Listening in Everyday Life: A Personal and Professional Approach

Chap t e r 1
WHAT IS LISTENING?

Mich a e l Pur d y
Poin ts t o b e Ad d r esse d:

The negl e ct of listeni n g. The import a n c e of listenin g in perso n al and profe s si o n al life. The pred o m i n a n c e of com m u ni c a ti o n tim e spe n t listeni n g. Defining listeni n g and the com p o n e n t s of listeni n g. Type s of listeni n g and its use in everyd a y situ atio n s.

Communication has two dimensions: speaking (expression), and listening (reception). or most of !estern Civili"ation, speaking has #een the form of communication regarded as most important. The first #ooks on communication were a#out how to #e an effective speaker. $isteners were recogni"ed, #ut only as they were important to the purposes of the speaker. %n fact, speaking has #een championed as the way to success throughout !estern history. !e give honors and awards to great speakers, #ut how may people do you know who have #een recogni"ed for their listening talents& There is even a popular speaking course that purports to teach 'how to win friends and influence people.( The road to success is not through listening, they suggest.

The Primacy Of Listening

Today we know differently. %n the chapters that follow you will discover how much power listening can provide in interacting with others in personal and professional situations. )ecoming a good listener will make you more sensitive to the needs of the listener and hence, improve your competence as a speaker. %t will also make you more sensitive to the needs of people in general. *s +aul Tournier, ,wiss +sychiatrist and author has expressed: %t is impossi#le to overemphasi"e the immense need humans have to #e really listened to, to #e taken seriously, to #e understood. $isten to all the conversations of our world, #etween nations as well as those #etween couples. They are for the most part dialogues of the deaf.( (+owell, p. -) The importance of listening has #een recogni"ed #y many professional organi"ations and influential individuals. !olvin and Coakley cite no less than ./ ma0or research studies #y organi"ations which found listening to #e one of the most important skills (in many cases the most important skill) for employees at every level of the organi"ation (.122, p. /2). *nother study cited in !olvin and Coakley and conducted #y the ,peech Communication *ssociation, surveyed .13 community college Career *dvisory )oard mem#ers (representing a wide range of occupations) to determine the mem#ers4 perceptions as to the relative importance of forty5nine selected communication skills in the performance of career duties.

,urvey results showed that listening skills were consistently ranked as the most important communication skills for career competence (p. /2) %n *cademic +reparation for the !orld of !ork the College )oard indicated listening and speaking as the primary form of communication in #usiness and industry, 'yet one in which many students receive little or no instruction( (.123, p. 6). %ndividuals from diverse occupations have praised listening. $ee %acocca, in his auto#iography, cannot say enough a#out the value of good speaking. 7owever, he also says: % only wish % could find an institute that teaches people how to listen. *fter all, a good manager needs to listen at least as much as he needs to talk. Too many people fail to reali"e that good communication goes in #oth directions. (.123, p. -3) Tom +eters, the recogni"ed authority on 8uality service declared in his .12/ #ook, %n ,earch of 9xcellence, that 'the excellent companies are not only #etter on service, 8uality, relia#ility, and finding a niche. They are #etter listeners( (p. .1:). These companies are strong on service #ecause they pay attention to their customers; they listen. %n his .122 #ook Thriving on Chaos +eters devotes three ma0or sections of the #ook to listening: Customer <esponsiveness, '#ecoming o#sessed with listening;( 9mpowering +eople, 'listen, cele#rate, recogni"e;( and $eadership, 'pay attention= (more listening).( $istening is one important ingredient to success in personal and professional life. Those who master the art of listening will at the very least #e regarded positively. >errill and )orisoff (.12?) have written on the importance of listening in the legal profession. Davis (.123) has written an excellent #ook, $istening and <esponding, a#out listening in the helping professions, and *rnold, in Crisis Communication, stresses that listening is vital to crisis intervention (.12@, p. -:). %n the #ook Communicating !ith >edical +atients, !eston and $ipkin state that ',kill in communicating with patients is the single most important skill the student physician learns( (.121, p. -3). Audging from the most important activities involved, such as taking a history and interviewing, listening would #e the most important communication skill. ,imilar sources could #e cited for each of the ma0or professions. Clearly, the a#ility to listen effectively is a skill essential for professional success. Bot only is listening a valua#le skill, it is also conducive to good health. ,tudies have shown that when we talk our #lood pressure goes up; when we listen it goes down ($ynch, .12-, p. .:@). ,ometimes we talk to control people andCor situations. ,ometimes we talk so we will not have to listen to ourselves. <egardless, when we talk to another person our whole system #ecomes more excited. !hen we listen we are more relaxed. %t would seem #est, then, to #alance our listening and talking. rom this it would follow that it is vital for hospital staff to listen to individual patients who are ill. *dditionally, !ahlers (.121) in a presentation on listening to the dying (as well as others in institutional situations) has stressed the importance of good listening skills for hospice volunteers and medical professionals working with the terminally ill. *s essential as our physical health is to each of us it is e8ually important to recogni"e how crucial good communication is to the health of our interpersonal relationships. >aintaining good relationships leads to a healthier and happier life. *s ,tewart says 'The 8uality of your life is directly linked to the 8uality of your communication( (.12:, p. ?). %n personal life, as well as in the #usiness and professional world we can only #enefit from the constructive role of effective listening.

