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A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy. Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Such power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for continuous operation.
History:
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first commercial central electrical generating stations in New York and London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. As generator sizes increased, eventually turbines took over due to higher efficiency and lower cost of construction. By the 1920s any central station larger than a few thousand kilowatts would use a turbine prime mover.
Efficiency:
The electric efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as saleable energy produced at the plant bus bars compared with the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33 to 48% efficient, limited as all heat engines are by the laws of thermodynamics. The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This waste heat can be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for e.g. district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important class of thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products. Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other working fluids such as mercury have been experimentally used in a mercury vapour turbine power plant, since these can attain higher temperatures than water at lower working pressures. However, the obvious hazards of toxicity, and poor heat transfer properties, have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.
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Fig: Schematic diagram of typical coal-fired power plant steam generator highlighting the air preheater (APH) location. (For simplicity, any radiant section tubing is not shown.)
The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. The generator includes the economizer, the steam drum, the chemical dosing equipment, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and the superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack. For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating dampers. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.
The steam separators and dryers remove the water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the waterwalls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation. The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal. The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the superheater coils. Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids. Nuclear plants also boil water to raise steam, either directly passing the working steam through the reactor or else using an intermediate heat exchanger.
Air path:
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall. The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening. At the furnace outlet, and before the furnace gases are handled by the ID fan, fine dust carried by the outlet gases is removed to avoid atmospheric pollution.
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This is an environmental limitation prescribed by law, and additionally minimizes erosion of the ID fan.
Barring gear:
Barring gear (or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. This is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing, making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore could warp or bend by millionths of inches. This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would be enough to cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted. The shaft is therefore automatically turned at low speed (about one revolution per minute) by the barring gear until it has cooled sufficiently to permit a complete stop.
Condenser:
The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motordriven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum. For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100oC where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be prevented. Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning. The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.
Fig: A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feedwater heater. Page | 6
In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapour to liquid. The heat content (btu) in the steam is referred to as Enthalpy. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feed water heater. The feed water heating equipment then raises the temperature of the water by utilizing extraction steam from various stages of the turbine. Preheating the feed water reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feed water is introduced back into the steam cycle.
Superheater:
As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into an elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. The areas known as superheater and reheater. The steam vapor picks up energy and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves of the high pressure turbine.
Deaerator:
Fig: Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal water storage section.
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A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal. Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other dissolved gases from the boiler feed water. A deaerator typically includes a vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler feed water storage tank. There are many different designs for a deaerator and the designs will vary from one manufacturer to another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical conventional trayed deaerator. If operated properly, most deaerator manufacturers will guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L).
Auxiliary systems:
Oil system:
An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms. At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.
Other systems:
Monitoring and alarm system:
Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range.
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Boiler types:
1. According to the contents in the tube.
i. Fire tube boiler. ii. Water tube boiler. 2. According to the position of the furnace. i. Internally fired boiler. ii. Externally fired boiler. 3. According to the axis of the shell. i. Vertical axis. ii. Horizontal axis.
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Combustion:
The source of heat for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or natural gas. Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam. Heat recovery steam generators (HRSGs) use the heat rejected from other processes such as gas turbines.
conjunction with the forced draft fan allowing the furnace pressure to be maintained slightly below atmospheric.
Water treatment:
Feed water for boilers needs to be as pure as possible with a minimum of suspended solids and dissolved impurities which cause corrosion, foaming and water carryover. Various chemical treatments have been employed over the years, the most successful being Porta treatment. This contains a foam modifier that acts as a filtering blanket on the surface of the water that considerably purifies steam quality.
Boiler safety:
Many steam engines possess boilers that are pressure vessels that contain a great deal of potential energy. Steam explosions can and have caused great loss of life in the past. While variations in standards may exist in different countries, stringent legal, testing, training and certification is applied to try to minimise or prevent such occurrences. Failure modes include:
overpressurisation of the boiler insufficient water in the boiler causing overheating and vessel failure pressure vessel failure of the boiler due to inadequate construction or maintenance.
Safety valve Pressure measurement Blowdown Valves Main steam Stop Valve Feed check valves Fusible Plug Water gauge Low-Water Alarm Low Water Fuel Cut-out Inspector's Test Pressure Gauge Attachment Name Plate Registration Plate Feedwater pump
Steam accessories:
Main steam stop valve Steam traps Main steam stop/Check valve used on multiple boiler installations.
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Combustion accessories:
Fuel oil system. Gas system. Coal system. Automatic combustion systems.
Steam turbine:
Introduction:
A steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual change of momentum of the steam. In steam turbine, the force exerted on the blades is due to the velocity of steam. This is due to the fact that the curved blades by changing the direction of steam receive a force or impulse. The dynamical pressure of steam rotates the vanes, buckets or blades directly. The turbine blades curved in such a way that the steam directed upon them enters without shock, though there is always some loss of energy by the friction upon the surface of blades. The basic principle of operation of a steam turbine is the generation of high velocity steam jet by the expansion of high pressure steam and then conversion of kinetic energy, so obtained into mechanical work on rotor blades.
