HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 73 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. VECTOR CONTROL OF SINUSOIDAL PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

4.1 SINUSOIDAL PERMANENT CONSTRUCTION MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:

Permanent magnet synchronous machines can be subdivided into two major groups depending on their constructional features. As a consequence, different control laws apply. Flux distribution in the air gap may follow sinusoidal law as in conventional AC machines and such a machine is usually termed sinusoidal permanent magnet synchronous machine (SPMSM). Alternatively, flux distribution may be of trapezoidal wave-shape and the machine is usually called brushless DC machine (BDCM). This Chapter discusses SPMSM only, as this construction is much better suited to high performance applications. However, it has to be stressed that both the machine and the control system are more complex, compared to a BDCM drive. Schematic representation of the most common three phase sinusoidal permanent magnet synchronous machine is shown in Fig. 4.1. The machine is of so called surface magnet structure, where the name describes the position of permanent magnets on the rotor, which are mounted on the rotor surface. Alternatively, machine is called exterior magnet machine as well. Stator three phase winding is shown with three concentric turns. The design and construction of the stator and its winding are identical to the one met in conventional three phase induction and synchronous machines. Permanent magnets are placed on the rotor surface and fixed to it, their shape resembles arc and the resulting distribution of the flux produced by the magnets in the air gap is sinusoidal. As the magnets are of very small permeability, compared to iron, the resulting effective air gap in this machine is large. It can usually be assumed in analysis of SPMSM that this construction results in uniform air gap so that the machine can be analysed as a turbo-type synchronous machine.

Rotor b -c Stator Air-gap

-a

-b

Magnets

Fig. 4.1 - Sinusoidal permanent magnet synchronous machine with surface mounted magnets.

Another existing construction of SPMSM differs from the one described here with respect to permanent magnet positioning. In this alternative construction, shown in Fig. 4.2, permanent magnets are placed inside the rotor, so that the machine is called interior magnet machine. Interior magnet machines behave like a salient pole synchronous machine ( Lq Ld ). However, in contrast to conventional salient pole synchronous machines, the ratio of d- to q-axis inductance is very often such that Lq > Ld . As the magnets are placed inside the rotor, effective air gap is much smaller compared to surface magnet
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machines. This property enables easier operation in the field weakening region, which is very difficult in the case of surface magnet machines. Interior magnet machine may have magnets placed inside the rotor as shown in Fig. 4.2a, or the magnets may form a square as shown in Fig. 4.2b. As the air gap is non-uniform, control system becomes more complex when compared to the one of surface magnet machines, as the torque is composed of both fundamental and reluctance torque components. Consequently, only surface magnet SPMSMs are elaborated further on.

Stator

Shaft

Air-gap Rotor Magnets

Air-gap Rotor Magnets

a.

b.

Fig. 4.2 - Interior magnet sinusoidal synchronous machines: a. Radial distribution of permanent magnets; b. Permanent magnets forming a square. 4.2. MODELLING MACHINES OF SINUSOIDAL PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS

As flux and magnetomotive force distribution is sinusoidal in a SPMSM, general theory of electric machines is fully applicable for derivation of a convenient SPMSM mathematical model. As a starting point, it is convenient to utilise model of a standard three phase synchronous machine with only excitation winding on the rotor (i.e. without damper winding on the rotor), in reference frame fixed to the rotor. This model is obtained by transforming original domain equations of the synchronous machine into reference frame fixed to the rotor. The transformation procedure closely follows the one described in Section 2.3 in conjunction with a three phase induction machine. It is assumed that the airgap is uniform, so that d-q axis inductances are mutually equal. Such a situation is valid for a surfacemounted SPMSM discussed here. Next, since the reference frame is selected as fixed to the rotor, then a = . However, since the rotor carries with it the permanent magnet flux, then the speed of rotor rotation simultaneously equals speed of rotation of the rotor flux. Hence a = = r . Thus one obtains from the model (2.9), (2.11)-(2.14), (2.22) the following set of equations:
vds = Rsids + vqs = Rsiqs + d ds dt d qs dt r qs

(4.1)
+ r ds

v f = Rf if +
Te = TL +

d f dt

(4.2) (4.3) (4.4)

J d r P dt

ds = Lsids + Lmi f qs = Lsiqs

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f = L f i f + Lmids
Te = 3 2 P dsiqs qsids

(4.5)

(4.6)

Equations for zero-sequence component of the stator winding have been already omitted from the model. In the model (4.1)-(4.6) index s stands for stator windings and index f applies to rotor excitation winding. As the reference frame is chosen fixed to the rotor, rotational electromotive forces are present only in transformed stator equations. This is the consequence of the fact that the d-axis of the common reference frame and the rotor magnetic axis (axis of the excitation winding) coincide. Connection between original stator phase variables and equivalent d-q variables is given from (2.23) with
vds =
2 3 2 3

v a cos + vb cos

2 3 2 3

+ vc cos

4 3 4 3

(4.7)

vqs =

v a sin + vb sin

+ vc sin

ia = ids cos iqs sin ib = ids cos ic = ids cos 2 2 iqs sin 3 3 4 4 iqs sin 3 3

(4.8)