Time Spent Listening

*mong the #asic skills we need for success in life, listening is primary. Developmentally, we listen #efore we learn to speak, read, or write. )rown, one of the pioneers of listening research has noted that 'Df foremost importance is the role of listening in language ac8uisition, EitselfF the #asis of all su#se8uent communication, the foundation of all life5long reading, writing, speaking and listening activities( (.12?, p. -). 7eidegger, considered one of the /@th century4s greatest philosophers, recogni"ed the primacy of listening in creating meaning and in developing our relationships with one another (.1:/, p. /@3). $istening esta#lishes us in our life situation and ena#les us to maintain meaningful relations with family, friends, and professional associates. ,tudies, #eginning with <ankin4s famous work (.1/2) reporting the amount of time adults spent in various forms of communication, have indicated that of the four #asic communication skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening) we use the skill of listening most. rom 3/ to :@G (or more) of our communication time is spent listening, depending on whether we are students, managerial trainees, doctors, counselors, lawyers, or nurses. Cotton (.12:) found that attorneys spent more time listening than any of the other skills, and that listening was especially important in legal interviewing and counseling, and to a lesser degree in oral argument. * .12@ study found that college students spend -/.-G of their time listening ()arker, 9dwards, Haines, Hladney, I 7olley). ,tudies of dieticians indicated they spent

three times as much time listening as any other ver#al communication skill, and similar results were found for housewives, and technical employees ()arker, et al., pp. .@.5.@/). Hil#ert notes that students in grades J5./ 'are captive and are expected to listen :-51@G of the time, . . . Eand yetF language arts instruction is focused upon reading and writing( (.122, p. .//). . D#viously it is important to learn to #e more effective listeners, and studies have shown that our listening comprehension may #e only a#out /-G, with little change even if the speaker is an excellent presenter. (Bichols I $ewis, .1-3, p. 3). Ket, we must conclude that although listening is our most used skill, rarely do we receive formal listening training in the home or at school. )oth editors have, as an assignment, had students interview professionals in the field they were pursuing. Doctors, lawyers, hotel managers, teachers, counselors, executives, administrators, and nurses were interviewed. 9ach interviewee was asked to estimate the percentage of their time they spent in their 0o#s speaking, reading, writing, and listening. !ith few exceptions, every professional indicated that they listened the most. The interviewees were also asked to rank which skills they felt were most important. Lnanimously, they rated listening the highest.