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Impulse turbine:
An impulse turbine, as the name indicates, is a turbine which runs by the impulse of steam jet. In this turbine, the steam is first made to flow through a nozzle, then the steam jet impinges on the turbine blades. The action of the jet of steam, impinging on the blades, is said to be an impulse and the rotation of the rotor is due to the impulsive forces of the steam jets. The steam impinges on the buckets with kinetic energy. De-Level turbine is the simplest type of impulse turbine.
Reaction turbine:
In a reaction turbine, the steam enters the wheel under pressure and flows over the blades. The steam while gliding, propels the blades and make them to move, as a matter fact, the turbine runner is rotated by the reactive forces of steam jets. The backward motion of the blades is similar to the recoil of gun. The steam glides over the moving vanes with pressure and kinetic energy. The steam flows first through guide mechanism and then through the moving blades. It may be noted that an absolute reaction turbine is rarely used in actual practice.
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In order to obtain the maximum amount of work from the steam, all of its kinetic energy must be converted to work. In other words, the steam must leave the blade with zero absolute velocity. Assuming a frictionless blade, the velocity of the steam relative to the blade must be the same entering as leaving, but reversed in direction. Also, the blade velocity must be one half of the entering steam velocity. (Refer to figure 1-3). There are actually two different forces acting on the blade. The first is the force of the steam jet striking the blade, as described. The second is the reactive force due to the change in direction of the steam flow between the entrance and exit from the blade. In actual turbines, it is impractical to utilize the full advantage of complete reversal of the steam. In a conventional impulse stage, the blades project radially from the wheel and the nozzles are placed so that the steam flow is at an angle to the plane of rotation. (Shown in figure 14).
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The pressure and velocity changes taking place are shown in figure 1-4. The only pressure drop occurs in the nozzle. The pressure entering the blades is the same as that leaving the blades.
T1
F1 R1 R2
T2 F2
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VANE
NOZZLE
SHAFT
BOILER
HEAT*
SUPPORT
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Steam outlet pipe: Simple mild steel pipe of half inches in diameter is used as a steam
outlet pipe. It is connected with check valve. Nozzle is fitted with this pipe to increase the velocity of the steam by decreasing the pressure. Steam outlet pipe must be sustain the steam pressure.
Check valve: Check valve is fitted between the outlet pipe and the socket. It is used to
check the flow of steam or in other words to control the flow of steam. It is made up of brass material due to safety reason. It is fitted just above the boiler shell and manually operated. We can control the flow of steam by revolving the wheel of valve.
Pressure gauge: A Bourdon type pressure gauge is fitted on the boiler to know the
steam pressure inside the boiler. Pressure gauge is one of the important mounting. Pressure gauge must be fitted on every boiler due to safety reason or in other words to minimum the risk or hazards. Pressure gauge shows reading in both C.G.S. system and F.P.S. system (in both kg/cm2 and psi).
Nozzle: Nozzle is a device which is used to increase the velocity of fluid by decreasing
pressure. Convergent-divergent nozzle is commonly used for this purpose. We construct this nozzle from a mild steel bar of half inches diameter. Drilled a 3mm hole through the center. On the outside end, enlarge this hole to 5mm to a depth of 200mm. Nozzle is fitted with outlet pipe so that the steam may expand and gain velocity as it approaches the blade.
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Turbine wheel: Turbine wheel consists of shaft, hub and blades. Hub is made up of
stainless steel and blades are welded on the circumference of the hub in equal distance. Shaft is fitted in the hub and rotates along its axis with the aid of steam force. Shaft is made up of mild steel material. To decrease the friction between the shaft and inner surface of the hub two ball bearings are fitted between them. Components of turbine wheel: 1. 2. 3. 4. Shaft. Hub. Bearings. Blades or vanes.
Blades: Seven numbers of vanes are fitted on the hub of the turbine. Construction
procedures of making blades are to mark out a piece of GI sheet to form seven rectangles, 2.5 inches by 6 inches. Cut very carefully according to the marking line. In the edge of a piece of hard wood 1 inch thick file a notch 3/8 inch wide and 1/8 inch deep with a 1/2inch circular file and procure a metal bar which fits the groove loosely. Each blade is laid in turn over the groove, and the bar is applied lengthwise on it and driven down with a mallet, to give the blade the curvature of the groove. When all the blades have been made and shaped, weld them on the circumference of the hub. True up the long edges of the blades with a file, and bring them off to a sharp edge, removing the metal from the convex side.
Frame:
A rigid frame is made from 1x1 inch MS angle to support the whole arrangement. Frame must have enough strength to give proper support.
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Conclusion:
In this activity we will demonstrate how different energy sources can be used to spin a turbine. Since this activity is a simple demonstration, the full scientific method outline is not called for here. The turbine in this activity is not strong enough to operate an electrical generator; however, we can still experience how the force of steam is used to make a turbine spin. We will also be constructing a device that produces steam in a manner similar to that used at a steam-driven power plant. We will recall from the theory that the actual steam production technology at a power plant is extremely sophisticated and produces steam at very high pressures. However, this activity works well enough to get the point across. Our main motto is to make a working model of steam turbine which may be in use for demonstration purpose.
Bibliography:
Steam Turbine and Steam Power Plant --by R. Yadav A text book of Thermal Engineering --by R.S. Khurmi & J. K. Gupta
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