The angle in transformation equations (4.7)-(4.8) determines instantaneous position of d-axis of the common reference frame with respect to stationary stator phase a axis:
t

= r ( ) d + ( 0)
0

(4.9)

An illustration of the machines windings and the common reference frame is shown in Fig. 4.3.

d- axis

b - axis

is
q- axis b

ids
s
qs f ds

iqs
Rotor a

a - axis

Stator

c - axis

Fig. 4.3 - Illustration of the machine windings and the common reference frame.

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The model is in general valid when the voltages are assumed to be inputs, while stator currents are treated as outputs. This model can be significantly simplified in the case of permanent magnet synchronous machine. Instead of the excitation winding, permanent magnets perform its function. Electromotive force induced in stator winding due to permanent magnet flux is sinusoidal. Therefore equations (4.2) and (4.5) may be omitted from the model and permanent magnets are then modelled as a source of constant flux linkage. Equivalent circuit for the rotor of a SPMSM, shown in Fig. 4.4, enables modelling of the rotor in accordance with general theory of electrical machines. Equivalent space vector of rotor currents is from Fig. 4.4 given in rotor reference frame with:
ir = 2 3

( iar + aibr + a 2icr ) = I f

j 2 3

(4.10)

where a = e

and
, ibr = If 2 , icr = If 2

iar = I f

(4.11)

ar

i ar i br i cr 0.5 i f 0.5 i f

br

cr

Fig. 4.4 - Equivalent rotor circuit of a SPMSM with surface mounted magnets.

In equation (4.11) I f
m = Lm I f

represents equivalent excitation current. Resultant flux linkage produced by

permanent magnets can be expressed in terms of fictitious excitation current I f as (4.12)

and its value is constant in time and aligned with d-axis in space. Taking into account previous considerations, equations (4.1)-(4.6) yield
vds = Rsids + vqs = Rsiqs + d ds dt d qs dt
r qs

(4.13)
+ r ds

ds = Lsids + m qs = Lsiqs

(4.14)

and
Te = TL + Te =
3 2

J d P dt

P dsiqs qsids

(4.15)

Substitution of (4.14) into (4.13) and (4.15) leads to the final set of equations that describe completely a SPMSM ( s d / dt )
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( ) vqs = ( Rs + sLs ) iqs + r Lsids + r m

vds = Rs + sLs ids r Ls iqs Te = TL + Te = J d r P dt
3 P miqs 2

(4.16) (4.17) (4.18) (4.19)

Note that torque equation (4.19) contains only fundamental torque component. One very important feature, which is a consequence of the SPMSM design, has to be pointed out. Permanent magnet synchronous machines can operate only if the position of the rotor is measured (or estimated) and made available to the control system. In other words, a SPMSM cannot be utilised for mains operation (in contrast to conventional synchronous motor) as it does not contain damper winding and cannot be started. This emphasises the uniqueness of the SPMSM which is aimed purely for variable speed drives and is always fed from a power electronics converter in conjunction with an appropriate control system. The need for rotor position measurement is not a drawback in all the cases when SPMSM is utilised for positioning, where position sensor is needed anyway. A SPMSM drive requires position sensor of high accuracy (resolver or incremental encoder) which is expensive and adds considerably to the cost of the whole drive. The previously mentioned BDCM with trapezoidal distribution of flux requires rotor position measurement as well. However, in BDCM only discrete values of rotor position need to be detected and therefore position sensor may be considerably simpler and therefore cheaper (Hall effect sensors). In general BDCM drive will be cheaper than SPMSM drive but the performance of a SPMSM is superior. The choice between the two will always depend upon the application. 4.3. STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF SINUSOIDAL PERMANENT MAGNET CURRENTFED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

If it is possible to realise very fast current controlled PWM inverter, current fed SPMSM results. In other words inverter acts as a three phase current source and phase currents may be regarded once more as being directly impressed into the machine stator winding. For the case of current fed SPMSM stator voltage equations

( ) vqs = ( Rs + sLs ) iqs + r Ls ids + r m

vds = Rs + sLs ids r Lsiqs

(4.16) (4.17)

may be omitted from the model. It is obviously impossible to build an ideal current source, however current controlled PWM inverters enable very good instantaneous tracking of reference currents by actual currents and the behaviour of the drive approaches the one that corresponds to the current fed SPMSM. If the current components in rotor reference frame ids , iqs are made controllable, torque becomes instantaneously controllable, as is obvious from (4.19) since permanent magnet flux is a constant quantity. As the flux in the machine is sinusoidally distributed, the motor has to be fed with sinusoidal phase currents. Torque components that originate from different stator phases are
Ta = ia KT sin Tb = ib KT sin Tc = ic KT sin 2 3 4 3

(4.20)

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If the phase currents are sinusoidal functions of angle

ia = I m sin ib = I m sin ic = I m sin 2 3 4 3

(4.21)

torque components of individual phases are

Ta = KT I m sin Tb = KT I m sin Tc = KT I m sin
2 2 2

2 3 4 3

(4.22)

and the resulting torque is

Te = Ta + Tb + Tc = 3 KT Im 2

(4.23)

Thus the total torque is independent of rotor angular position and is linearly dependent on stator phase current amplitude. 4.4. ROTOR FLUX ORIENTED CONTROL OF SINUSOIDAL PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Derived dynamic model of a SPMSM is given with

( ) vqs = ( Rs + sLs ) iqs + r Lsids + r m

vds = Rs + sLs ids r Lsiqs Te = 3 2 P miqs

(4.24)

and is considerably simpler than the corresponding dynamic model of an induction machine (2.20)(2.22). There are two main reasons for this. The first one is that, as the machine is synchronous, rotor speed and rotor flux space vector speed are always equal, so that slip frequency is not met. The other reason is that there are no windings on rotor and consequently there are no equations for rotor electric circuits. Torque equation of (4.24) shows that, if it is possible to control instantaneously stator q-axis current, torque will instantaneously follow that change. Rotor flux oriented control makes the instantaneous stator q-axis current control possible once more, similarly as it was discussed in conjunction with induction machines. As already noted, since permanent magnet flux is fixed to the rotor and the common reference frame is fixed to the rotor as well, that means that the rotor flux axis and the d-axis of the common reference frame coincide. In other words, the model (4.24) already describes rotor flux oriented SPMSM as the reference frame has been chosen fixed to the rotor and because direction of permanent magnet flux coincides with d-axis of the common reference frame. Therefore the instantaneous rotor angular position equals instantaneous rotor flux space vector position r , i.e.
= r

(4.25)

As the rotor flux is directed along d-axis and determined by magnets, rotor flux oriented control is achieved for constant flux operation by keeping stator d-axis component at zero value. In other words,
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there is no need to magnetise the machine using a stator current component, as the case is in an induction machine. Simultaneously stator q-axis current component, which is perpendicular to d-axis, has to be kept at an angle equal to 90 degrees with respect to rotor flux directed along d-axis. Such an operation will provide constant flux operation in the base speed range. Hence the required stator current space vector is given with
i s = ids + jiqs = jiqs = I se j

=/2

(4.26)

in the reference frame fixed to the rotor flux space vector. This applies to motoring, while during braking (when the torque is required to be negative) angle becomes equal to = / 2 . It should be noted that the required value of angle has to be maintained for any value of rotor position angle = r , so that in any dynamic or steady state operation stator current space vector consists of q-axis component only. Illustration of the flux and current space vectors for operation in the base speed region in motoring is shown in Fig. 4.5.
q
= r is = jiqs

m = r

a-axis

Fig. 4.5 - Stator current and permanent magnet flux space vectors in the common reference frame fixed to rotor (i.e. permanent magnet flux) for operation in the base speed region. Direct field weakening operation with SPMSM is not possible as rotor flux is constant and set by permanent magnets. However similar effect is achieved if the angle is increased above 90 degrees, i.e. if stator d-axis current component is made negative. Stator d-axis flux equation (4.14) is therefore
ds = Ls i ds + m = m in the base speed region since i ds = 0 ds = Ls i ds + m < m in the field wakening region since i ds < 0

(4.27)

As a consequence, q-axis current has to be decreased for such an operation as the total stator current is limited and must not exceed prescribed maximum value
2 2 I s = ids + iqs < I s max

(4.28)

Therefore the optimal control is with ids = 0 up to the rated speed, with iqs I s max . Once when the inverter voltage limit has been reached, field weakening operation may be initiated by increasing angle over > / 2 . The speed increases above rated, stator d-axis current goes negative and q-axis current must be reduced to provide operation within current limit. In the case of surface mounted magnets, this method of field weakening asks for excessive d-axis current due to large effective air gap. Consequently, this operation may be applied for restricted amount of time and speed cannot be increased significantly above the base speed. The most frequent approach is to design the drive in such a way that twice the rated speed is the upper limit in the field weakening region. The principle of rotor flux oriented control of a SPMSM is illustrated in Fig. 4.6. Current controlled PWM inverter is assumed and current control is performed in stationary reference frame. Figure 4.6 includes the field weakening operation as well. The output of the integral controller whose input is Vs max Vs is set to zero ( ids = 0 ) for positive values of v = Vs max Vs (in the region n ; note once more that = r for a SPMSM); when the voltage limit is reached ids goes negative. Figure 4.6
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displays transformations in rectangular co-ordinates. Microprocessor control in polar co-ordinates, with current control in the stationary reference frame, torque estimation in rotor flux reference frame and possibility of field weakening operation is shown in Fig. 4.7. In both cases, since the motor is current fed, stator voltage equations can be omitted from considerations. In contrast to an induction machine, where rotor voltage equations still exist, omitting the stator voltage equation leads in the case of a SPMSM to a model that consists of the torque equation only, as discussed in Section 4.3.

ia ib ic
3 2

i s i s e
-j

i sd TL i sq 3 P 2 m T e P Js r 1 s
permanent magnet synchronous motor

CR PWM i* c i* b
* ia 3 * 2 i s voltage controller

Vs - Vsmax control system P

angle controller

i* s e
-j

i* sd Ismax i* sq

0 I i sdmin P+I
speed controller

* r

Fig. 4.6 - Rotor flux oriented control of a SPMSM with current control in stationary reference frame and provision for field weakening (position controlled drive).

3 2 P m

Polar

measured currents

sin
Te * Position controller
* r

Rect. i* s Polar

i* a i* b * * i* c

Speed contr.

T* e

Rect.

measured speed and/or position

Fig. 4.7 - Control system of a microcomputer controlled SPMSM drive in polar co-ordinates (the power stage is not shown and is interfaced with the control system through A/D converters and an encoder; the drive is position controlled).

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If the drive is not required to operate in the field weakening region, the control system can be simplified, as in that case operation with ids = 0 is required at all times. The control structure then takes the form shown in Fig. 4.8. Control systems of a SPMSM drive, illustrated in Figs. 4.6-4.8, contain CRPWM inverter with analogue current control in the stationary reference frame. These types of realisations are typically of digital-analogue nature. However, current control may be performed in rotational reference frame as well, similarly to the case of rotor flux oriented induction machine. Such an approach enables completely digital realisation of a SPMSM drive. The control system of a SPMSM drive with current control in rotational reference frame is shown in Fig. 4.9. In very much the same way as discussed in conjunction with an induction machine, current control in rotational reference frame means that stator voltage equations have to be taken into consideration.

Diode bridge rectifier

DC link

PWM inverter

SPM SM

PWM

ia

ib

ic

position sensor

iqs* exp (j) ids*=0 sin / cos

is* 2 3 is*

ia* ib* ic*

r*

+
r

Speed Controller

iqs*

_
ids* = 0
d dt

ias* Vector Transformation +j ibs* e ics* & 2/3

ias CR-PWM VSI ibs ics sensor

Motor + Load

Fig. 4.8 - Rotor flux oriented control of a SPMSM drive in base speed range only, with current control in stationary reference frame (iqs is output from the PI speed controller in the upper figure; the two schemes shown are essentially identical and illustrate different ways of depicting the same control structure).

Outputs of the current PI controllers in Fig. 4.9 need to be summed with the decoupling voltages (this is not shown in Fig. 4.9) in order to create d-q axis voltage references. The equations for decoupling voltages are again obtained using stator voltage equations, (4.16)-(4.17). Let the primed symbols denote outputs of the PI current controllers. Then
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ia

e
i qs * Posit. contr. * r r s Speed contr. i* qs * contr. vqs i qs

-j r= v* s j v* s

ib

v* a 2 v* b 3 v* c P W M

i* =0 ds

i ds -

* contr. vds i ds

i n v e r t e r

ia ib ic = r

SPMSM

Fig. 4.9 - Fully digital control of a SPMSM drive with current control in rotational reference frame.
vds ' = Rs ids + Ls dids dt vqs ' = Rs iqs + Ls diqs dt vds = v ds '+ ed vqs = v qs '+ eq ed = r Lsiqs eq = r Lsids + m
* *

(4.29)

If the sampling frequency and inverter operating frequency are high enough, current controllers are capable of suppressing the unwanted coupling. It should be noted once more that the principle of introducing decoupling circuit is exactly the same as discussed in conjunction with voltage-fed induction machines. The drive shown in Fig. 4.9 is assumed to be aimed for operation in the constant flux region only. The d-axis reference current is for this reason set to zero (ids* = 0). Comparison of Figs. 4.6-4.7 with Fig. 4.9 shows that if the current control is performed in rotational reference frame then co-ordinate transformation is needed in both directions. Commanded values of voltages have to be transformed from rotational to stationary reference frame, while measured current values have to be transformed from stationary to rotational reference frame. When the current control is performed in stationary reference frame, only commanded current values have to be transformed from rotational to stationary reference frame. Although the Fig. 4.7 does contain the transformation of measured currents (current control is done in the stationary reference frame), this is just an option which serves for torque estimation and which can be omitted from the control system by omitting the torque control loop. When the current control is performed in the stationary reference frame, commanded values which are transformed from rotational to stationary reference frame are currents. The required inverter voltages are obtained by closing the local current feedback loop. Here either hysteresis or ramp comparison current controllers may be applied. Hysteresis controllers are usually avoided in commercial appliances, due to variable inverter switching frequency. Ramp comparison control which usually incorporates a PI controller and high frequency triangular carrier wave, gives operation with fixed inverter switching frequency. However, due to controller finite gain, a discrepancy between commanded and actual currents inevitably results. If the current control is performed in rotational reference frame, reference values that have to be transformed to the stationary reference frame are voltages. A method which is frequently utilised is
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voltage space vector modulation which relies on application of zero voltage vector and two neighbouring non-zero voltage vectors for the creation of the reference voltage vector. This method usually relies on digital pulse width modulator. Current control methods are dealt with in the next Chapter. Structures of a SPMSM drive, similar to the one shown in Fig. 4.9, are nowadays a common choice if purely digital realisation is the ultimate goal. Stator dynamics described with (4.16)-(4.17) are neglected in the control system of Fig. 4.9 although the machine is now essentially voltage-fed. 4.5. REALISATION RELATED ISSUES

Figure 4.10 illustrates a SPMSM drive from the product range of "Inland" company, which is of combined digital-analogue type. Current references are formed within digital part of the system, D/A conversion is then performed and current control loops are analogue and closed in the stationary reference frame.

ANALOGUE

DIGITAL

ANALOGUE

Analogue position controller

Analogue speed controller

A/D

Speed Position feedback Sensor decoder Absolute position A/D

Torque angle PROM

PROM phase a PROM phase b

D A D A

Analogue current control

and PROM phase c Signal from position sensor D A PWM

Fig. 4.10 - Configuration of a SPMSM drive control system of mixed digital-analogue type.

Permanent magnet synchronous machines are more and more frequently built with Nd-Fe-B magnets as this approach enables very high torque for the given motor size. One of the motors available on the market develops torque linearly proportional to the current up to the stator current of 6 p.u. Another motor construction enables operation with constant torque equal to 1.47 Nm from zero speed up to 11000 rpm. the motor is four-pole and is fed from 270 V DC source through a PWM inverter. Inertia is only 28 x 10-6 kgm2. One of the available microprocessor controlled SPMSM drives corresponds to the one shown in Fig. 4.7. Two Intel 8086 microprocessor are utilised, sampling frequency is 3.2 kHz, motor is four-pole for continuous operation at 2000 rpm with 1.2 kW and is capable of developing short-term dynamic torque of six times rated. The inverter is transistor based, currents are measured by electrically isolated Hall probes and 12 bit A/D converters are utilised. Microprocessor outputs are three reference phase currents and current loops are closed in the stationary reference frame. Speed and position are sensed with optical incremental encoder with 1024 lines. In order to improve speed resolution up to 260,000 increments per revolution, sin/cos interpolation is applied.

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One fully digital SPMSM drive utilises control diagram of Fig. 4.9 and relies on signal processor TMS 32010 and control processor THS 99105. Speed and position are obtained from optical incremental encoder with 1024 lines per revolution and sin/cos interpolation is applied for speeds below 150 rpm. A/D converters for measured currents are 12-bit. Reference voltages are fed into digital PWM modulator which provides increments of pulse widths of 1/16 s. Inverter switching frequency is 4 kHz, this being the same as sampling frequency so that analogue current filtering may be omitted. According to available recommendations, A/D converters should be 10-12-bit while D/A converters for reference values are usually 10-bit. Application of signal processor enables operation at frequencies of 5 kHz and higher, while for frequencies around 1 kHz 16-bit microprocessors (80186. 99105, 68000) are sufficient. In all the realisations described so far optical encoders were utilised. However, resolver with R/D converter may be applied as well. 4.6. PERFORMANCE OF A SPMSM DRIVE

Behaviour of a SPMSM drive is illustrated in this section by means of simulation and experimental results. Current control of the inverter is performed using hysteresis current controllers. The chosen structure of the drive closely corresponds to the one already shown in Fig. 4.8 and the realisation for the experimental prototype is mixed analogue-digital. Speed drive is under consideration (i.e., position control loop is not closed). Configuration used in simulation is illustrated in Fig. 4.11. In the simplified model of the VSI, the semiconductor power switches are replaced with ideal switches. The simulation of the inverter is based on the assumption of a constant DC link voltage and uses the concept of switching functions. Let the switching functions of the three inverter legs be denoted as Sa, Sb, Sc, respectively. Each switching function takes the value of 1 if the upper switch is on, while it equals -1 if lower switch is on. Leg voltages, v A , v B and v C , are thus referred to the fictitious midpoint of the DC supply. Since only two combinations of states of the switches in each branch are allowed, a switching (logic) variable can be assigned to each phase of the inverter. The switching variables are defined as shown in Table 4.1.

Switching function

Logic states -1 if SW1 is OFF and SW4 is ON

Sa

1 if SW1 is ON and SW4 is OFF -1 if SW2 is OFF and SW5 is ON

Sb

1 if SW2 is ON and SW5 is OFF -1 if SW3 is OFF and SW6 is ON

Sc

1 if SW3 is ON and SW6 is OFF

Table 4.1: Switching functions of VSI.

The instantaneous values of the line-to-line output voltages of the inverter are given with
vab = Vdc 2

( Sa Sb)

vbc =

Vdc 2

( Sb Sc)

vca =

Vdc 2

( Sc Sa )

(4.30)

where Vdc is the DC supply voltage of the inverter. In balanced three-phase system, the line-to-neutral voltages can be calculated from the line-to-line voltages as follows:
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( vab vca )
( 2 Sa Sb Sc) ( 2 Sb Sc Sa ) ( 2 Sc S a Sb)

vb =

1 3

( vbc vab )

vc =

1 3

( vca vbc )

(4.31)

Hence, the line-to-neutral voltages of the load are given in terms of switching functions with
va = vb = vc = 1 Vdc 3 2 1 Vdc 3 2 1 Vdc 3 2

(4.32)

Equations (4.32) represent the model of the voltage source inverter used in the simulation (Fig. 4.11). These equations show the correlation between the switching functions that are produced by the hysteresis current controllers, DC link voltage (as an input to the three phase inverter) and phase voltages (as an input to the motor). However, the SPMSM model is in the rotating reference frame, while phase voltages are in the stationary reference frame. Therefore, phase voltages have to be transformed into the rotating reference frame based on transformation equation (4.7). A typical response of the machine, obtained by simulation, is shown in Fig. 4.12. The sequence of transients is as follows. The machine is initially at rest and step speed command, equal to rated speed of 180 rad/s is applied at t = 0. Load torque during acceleration equals zero. Rated load is applied at t = 0.025 s. Finally, at t = 0.08 s, the speed command is reduced by 10% in a step-wise manner. Figure 4.12 illustrates speed response, stator d-q axis current references and actual values.

200

160

iqs
Speed (rad/s) 120

80

ids
40

0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Time (sec) 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

Fig. 4.12 - Rotor flux oriented control with PI speed controller and hysteresis current controllers (speed command is denoted with a dashed line).

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*
r

2 to 3 Transformation PI iqs* Speed Controller

* * ia * = idsCos( ) iqs Sin( )

Hysteresis Current Controllers + _

Vdc

Voltage Source Inverter

* 1 Vdc Va = 2 3 ( 2Sa Sb Sc )

ia*

Sa
Vdc

+ _

ids* = 0

2 2 * * ib * = idsCos( 3 ) iqs Sin( 3 )

ib* +
_

Sb
Vdc

* 1 Vdc Vb = 2 3 ( 2 Sb Sa Sc )

4 4 * * ic * = idsCos( 3 ) iqsSin( 3 )

ic*

+ _

Sc

* 1 Vdc Vc = 2 3 (2 Sc Sa Sb )

ia ib ic

va

vb

vc

Intergration

ia = idsCos( ) iqs Sin( )

2 2 ib = ids Cos( 3 ) iqs Sin( 3 )

P
4 4 ic = ids Cos( 3 ) iqs Sin( 3 )

2 2 4 * * * vqs = 3 va Sin() + vb Sin( ) + vc Sin( ) 3 3 2 2 4 * * * vds = 3 va Cos() + vb Cos( ) + vc Cos( ) 3 3

mech

dids vds = ids Rs + Ls dt Ls iqs

vqs vds

diqs vqs = iqs Rs + Ls dt + Ls ids + m

dids 1 dt = Ls vds ids Rs + Ls iqs

diqs

1 dt = Ls vqs iqs Rs Ls ids m

ids

Intergration

iqs
Intergration

d-q Motor Model

3 Te = 2 P miqs

Intergration

d P dt = J Te TL

Fig. 4.11 - Rotor flux oriented control of a SPMSM with PI speed control and hysteresis current controllers: simulation model ( = r ).

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One notices that the stator d-axis current is maintained at almost zero value (except for the ripple) under all conditions and that the only minor excursion takes place when the speed command is stepped down from 180 to 162 rad/s. Stator q-axis current responds very quickly to the change in the stator q-axis current command; however, as there is an inductance in the winding, actual stator q-axis current does not follow the command instantaneously. Stator q-axis current reference is in the limit during initial acceleration and during step speed reduction from 180 to 162 rad/s. The actual stator q-axis current is in the limit only during the initial acceleration. Speed response is very fast and there is not any overshoot in it (that is the requirement on the basis of which the speed controller was designed). Load torque application causes a small (inevitable) dip, that is quickly compensated for. Step reduction of the speed reference leads to a significant undershoot and braking action takes place during this transient. An illustration of performance, obtained from an experimental rig, is presented next. Speed control algorithm is implemented in a PC, using Simulink/Matlab software. The output of the speed controller, stator q-axis current command, is after D/A conversion supplied to an application specific integrated circuit by Analog Devices, that performs the co-ordinate transformation. Stator d-axis current references is set to zero at all times, so that the drive operates in the base speed region only (rated speed of the motor is 3000 rpm). Outputs of the co-ordinate transformation chip, stator phase current references, are led to the hysteresis current controllers, that are used to control a 10 kHz switching frequency IGBT voltage source inverter. Stator currents are measured using Hall-effect probes. Position is measured using a resolver, whose output is supplied to the resolver to digital converter (an integrated circuit, manufactured by Analog Devices). One of the outputs of the R/D converter is the speed signal (in analogue form) that is taken to the PC (after A/D conversion) as the speed feedback signal for the speed control loop. Speed reference is in all the cases applied in the step-wise manner. Speed controller is designed to give an aperiodic speed response to application of the rated speed reference (3000 rpm) under no-load conditions, using the inertia of the SPMSM alone. Figure 4.13 presents recorded speed responses to step speed references equal to 3000, 2500, 2000, 1500 and 1000 rpm. Speed command is always applied at 0.25 seconds. As can be seen from Fig. 4.13, speed response is extremely fast and the set speed is reached in around 0.25-0.3 seconds without any overshoot.
3500 3000 2500 Speed (rpm) 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Tim e (sec) 2 2.5 3

2500 2000 Speed (rpm) 1500 1000 500 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Tim e (sec) 2 2.5 3

3000 2500
1500

Speed (rpm)

2000
Speed (rpm)

1500 1000 500 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Time (sec) 2.5 3

1000

500

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (sec) 2 2.5 3

E Levi, 2001

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 88 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Tim e (sec) 2 2.5 3

Fig. 4.13 - Speed response to 300, 2500, 2000, 1500 and 1000 rpm step speed commands from standstill under no-load conditions (rated inertia).

The machine is next allowed to operate in steady states arrived at in Fig. 4.13. A step speed reference reduction, equal to 10% of the previous reference setting, is applied. The results are given in Fig. 4.14 for five initial speed values. Regardless of the fact that the speed controller was designed for aperiodic speed response and behaved pretty well for all the speed references illustrated in Fig. 4.13, a large undershoot appears in speed response to small negative speed reference change in Fig. 4.14, regardless of the previous steady-state speed value. The value of the undershoot in speed appears to be quite close to the required 10% step reference change. The settling time is around 0.3 seconds, which is essentially the same as it took the drive to achieve steady-state operation in Fig. 4.13.
3200 3000

Speed (rpm)

1700 1600 1500

Speed (rpm)

Speed (rpm)

2800 2600 2400 2200 2000 9.5 9.75 10 10.25 Tim e (s ec) 10.5 10.75 11

1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 9.5 10 Time (sec) 10.5 11

1100

2700 2500 Speed (rpm) 2300 2100 1900 1700 1500 9.5 9.75 10 10.25 Time (s ec)
2200 2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 9.5 9.75 10 10.25 Tim e (se c) 10.5 10.75 11

1050 1000 Speed (rpm) 950 900 850 800 750

10.5

10.75

11

700 9.5 10 10.5 Tim e (s e c) 11

Speed (rpm)

Fig. 4.14 - Speed response to step 10% speed reference reduction (rated inertia; previous steady-states in Fig. 4.13).

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HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 89 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Permanent magnet synchronous motor is next coupled to a dc motor, whose armature terminals are left open. An effective increase in inertia is therefore achieved, of the order of 3 to 1. As the dc motor rated speed is 2000 rpm, testing is restricted to at most this speed value. Fig. 4.15 shows response to application of the step speed reference equal to 2000, 1500 and 1000 rpm. Operation in the current limit takes place for a prolonged period of time, as illustrated in accompanying q-axis current reference and phase a current reference traces included in Fig. 4.15 for the 2000 rpm reference speed. The speed controller yields a relatively good response for the 2000 rpm speed reference, with a small overshoot and short settling time. However, decrease in the speed reference setting leads to substantial deterioration of the speed response. Overshoot for 1500 rpm and 1000 rpm speed reference settings is around 240 rpm and 340 rpm, respectively. Response for 1000 rpm reference is highly oscillatory. Duration of the acceleration transient is significantly increased, compared to Fig. 4.13, due to the substantial increase in the drive inertia and, additionally, due to oscillations in the speed response for 1500 and 1000 rpm speed reference settings. Fig. 4.15 indicates that the nature and quality of speed response depend on the set point when the inertia of the drive is substantially increased. Finally, response to the step load application is investigated. Load is applied in a step-wise manner in steady-state no-load operation, by connecting the DC motor armature to a resistance bank. If the resistance bank setting is constant, the load torque seen by the SPMSM is approximately proportional to the speed of rotation. In order to emulate the constant load torque behaviour at different speeds, the resistance bank setting is changed appropriately for each speed at which testing is performed. Results of the load rejection transient are given in Fig. 4.16 for 1500, 1000 and 500 rpm reference speed settings. An excellent speed response is obtained, with small speed dip and short recovery time, regardless of the speed reference setting (speed dip is just over 200 rpm in all the three transients, while restoration time is around 0.7 seconds).
2500

1400 1200 1000

2000
Speed (rad/s)

Speed (rpm)

1500

800 600 400 200 0

1000

500

0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Tim e (sec) 2.5 3

1 Tim e (s e c)

1800 1600 1400 Speed (rpm) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 Tim e (s e c) 2 2.5 3

4 3 2 1 0

i qs * (A)

1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 T im e (s e c)

i qs *

ia

-1 -2 2 .5 3

Fig. 4.15 - Speed response to 2000, 1500 and 1000 rpm step speed commands from standstill with substantially increased inertia and q-axis current and phase a current references for 2000 rpm acceleration transient.

E Levi, 2001

i a (A)

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 90 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1800 1600 1400 Speed (rpm) 1200 1000 800 600 400 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 Tim e (sec) 6.5 7 7.5 8

800

600 Speed (rpm)

400

200

0 4 5 6 Tim e (sec) 7 8

1200

Speed (rpm)

1000

800

600

Fig. 4.16 - Response to step load torque application at 1500, 1000 and 500 rpm reference speed settings (previous steady states for 1500 and 1000 rpm are those of Fig. 4.15).
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 Tim e (se c)

400

4.7
Q1.

PROBLEMS
A sinusoidal permanent magnet synchronous machine (SPMSM) with surface mounted magnets is to be used in a high performance machine tool drive, for operation in the base speed region only. a) State the mathematical model of an SPMSM in the d-q reference frame firmly attached to the rotor and define all the parameters and variables. b) Define the conditions necessary for realisation of the rotor flux oriented control. c) Current control of the PWM inverter is performed in the stationary reference frame, so that the machine may be treated as current fed. Sketch the block diagram of the complete control system assuming that the machine is operated as a speed controlled drive. d) Current control of the PWM inverter is performed in the rotating reference frame, so that the machine behaves as voltage fed. Sketch the block diagram of the complete control system assuming that the machine is operated as a speed controlled drive and define the decoupling circuit equations. A permanent magnet synchronous machine with a sinusoidal rotor flux distribution is operated as a vector controlled drive. The source of supply is a voltage-source inverter, operated as a currentcontrolled PWM inverter. The inverter is fed from constant 400 V DC source. (a) Sketch the power circuit of the voltage source inverter and explain its operation. Define possible switching states and associate with them corresponding leg voltage values and appropriate stator voltage space vectors. Calculate all the possible values of the leg-voltage space vector (in a stationary reference frame) and represent them in the complex plane. (b) For the same switching states calculate values of the line-to-line voltages and appropriate values of the stator line-to-line voltage space vector. Represent the stator line-to-line voltage space vector values in the complex plane and explain the differences when compared to the leg-voltage space vectors. (c) Explain the principle of the PWM method called voltage space vector modulation. A permanent magnet synchronous machine is operated as a rotor flux oriented drive. The source of supply is a voltage-source inverter, operated as a current-controlled PWM inverter. The inverter is fed from a constant 400 V DC source. (a) Sketch the power circuit of the voltage source inverter and explain its operation. Define possible switching states and associate with them corresponding leg voltage values and appropriate stator voltage space vectors. Calculate all the possible values of the leg-voltage space vector (in the stationary reference frame) and represent them in the complex plane.

Q2.

Q3.

E Levi, 2001

HIGH PERFORMANCE DRIVES 91 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(b) Calculate corresponding values of the line-to-line voltages and appropriate values of the stator lineto-line voltage space vector. Represent the stator line-to-line voltage space vector values in the complex plane. (c) Assuming that the current control is performed in the stationary reference frame, draw the control system of the rotor flux oriented permanent magnet synchronous machine.

E Levi, 2001