Listening Defined
The process of listening is often contrasted with hearing. $undsteen considered hearing a physical act and listening a mental act. 7earing she said had to do with our physiological capacity to receive and process sounds (.1?1, p. xv). +ro#lems with our a#ility to hear could hinder our listening. 7ence, it #ehooves each of us to have our hearing checked if we think it could #e affecting our a#ility to listen. %n contrast to hearing, listening has to do with assigning meaning to the stimuli received #y our #rain. To listen, according to Bichols and $ewis, is to attach 'meaning to the aural sym#ols perceived( (p. .). !e will maintain this defined distinction #etween hearing and listening, here, even though in our day5to5 day usage the words may #e used interchangea#ly. !e may say '% did not hear you.( )ut we did hear, we 0ust were not fully attending and hence were not listening. (,ometimes, if we 8uickly focus our mind on what was said we can still remem#er what was said. The words remain in short term memory for a #rief period of time and can #e recalled.) There is also confusion in our everyday usage #ecause parents tell their children 'you4re not listening.( !hat the parent often means is 'you are not o#eying.( %n the Hermanic roots of the *nglo5,axon language there is a sense in which 'to listen( means 'to o#ey(. 7earing and listening will have precise meanings in this text. There are several distinct definitions of listening, and there is little agreement a#out which is the #est; nor should there #e. 9ach definition represents a different perspective of listening, and with the many approaches to listening there are #ound to #e a num#er of definitions. 9thel Hlenn (.121) in the Aournal of the %nternational $istening *ssociation lists fifty different ways of descri#ing listening. This list is not exhaustive. %t indicates, however, that listening is conceived differently depending upon how people intend to apply the definition. or example, researchers who seek to predict listening #ehavior, versus those who interpret listening, versus consultants who provide listening skills training in the workplace may each employ a via#le, al#eit different definition of the term listening. Hlenn4s content analysis of the fifty definitions found that the concepts most often included in the definition of listening were: perception, attention, interpretation, response, and spoken and visual cues. Throughout !estern history we have assumed listening was automatic and needed no attention. !e did not concern ourselves with study and training in the art of listening. $istening, however, is not automatic. To #e #etter listeners we need to understand, and work with the components of the listening process. or our purposes, whatever definition of listening we choose we must know that (.) listening can #e learned, (/) that listening is an active process, involving mind and #ody, with ver#al and nonver#al processes working together, and (6) that listening allows us to #e receptive to the needs, concerns, and information of others, as well as the environment around us. $istening is comprised of seven essential components: (.) volition, (/) focused attention, (6) perception, (3) interpretation, (-) remem#ering, (:) response, and (?) the human element. These seven components are an integral part of the dynamic and active process of listening. That listening is dynamic means that while there may #e essential components the act of listening itself is never the same twice. !e must #e constantly alert and open to improvisation as the elements of the listening situation change. $ike a 0a"" musician4s spontaneous and unrehearsed play, we must adapt to the communication of the other mem#ers of our social group. $istening is also active as opposed to passive. %t is something that we consciously do; See Gilbert, & Barker, et al., for reference to the studies on amount of time spent listening and time allocated to teaching listening.
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it does not simply happen. <ogers and arson, in a classic article on active listening define 'active( as meaning: the listener has a very definite responsi#ility. 7e does not passively a#sor# the words which are spoken, #ut he actively tries to grasp the facts and feelings in what he hears, to help the speaker work out his own pro#lems. (p. .31) irst, for an individual to #e a#le to listen, he or she must want to listen. Thus, volition, or the will to listen is the initial component of effective listening. 9ven having willed ourselves to attend to the ideas of another, it sometimes takes courage to listen fully to another human #eing. To listen fully may mean we may have to change #ased upon what we hear. Bichols and ,tevens recogni"ed the difficulty in their .1-? #ook, *re Kou $istening&: '!henever we listen thoroughly to another person4s ideas we open ourselves up to the possi#ility that some of our own ideas are wrong( (p. -.5-/). ,econd, good listening re8uires focused attention. %f our minds are wandering, or, if we are 0umping ahead to what we think the speaker might say, we are apt to miss important information. The third component of the listening process is perception. !e need to #e aware of all of the elements of message, speaker, and context. %t also implies that we must #e open and receptive to the messages of others. * critical part of communication is lost when individuals are unwilling to listen to others #ecause of, for example, pre0udicial or opposing viewpoints. The fourth component of the listening process is the capacity to interpret the messages and meanings of the others. The process of interpretation includes understanding. %n interpreting a message we naturally make sense of that message in terms of our own experience. This means each message understood is a creative process; it also implies we are limited #y our experience. * person may #e highly motivated to listen to a message, for instance on contemporary physics. 7owever, if the message is especially complex or technical #eyond the listener4s a#ility, then the likelihood for an accurate interpretation is greatly diminished. ifth, competent listening includes remem#ering. Dften we remem#er without exerting any effort. %n many critical listening situations, however, we need to consciously and actively include listening skills that help us retain what we have heard. ,ome #asic skills for enhancing memory will #e covered in the next chapter. * sixth component is the need for response as essential to completing the process of good listening. ,ometimes our response is internal as we integrate what we have understood and internally comment upon it. Lsually after understanding a complete thought it is important that we give feed#ack to the speaker, or respond in such a way that the speaker has an idea of how we have understood and interpreted what he or she has said. The seventh and last component is the human #eing. %n listening we must always #e receptive to the personal element. %n #oth our personal and #usiness lives people are the most important resource. $istening should validate and empower people, thus enhancing relationships. !e also listen for information, #ut we must keep in mind that information is colored and given meaning #y a person4s needs and concerns (the listener4s as well as the speaker4s). *s students, doctors, lawyers, law enforcement officers, etc., we cannot 'manage( without good information. %nformation is the life#lood of our professions. Today organi"ations cannot function without a continuous flow of information. *ll information, however, is only meaningful as it descri#es and relates to a human condition. The a#ove components of the listening process focus not only upon the speaker4s ver#al message, #ut also upon the nonver#al message. The meaning may #e grasped from what is said, as well as, what is unsaid. )irdwhistell4s work in the early seventies, in fact, argued that perhaps the ma0ority of a message derives from the nonver#al dimension (.1?@). Thus the listener must attend not only to what the speaker says, #ut also to how he or she says it (e.g., tone of voice, pitch, rate of speaking, etc.), and to the context in which the message is delivered (e.g., a formal auditorium, an informal gathering, a classroom, etc.). The how of what the speaker says includes feelings; for if we 0ust listen to denotative meaning we miss the emotional content. $istening to feelings in a situation may tell us what is motivating the speaker, as well as other pertinent information. The listener who attends to #oth the ver#al and the nonver#al communication will likely listen more accurately than the individual who is o#livious to these important cues. The important components of the listening process are summmari"ed in the seven steps for #ecoming an effective listener. Steps to Becoming an Effective Listener .. !ant to listen /. ocus your attention 6. )e aware (perceptive) as you listen

3. -. :. ?.

Jeep in mind that the listening process involves interpretation (including #oth ver#al and nonver#al cues) Consciously work to remem#er what you hear >ake a ha#it of responding with feed#ack Care a#out the relationship as you listen

!ith these seven steps as essential components, our definition of listening reads as follows: Listening is the active and dynamic process of attending, perceiving, interpreting, remembering, and responding to the expressed (verbal and nonverbal) needs, concerns, and information offered by other human beings.

How We

se Listening

Definition is one way to descri#e our most powerful communication skill. 98ually significant are the functions or uses of listening. The functions Dance and $arson offer for communication also work well for listening. %n responding to the 8uestion, '!hat are the functions of human communication&,( Dance and $arson reply: regardless of the intent, purpose or goal of an individual engaged in any level of human communicationthere are always three functions . . . (1) the linking of the individual with the environment, (2) the development of higher mental processes, and (3) the regulation of human behavior (1976, p. 49). $istening as a linking function serves to #uild relationships. !e #uild strong links with others #y listening to who they are and what they mean. $istening is also our primary means of growth and intellectual development. !e impart knowledge when we speak; we learn when we listen. inally, through speaking we manipulate and control our environment, #ut we could not do so effectively unless we had listened first to know how to direct our speaking for maximum results. This has traditionally #een know as audience analysis. $istening, therefore, functions to serve our #asic human needs. >ore specifically, listening serves the purposes of learning; esta#lishing and maintaining friendships; getting good grades; making a sale; #uilding relationships; finding out a#out our clients4 needs, concerns, or o#0ections; and is crucial in many other important activities each day.

Listening Sit!a tions And Types Of Listening

There are many different types of listening or different situations in which we use listening. ,ome of the different situations might include socialCconversational, in relationships, at work, listening to the media. 9ach situation is different and each may re8uire a different kind of listening. %n studies where adult students were asked to indicate how their listening differed in work, social, and family situations, +urdy (.12/) found that the ma0ority of students said they listened more concertedly at work, #ecause they were re8uired to listen at work. They did not put forth as much effort at home or in social situations. !hy do we make such distinctions regarding how and where we expend our listening effort& ,hould not listening at home with our families, or in social situations deserve as much attention as work& +erhaps it does for you. *nother way to look at listening is in terms of the type of listening re8uired in different situations. )arker (.1?.) divides listening into active5passive and serious5social. )arker maintains that active listening is 'involved listening with a purpose.( +assive listening, in contrast, is '#arely more than hearing( (pp. 15 .6). or our purposes passive listening can #e considered hearing; active listening as defined a#ove is our primary concern. Dther authors distinguish among, (.) discriminative, (/) comprehensive, (6) critical (evaluative), (3) therapeutic (empathic), and -) appreciative listening. / Bichols and $ewis com#ined comprehensive under the heading of discriminative and found it 'so #asic that it is actually a controlling factor in the other two Eappreciative and criticalF( (/). !olvin and Coakley consider discriminative and comprehensive listening to #e fundamental to the other three types of listening. Discriminative listening is 'listening to distinguish the aural stimuli( (!olvin I Coakley, p. .3.). This type of listening involves the #asic skill of noticing the aspects of a message (#oth ver#al and nonver#al). See Wolvin & Coakley, Wolf, et al., and Nichols & Lewis for three different ways of breaking out the types of listening.
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%t is essentially our a#ility to #e aware of the features of a message. or example, if a speaker4s message is tough #ut his or her voice is cracking slightly, this could tell us that the speaker may have a su#text, or hidden motive that is not #eing expressed. ,ome of +resident Bixon4s messages denying any knowledge of !atergate, for example, had this 8uality. !e should #e a#le to discriminate ver#al and nonver#al cues that will help us to understand the full meaning of a message. Comprehensive listening is listening for an understanding of a message. %t goes #eyond discrimination to include comprehension of the message. This is essentially listening without #eing critical or evaluating the message, #ut listening simply to learn. $istening to a classroom lecture on the state of the economy, or on organic chemistry are o#vious examples of comprehensive listening. There are many techni8ues that will help us to understand messages #etter, from focusing our attention, to improving our memory, sensitivity to language, note5taking skills, to expanding our underlying experience of life. 9ach strategy will ena#le us to understand people and situations #etter. Critical5evaluative listening is the intelligent response to persuasive or propagandistic messages. