
erally no cleaning is necessary. If fouling rate data are available, ideally the exchanger can be optimized based on the life-cycle cost, and accordingly, the cleaning schedule can be established. The cleaning-cycle period may also be determined based on a regular maintenance schedule during process shutdowns. In any case, the functional relationship between the operation time and fouling resistance (see Section 13.2.6) should be known at least partially. The importance of rational cleaning schedules based on such an understanding is critical when (Somerscales, 1990) (1) the allowable deviation from the process stream temperature is small compared to absolute values (steam power plant condensers), and (2) the cost of cleaning is a significant fraction of the operating cost. Depending on the fouling process, the cleaning strategies for preventing maintenance are of two types: reliability-based and cost-based. There are three scenarios for reliability-based cleaning strategies: (1) maintenance restores exchanger performance (this is an idealized maintenance scheme, taking place at equal time intervals); (2) by decreasing the preventive maintenance time interval gradually (due to fixed degradation of performance after each maintenance interval), the exchanger performance is restored; (3) for the preceding case of a fixed degradation of performance after each preventive maintenance time interval, if the maintenance takes place at equal time intervals, it reduces the exchanger performance. The cost-based cleaning strategy includes the costs associated with online chemical cleaning, offline cleaning, additional fuel/power consumption due to fouling, and severity of the financial penalty associated with exchanger performance due to fouling. It should be noted that operating a heat exchanger at the critical risk level of a system or component is important in some applications, such as in a heat exchanger network in a refinery. In this situation, an acceptable level of heat exchanger overall heat transfer coefficient will primarily govern the maintenance strategy. However, in some situations, heat exchangers are not in a network, or in a critical system; here, maintaining the exchanger at a higher reliability level r (or at a lower risk level p ) implies more frequent maintenance intervals, which can often result in increasing operation and maintenance costs. It is thus important to note that in situations in which the cost of operation and maintenance is an important factor, along with exchanger reliability ( r = 1 - p ) , maintenance decisions can be optimized by developing cost as a function of reliability (or risk level) and then searching for a minimum cost-based solution. This cost-optimized maintenance solution will also result in an optimal level of heat exchanger reliability (Zubair et al., 1997). For further details on cleaning strategies, refer to Zubair et al. (1997) for shell-andtube heat exchangers and Zubair and Shah (2001) for plate-and-frame heat exchangers.
13.5 CORROSION IN HEAT EXCHANGERS
Corrosion in an exchanger involves destruction of heat exchanger surfaces (construction materials, metals, and alloys), possibly caused by working fluids due to operating conditions (including stresses). Like fouling, corrosion is a complex transient phenomenon, affected by many variables, with a synergistic relationship as shown in Fig. 13.4. Corrosion can be classified according to such mechanisms as fretting corrosion, corrosion fatigue, and corrosion due to microorganisms. Alternatively, corrosion can be classified based on visual characteristics of the morphology of corrosion attack, as described in the following subsection. Corrosion can induce corrosion fouling as
894
Environment factors
- Impurities
- Tempeature and concentration

of corrodent
- Degree of aeration
Stress corrosion cracking ~ Environment P velocity Flow H
A
Material factors
- Composition - Crevices - u-oenas

the joints techniques
- Heat treatment - Effects of fabrication - Microstructure - Surface conditions - Possivity

-Tendency for fouling
-Alloying elements
FIGURE 13.4 Factors influencing corrosion. (From Kuppan, 2000.)
described in Section 13.2.1, thus adding thermal resistance in the heat flow path and reducing heat transfer, increasing fluid pressure drop and pumping power, and increasing cost due to overdesign of the exchanger. The loss of material due to corrosion may result in crevices, holes, and/or partial removal of heat transfer surfaces, resulting in loss (leakage) of heat transfer fluids, some of which may be costly. If the fluid leaks outside, it may harm the environment if the fluid is corrosive or poisonous. If it leaks to the other fluid side, it may contaminate the other fluid and deteriorate its quality. Corrosion may add extra cost to the exchanger, due to the use of expensive material, maintenance, warranty, inventory of parts, and so on. Corrosion products carried downstream of the exchanger may corrode downstream components. Finally, corrosion may result in complete failure of an exchanger or partial failure in a tube-fin exchanger, due to corroding away fins, as in an automotive radiator. There is no a single cause of corrosion and/or associated corrosion mechanisms. However, corrosion in general has clear electrochemical roots. Namely, different parts of a heat exchanger exposed to working fluids easily become polarized. The role of an electrolyte is usually taken by a working fluid (or sometimes by solid deposits or thick metal oxide scale) in the vicinity of or between parts made of different metals. If an external electrical circuit is established, metal surfaces involved take the role of either anode or cathode. Appearance of an electric current forces electrical particles (say, positively charged metal ions) to leave the metal on the anode end and enter the surrounding electrolyte. On the other end, a metal surface that plays the role of cathode serves as a site where electrical current escapes from the electrolyte. The presence of this mechanism opens the way for metal dissolution at the anode end of the established electrical circuit. This dissolution can be interpreted as a corrosion effect (if all other mechanisms are suppressed). This very simplified picture provides a background for many corrosion problems. Refer to Kuppan (2000) for further details. Detailed study of corrosion phenomena is beyond the scope of this book. Due to the importance of corrosion in heat exchanger design and operation, we will address only the most important topics. A brief description of the main corrosion types is given first (keeping in mind their importance from a heat exchanger design point of view).
895
Subsequently, corrosion mechanisms are addressed, followed by a brief discussion of each mechanism. Possible locations of corrosion in a heat exchanger are emphasized as well. Finally, the most important guidelines for corrosion prevention are enlisted.
13.5.1 Corrosion Types
Corrosion types, important for heat exchanger design and operation, are as follows: (1) uniform attack corrosion, ( 2 ) galvanic corrosion, (3) pitting corrosion, (4) stress corrosion cracking, (5) erosion corrosion, (6) deposit corrosion, and (7) selective leaching, as categorized by Fontana and Greene (1978). Let us define each corrosion type briefly. Uniform corrosion is a form of corrosion caused by a chemical or electrochemical reaction between the metal and the fluid in contact with it over the entire exposed metal surface. It occurs when the metal and fluid (e.g., water, acid, alkali) system and operating variables are reasonably homogeneous. It is usually easy to notice corroded areas attacked by uniform corrosion. All other forms of corrosion mechanisms discussed below cause localized corrosion. Galvanic corrosion is caused by an electric potential difference between two electrically dissimilar metals in the system in the presence of an electrolyte (such as water in a heat exchanger). It occurs on the anode and does not affect the cathode (referred to as a noble metal). Pitting corrosion is a form of localized autocatalytic corrosion due to pitting that results in holes in the metal. If anodes and cathodes rapidly interchange the sites randomly, uniform corrosion occurs, as in rusting of iron. If the anode becomes fixed on the surface, pitting corrosion takes place. Stress corrosion is a form of corrosion that involves cracks on susceptible metals caused by the simultaneous presence of the tensile stress and a corrosive fluid medium. Erosion corrosion is a form of surface corrosion due to erosion of the heat transfer surface due to a high-velocity fluid with or without particulates (e.g., fluid velocity greater than 2 m/s or 6 ft/sec for water flow over an aluminum surface) and subsequent corrosion of the exposed surface. Crevice corrosion is a form of localized physical deterioration of a metal surface in crevices or under deposits in shielded areas (i.e., in stagnant fluid flow regions), often caused by deposits of dirt and corrosion products. Selective leaching or dealloying is the selective removal of one metal constituent from an alloy by corrosion that leaves behind a weak structure.
13.5.2
Corrosion Locations in Heat Exchangers
Uniform (general) corrosion is not localized, and a surrounding corrosive medium affects the surface of the exposed metal prone to corrosion. Temperature, concentrations, oxidation, acidity, and so on, have a significant influence on the extent of this type of corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion and high-temperature gaseous corrosion are most probable in heat exchangers. This corrosion usually thins the heat transfer surface. Metals having 0.1 mm/yr surface thinning are considered excellent, those having 0.1 to 0.5 mm/yr satisfactory, and those having above about 1 mm/yr unsatisfactory for shelland-tube heat exchangers (Kuppan, 2000). As opposed to general corrosion, galvanic corrosion often attacks interfaces/contacts between tubes and baffles and/or tubesheets, contact between the baffle and shell, and joint areas (either welded, brazed, soldered, or mechanically joined). The likelihood of
896
galvanic corrosion can easily be assessed knowing the position of the materials involved in the galvanic series summarized in Table 13.6. The metals next to each other in the galvanic series have little tendency to galvanic corrosion. In addition, metals closer to the anodic end of the galvanic series are more prone to corrosion, and the materials at the cathodic end are more stable. It can also occur in compact and other exchangers with water and other electrolytes in the circuit in which the exchanger is one of the components. Pitting corrosion takes place when a protective surface film breaks down; these surface films are formed on the metal surface by reaction with an environment or during the surface treatment. The common metals exposed to this type of corrosion in descending order of nobility are aluminum, stainless steels, nickel, titanium, and their alloys. It is a very aggressive type of corrosion. Pitting corrosion is influenced by metallurgical and environmental factors, such as breakdown of protective coatings, inhomogeneities in the alloys, and inhomogeneities caused by joining processes. Consequently, the appearance of pitting corrosion is possible whenever such conditions are present. Pits caused by pitting corrosion are usually at places where the metal surface has surface deformities and scratches. Stress corrosion cracking may be present at locations within the construction where the joint interaction of stress and a corrosive medium causes material deterioration. The presence of higher stress levels, increased temperature and concentration of a corrosive medium, and crack geometry may accelerate corrosion. For example, tubeto-tubesheet expanded joints may be prone to residual stresses, as well as thin-walled expansion joints and/or U-bends. Cold working parts and U-bends in shell-and-tube heat exchangers are locations where corrosion may take place in combination with existing stress.
TABLE 13.6 Galvani Series"
Mg (anodic; least noble) Zn Fe (galvanized) Al 3004 Al 3003 Cast iron SS 430 (active) SS 304 (active) Admiralty brass Monel400 SS 430 (passive) SS 304 (passive) Lead Copper Nickel Inconel 825 Hastelloy C Titanium Graphite Platinum (cathodic; most noble)
a
In seawater at 25C; materials listed in ascending order of nobility.
897
Erosion corrosion involves solid particle or liquid droplet impingement and cavitation. In shell-and-tube heat exchangers, impingement plates must be designed to prevent this type of erosion corrosion in tubes exposed to nozzle inlet flow. Erosion corrosion is more common at the inlet end of a heat exchanger flow passage or on the tube side. Crevice corrosion is localized corrosion and may occur at metal-to-metal or metal-tononmetal joints (e.g., gasketed joints), or underneath biological growth or fouling deposits. In particular, areas prone to this type of corrosion are stagnant areas and complex geometric designs with sharp edges. This type of corrosion usually starts with an infiltration of a corrosive substance into a crack and/or small opening, such as clearances between rolled tubes and tubesheets, open welds, bolt holes, nut adjacent areas, gasket areas, or contacts between plates in a plate heat exchanger. Fouling and various deposits influence corrosion at shielded areas if the combination of fluid and heat exchanger surface material is inappropriate. Selective leaching (parting) takes place depending on the combination of alloys selected and the presence of a corrosive substance in the surrounding medium. Some typical problems encountered in heat exchanger operation are related to (1) removal of Zn from brass in stagnant waters, (2) removal of A1 from aluminum brass in acidic solutions, and (3) removal of Ni in Cu-Ni alloys under conditions of high heat flux. Such removal processes are referred to as dezincification, dealuminumification, denickelification, and so on.
13.5.3 Corrosion Control
Corrosion control may be categorized as corrosion prevention and protection. In general, both prevention and protection should be planned. Uniform corrosion can be suppressed by applying adequate inhibitors, coatings, or cathodic protection. Galvanic corrosion can be reduced by selecting dissimilar materials to be as close as possible to each other on the galvanic series list for the pairs of components in the system. In addition, insulation of dissimilar metals, application of coatings, addition of inhibitors, and installation of a third metal which is anodic to both metals in the galvanic contact may be used to minimize galvanic corrosion. Pitting corrosion is difficult to control. Materials that show pitting should be avoided in heat exchanger components. Adding inhibitors does not necessarily lead to efficient mitigation of the corrosion. The best prevention of stress-corrosion cracking is an appropriate selection of material, reduction of tensile stresses in the construction, elimination of critical environmental components (e.g., demineralization or degasification), cathodic protection, and addition of inhibitors. The selection of correct material less prone to erosion, making inlet flow more uniform (thus eliminating velocity spikes), and approximate maximum velocities for a working fluid may reduce erosion effects. For example, stainless steel 31 6 can sustain three times larger water velocity flowing inside tubes than can steel or cooper. Also, design modifications, coatings, and cathodic protection should be considered. The best prevention of crevice corrosion is a design in which the stagnation areas of the fluid flow and sharp corners are reduced to a minimum. Design should be adjusted for complete drainage, and if possible, welding should be used instead of rolling for tubes in tubesheets. Additives to an alloy, such as arsenic or tin, may reduce dezincification, thus solving the problem with selective leaching of brass.
898
Increased control of corrosion may be achieved through the following means.

0 0
0
Use of corrosion-resistant and clad metal (bimetal) materials Use of fluids with corrosion inhibitors Good design, avoiding crevices, stagnant fluid zones, upgrading materials, having uniform and optimum fluid velocities (not too high or too low in the exchanger), using solid nonabsorbent gaskets (e.g., Teflon), minimizing tensile and residual stresses in exchanger surfaces, designing for desired startups and shutdowns, and so on Proper selection of construction metals from the point of proximity in the galvanic series Surface coatings, surface treatment, electrochemical protection, and so on Maintaining clean exchanger surfaces (no deposits) and fluids (use a filter in the flow circuit) Avoiding aluminum alloys if erosion corrosion cannot be prevented
SUMMARY
Fouling adds thermal resistance to heat transfer in a heat exchanger as well as increasing pressure drop. Fouling has a transient character, but for the purpose of thermal design considerations, it is often included into analysis through the concept of fouling unit thermal resistance, fouling resistance, or a fouling factor in steady-state thermal design analysis. The phenomena that control the fouling processes are complex in nature, and a comprehensive general theory cannot be defined. Most often, the influence of fouling is included through an overdesign (i.e., through an appropriate additional heat transfer surface allowance as compared to ideally clean conditions). In some applications, this overdesign accelerates fouling because of the lower-than-design value of the fluid velocity in the exchanger. Fouling has a significant detrimental effect on heat transfer in liquids and on pressure drop (fluid pumping power) in gases. In this chapter, various fouling mechanisms are discussed that have been identified and investigated particularly with the emphasis on fouling in single-phase liquid and gas sides and in compact heat exchangers. After providing details on the sequential events in fouling, modeling of a fouling process is presented. From the heat exchanger design perspective, the effect of fouling on heat transfer performance is taken into account by the fouling resistance approach. The methodology of this approach is outlined followed by the impact of fouling on exchanger heat transfer performance and data on fouling resistances. Next we have covered the prevention, control and mitigation of liquid- and gas-side fouling and then cleaning strategies for liquid and gas-side fouling. The influence of corrosion has to be taken into account not only during operation but also during design. Both prevention and protection must be included in design consideration. Basic information on corrosion types, locations in heat exchangers, and control ideas are presented in the text.
REFERENCES
Bott, T. R., 1981, Fouling due to liquid solidification, in Fouling ofHear Transfer Equipment, E. F. C . Somerscales and J. G. Knudsen, eds., Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, DC, pp. 201-226.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
899
Bott, T. R., 1990, Fouling Notebook, Institution of Chemical Engineers, Rugby, UK. Cannas, F. C., 1986, Fouling in heat exchanger design, M.S. Thesis, Mech. Eng. Dept., State Univ. New York, Buffalo. Chenoweth, J. M., 1990, Final report of the HTRIiTEMA joint committee to review the fouling section of the TEMA standards, Heat Transfer Eng., Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 73-107. Epstein, N., 1978, Fouling in heat exchangers, Heat Transfer 1978. Proc. 6th Int. Heat Transfer Conf., Vol. 6, pp. 235-253; also in Fouling of Heat Transfer Equipment, E. F. C. Somerscales and J. G. Knudsen, eds., Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, DC, 1981, pp. 701-734. Fontana, M. G., and N. D. Greene, 1978, Corrosion Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York. Knudsen, J. G., 1998, Fouling in heat exchangers, in Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, G. F. Hewitt, ed., Begell House, New York, Sec. 3.17. Kuppan, T., 2000, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Marcel Dekker, New York. Marner, W. J., 1990, Progress in gas-side fouling of heat transfer surfaces, Appl. Mech. Rev., Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 35-66. Marner, W. J., 1996, Progress in gas-side fouling of heat transfer surfaces, Appl. Mech. Rev., Vol. 49, NO. 10, Pt. 2, pp. S161-S166. Marner, W. J., and J. W. Suitor, 1987, Fouling with convective heat transfer, in Handbook of SinglePhase Convective Heat Transfer, s. Kakaq, R. K. Shah, and W. Aung, eds., Wiley, New York, Chap. 21. Melo, L. F., T. R. Bott, and C. A. Bernardo, eds., 1988, Advances in Fouling Science and Technology, KIuwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Panchal, C. B., 1999, Review of fouling mechanisms, mitigation of heat exchanger fouling and its economic and environmental impacts, Proc. Engineering Foundation Conf., Banff, Alberta, Canada, July. Panchal, C. B., and J. G. Knudsen, 1998, Mitigation of water fouling: technology status and challenges, in Advances in Heat Transfer, Vol. 31, J. P. Hartnett, T. F. Irvine, Jr., Y. I. Cho, and G. A. Greene, eds., Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 437474. Rabas, T. J., and C. B. Panchal, 2000, Fouling rates, not fouling resistances, Heat Transfer Eng., Vol. 21, NO. 2, pp. 1-2. Shah, R. K., 1985, Compact heat exchangers, in Handbook of Heat Transfer Applications, 2nd ed., W. M. Rohsenow, J. P. Hartnett, and E. N. GaniC, eds., McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 4-284. Somerscales, E. F. C., 1990, Fouling of heat transfer surfaces: a historical review, Heat Transfer Eng., Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 19-36. TEMA, 1999, Standard of the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 8th ed., Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Asscociation, New York. Zubair, S. M., and R. K. Shah, 2001, Fouling in plate-and-frame heat exchangers and cleaning strategies, in Compact Heat Exchangers and Enhancement Technology f o r the Process Industries 2001, R. K. Shah, A. Deakin, H. Honda and T. M. Rudy, eds., Begell House, New York, pp. 553-565. Zubair, S. M., A. K. Sheikh, M. A. Budair, and M. A. Badar, 1997, A maintenance strategy for heat-transfer equipment subject to fouling: a probabilistic approach, A S M E J . Heat Transfer, Vol. 119, pp. 575-580.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
For each question circle one or more correct answers. Explain your answers briefly.
900
13.1
Fouling of a heat transfer surface in a heat exchanger may result in a(an): (b) change in the local heat transfer coefficient (c) increase in pressure drop (d) decrease in pressure drop (e) increase in pumping power
(a) decrease in heat transfer
13.2
Fouling is costly for the following reasons: (b) periodic cleaning (c) reduced on-time for the system/process (d) reduced heat transfer (e) more fluid pumping power
(a) an oversized exchanger
13.3
Fouling has generally significant influence on heat transfer in: (b) shell-and-tube heat exchangers (c) liquid side of a heat exchanger (d) gas side of a heat exchanger
(a) compact heat exchangers
13.4
When thermal resistances are in series, the fouling has a significant influence on heat transfer in an exchanger having: (a) high U (b) low U (c) both of these (d) cant tell A change in the hydraulic diameter due to fouling influences the local heat transfer coefficient h in a heat exchanger with constant m, L, A , and fluid properties as follows: (a) h increases linearly with an increase in Dh. (c) h is inversely proportional to Dif. (b) h is inversely proportional to Dh. A change in the hydraulic diameter due to fouling influences the pressure drop Ap in a heat exchanger with constant m, L , A , and fluid properties as follows: (a) Ap is inversely proportional to D,?,. (b) Ap is inversely proportional to Dif. (d) Ap does not depend on Dh. (c) Ap is proportional to Dif. The fouling resistance is:
(a) an empirical factor equal to the ratio U,/U,
13.5
13.6
13.7
(b) the unit thermal resistance of the fouling deposit (c) a ratio of fouled to clean pressure drops
13.8
Precipitation fouling involves:

(a) formation of bioorganisms on a heat transfer surface
(b) deposition of dissolved inorganic material from a fluid onto heat transfer surface (c) local deposition of corrosion products
13.9
Particulate fouling involves:

(a) deposition of solids suspended in fluids on the heat transfer surface
(b) local influence of corrosion
(c)
phase-change phenomena
13.10 On the air side of a compact heat exchanger, 50% of the flow passages are large
and 50% are small. Which passages would have more change in thermal perfor-
REVIEW QUESTIONS
901
mance when the flowing air is dirty and fully developed laminar flows are expected in both passages? (a) passages with larger flow area (b) passages with smaller flow area (c) both of these
13.11 In general, deposit formed on the heat transfer surface due to fouling shows the
time history character as follows:

(a) Deposit thermal resistance is hyperbolic with respect to time.
(b) Deposit thermal resistance changes linearly with time. (c) Deposit thermal resistance changes exponentially with time.
13.12 The time constant in the Kern-Seaton correlation for time dependence of the
fouling resistance has the following physical meaning:

(a) time required for the fouling resistance to reach 50% of its asymptotic value
(b) time required for the fouling resistance to reach its asymptotic value
(c) time required for the fouling resistance to reach 63% of the asymptotic value (d) time required for the fouling resistance to reach 99% of the asymptotic value
13.13 Water-side fouling can be most efficiently mitigated by: (a) utilizing chemical additives (b) utilizing cleaning devices
(c) designing heat transfer surfaces with highly augmented heat transfer characteristics
13.14 Combined tube- and shell-side fouling resistance is the largest for the following
combination of working fluids: (a) vapor on both sides of a heat transfer surface (b) vapor on one side and phase-change fluid on the other (c) liquid on both sides (d) phase-change fluids on both sides
13.15 Fouling process models are based on the concept of:
(a) exponential decrease of the deposition rate and linear increase of the removal
rate
(b) deposition rate minus removal rate
(c) initiation plus aging minus removal
(d) initiation plus transport minus removal

13.16 Increasing the liquid-side velocity in a heat exchanger will definitely reduce the
likelihood of fouling due to:

(a) precipitation
(b) freezing
(c) particulate fouling
(d) biological fouling
(e) chemical fouling
13.17 Increasing the liquid-side temperature will definitely reduce the likelihood of
fouling due to: (a) biological fouling (c) precipitation
(b) freezing
(d) particulate fouling
902
13.18 In the case of gas-side chemical reaction fouling, the following influences are
registered:
(a) Increase in the gas-side temperature decreases the likelihood of fouling.
(b) Increase in the oxygen level increases the likelihood of fouling (c) Increase in the velocity may increase or decrease fouling.
13.19 Increased presence of sulfur on the gas side will definitely increase the likelihood of
fouling due to:

(a) chemical reaction fouling
(b) corrosion fouling
(c) freezing fouling
(d) particulate fouling

13.20 If fouling takes place, h is going to be higher, and for the same heat transfer, the
surface area should be:

(a) increased
(b) decreased
(c) unchanged
13.21 Corrosion fouling in a phosphoric acid condensation process may be prevented by
the use of a:
(a) counterflow arrangement
(b) plate heat exchanger
(c) parallelflow arrangement
(d) Teflon coating over low-temperature exchanger surfaces

13.22 Corrosion fouling in a sulfuric acid condensation process may be prevented by use
of a: (a) counterflow arrangement (b) plate heat exchanger (c) parallelflow arrangement (a) Teflon coating over low-temperature exchanger surfaces
13.23 Which materials are ideally prone to galvanic corrosion for contacting copper in a
(a) nickel
seawater solution? (b) lead
(c) zinc
(d) cast iron
13.24 Circle the following statements as true or false. (a) T F Fouling resistance is a time-dependent quantity and has some finite
value at time equal to zero. (b) T F Attachment is associated with the delay period
Td.
13.25 The delay period 7-d associated with initiation decreases with a(n): (a) increase in the degree of supersatuartion in crystallization fouling (c) increase in the fluid viscosity (b) decrease in surface roughness 13.26 In a plate-fin heat exchanger with the fin spacing of 3 mm and gas velocity of 10 m/s,
(a) natural gas
which of the following fuels would be likely to produce fouling exhaust gases? (b) propane (c) #2 oil (d) coal
13.27 Chemical cleaning of foulant can be accomplished by:

(a) dilute acids
(d) hot air
(b) steam (e) dispersants
(c) chlorinated hydrocarbons
PROBLEMS
903
13.28 Mechanical cleaning of foulant may be accomplished by: (a) sonic horns (b) rotary soot blowers (d) air cannons (c) an oven for thermal baking
PROBLEMS
13.1 A shell-and-tube heat exchanger has tubes with 19mm outside diameter and 1.2mm tube wall thickness. Water velocity in the tubes is 1.8m/s. Determine an increase in the tube-side pressure drop per unit length due to fouling when the value of fouling resistance reaches 5.3 x m2 K/W. Assume that the flow rate remains constant even when the tube is fouled. Use the following correlations for the Fanning friction factor for smooth (clean) and rough (fouled) tubes: (1) f = 0.0014 + 0.125Re-0.32for a smooth tube, and ( 2 ) f = 0.0035 0.264Re-0.42 for a rough tube. The density and dynamic viscosity of water are 998 kg/m3 and 1.12 x Pa . s, respectively. The thermal conductivity of the fouling deposit is 1.73W/m . K.
13.2 Consider a simplified model of a heat exchanger with heat transfer areas equal on the hot and cold sides and having no fins. Assume that this heat exchanger has to be used alternately as (1) a gas-to-gas heat exchanger (fouling on the compressed air side), (2) steam-to-heavy fuel oil heat exchanger (fouling on the heavy fuel oil side), and (3) liquid-to-liquid heat exchanger (fouling on the ethylene glycol solution side). Determine what would be the required increase in heat transfer area for the various working fluids, comparing the fouled to the clean heat exchanger operation. Assume that only the thermal resistance of the foulant would change the overall heat transfer coefficient (the other conditions remaining unchanged). Assess the typical values of the overall heat transfer coefficients and fouling resistances for described physical situations. The heat transfer rate and mean temperature difference remain the same. 13.3 Using the same information as those given in Problem 13.2, determine what would be the change of heat transfer rate between clean and fouled operations. Assume the heat transfer area and the mean temperature difference of the fluid streams to be invariant. 13.4
A water-water gasketed plate heat exchanger has an overall heat transfer coefficient under fouled conditions of 4200 W/m2 . K. Hot- and cold-fluid-side heat transfer coefficients are 15,000 and 14,000W/m2 . K, respectively. The plate thickness (stainless steel 316) is 0.6mm, and the thermal conductivity is 17 W/m . K. Calculate the cleanliness factor C F and the total fouling resistance for this exchanger. In the cement industry, large gas-to-air heat exchangers are used to cool hot exhaust gases leaving suspension preheaters. These gases are cooled prior to being vented through a baghouse to the environment. In such heat exchangers, the hot dirty gases are placed on the tube side. In one application, owing to static electricity, very small particles of cement dust are deposited on the inside surface of the tubes, thus reducing the effectiveness of the heat exchanger. In this particular case, the tubes are 6.45 m long, 76 mm in inside diameter, with a wall
13.5
904
thickness of 3.2mm. The tubes are made of carbon steel with a thermal conductivity of 43 W / m . K. The average outside tube wall temperature is 120C and the average gas temperature is 280C. For the clean exchanger, the gas-side velocity is 15.6m/s, resulting in a gas-side convective heat transfer coefficient of 39.3 W/m2 . K. If a 3.2 mm thick layer of cement dust ( k = 0.299 W / m . K) is deposited on the inner surface of the tubes, determine (a) Rf, the gas-side unit fouling resistance ( m 2 . K/W), (b) the reduction in heat transfer due to the fouling layer, and (c) the increase in the pressure drop due to the fouling layer. Consider the mean density of the air and gas as 0.64kg/m3 and the dynamic viscosity as 2.85Pa.s. Assume the mass flow rate to be constant for clean and fouled exchangers. Use the following correlation for turbulent flow through the tube, and ignore entrance and exit losses as well as the momentum effect for pressure drop calculation.
f = 0.0014 + 0.125Re-0.32
Explicitly mention any additional assumptions that you need to make.
13.6
A double-pipe heat exchanger is used to condense steam at a rate of 113.7 kg/h at 50C. Cooling water (brackish water) enters through the tubes at a rate of 0.9 kg/s at 10C. The specific enthalpy of phase change heg of water is 2382.7 kJ/ kg and the specific heat of water is 4.18 kJ/kg. K. The tube (25.4mm O D and 22.1 mm ID) is made of mild steel ( k = 45 W/m . K). The heat transfer coefficient on the steam side is 10,000 W/m2 . K and that on the cooling water side 8000 W/ m 2 . K. Inside and outside fouling resistances Rf,i and Rf,o are 0.176 and 0.088 m2 . K/kW, respectively. (a) Determine the outside surface area requirement for the plain tube for clean and fouled exchangers. (b) Assume the plain tube to be replaced by a low-finned tube with fins inside tubes. In that case, the fin increases the surface area by a factor of 2.9. Assume 100% fin efficiency and identical heat transfer coefficients, wall resistances, and inside fouling resistances for both plain and finned tubes. What is the outside surface area requirement for clean and fouled heat exchanger for the same heat duty and AT,,,? (c) Analyze the case identical to part (b), but with the fins outside the tubes. (a) Compare the results of parts (a), (b), and (c) and discuss them. A shell-and-tube condenser is designed to condense a process stream at 120C using water at 60 kg/s at the inlet temperature of 30C. The water flows through the tubes. The copper tubes (thermal conductivity 401 W/m . K) have an O D and I D of 19 and 16 mm, respectively, and the tube length per pass is 2.5 m. There are a total of 800 tubes in the exchanger, with four tube passes on the tube side. Check through your calculations that the measured water outlet temperature under clean conditions is 89C. Also determine the water velocity through the clean tubes. After six months of service, the exchanger was retested for fouling effects, and for the same water flow rate and inlet temperatures, the water outlet temperature was measured as 85C. Compute the tube-side fouling resistance (factor) during the second test if the exchanger was clean originally, there was no fouling on the steam
13.7
PROBLEMS
905
side, and the tube heat transfer surface area was the same under clean and fouled conditions. Explain what additional information you would need to compute the water velocity in the fouled tubes. Assume the condensing heat transfer coefficient to be 4000 W/m2 . K. Assume the following properties for water: p = 1000 kg/m3, c, = 4180 J/kg. K, k = 0.59 W/m . K, and p = 0.001 P a . s. Hint: Use the DittusBoelter correlation for the tube-side heat transfer coefficient.
13.8 A shell-side condenser with cooling tower water on the tube side is not performing satisfactorily, due to tube-side fouling. There is negligible shell-side fouling. Contemplated is replacement of the plain tubes with low-finned tubing having 1.18 fins/mm. This will increase the tube outside area by a factor of 2.9 over that of the plain tubes. The following are some design data provided.
Quantity
Plain Tube
Low-Finned Tube
25.4 22.9 0.00018 8517 8517 17.3
25.4 Tube outside diameter do (mm) 22.9 Tube inside diameter di (mm) 0.00018 Tube-side fouling resistance (m2 . K/W) 8517 Tube-side heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 . K) 8517 Shell-side heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 . K) 17.3 Wall thermal conductivity k , (W/m. K) Area ratio: 1.11 Outside/inside (Ap,o/Ap,i) Finned/bare tube outside [(A, Af)o/Ap,o,bare] Finned/tube inside [(A, + A f ) o / A , , i ]
2.9 3.22
Assuming a fin efficiency of 100% in parts (aHc): (a) Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the shell-side surface area for plain and finned-tube exchangers. (b) Compute the percentage increase in q by employing low-finned tubes. Assume that AT,, remains constant. (c) Discuss the results of part (b) in relation to the above-specified increase in surface area due to fins. (d) Discuss qualitatively the results for part (b) if the fin efficiency would have been 90%.

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Fouling and Corrosion

FOULING AND CORROSION

with Nu = constant Pro.']

for laminar flow (13.1) for turbulent flow

FOULING ON EXCHANGER HEAT TRANSFER AND PRESSURE DROP

FOULING AND CORROSION

13.2 PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS O F FOULING

FOULING AND CORROSION

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING

FOULING AND CORROSION

13.2.2 Single-Phase Liquid-Side Fouling

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING

TABLE 13.1 Influence of Operating Variables on Liquid-Side Fouling"

Temperature Velocity Supersaturation

Impurities Concentration Roughness Pressure Oxygen

13.2.3 Single-Phase Gas-Side Fouling

13.2.4 Fouling in Compact Exchangers

FOULING AND CORROSION

TABLE 13.2 Influence of Operating Variables on Gas-Side Foulinga

Source: Data from Cannas (1986).

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING

FOULING AND CORROSION

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING

1 3 . 2 . 6 Modeling of a Fouling Process

FOULING AND CORROSION

TABLE 13.3 Deposition and Reentrainment Models"

Sourceb Kern and Seaton (1959a,b)

aubCb Kdcb = k,Cb

Beal(1970, 1972, 1973)

FOULING AND CORROSION

FIGURE 13.1 Time dependence of the fouling resistance.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOULING

Substituting a and b from Eq. (3) into Eq. (l), we get

Substituting the constants a, b, and C, Eq. (5) results in

FOULING AND CORROSION

FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH

FOULING AND CORROSION

for constant AT,

FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH

For a fouled heat transfer surface.

Hence. (13.23) Combining Eqs. (13.23) and (13.20), we get

Alternatively, Eq. (1 3.25) can be expressed as

FOULING AND CORROSION

FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH

Using the definition of C F from Uf = C F x U,, Eq. (1) reduces to

Thus, substituting data given into Eq. (2), we get

FOULING AND CORROSION

From Eq. ( 2 ) , inserting the data given, we get

U,.Rf.2 1 - lo3 W/m2 . K x 1 0 - ~m2 . K/W UcRf,, + 1 lo3 W/m2 . K x 10-4m2 . K / W

13.3.3 Empirical Data for Fouling Resistances

FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH

FOULING AND CORROSION

Source: Data from Panchal and Rabas (1999).

TABLE 13.5 Gas-Side Fouling Resistances R,(m2 . K/kW)" Weierman

Henslee and Bouge (1983)

5.28 1.76 1.41

FOULING RESISTANCE DESIGN APPROACH

Rf,i = 4 x 1 0 - ~ m2 . K/W for

Determine: The distribution of thermal resistances for two cases: (1)

the time constant for asymptotic fouling.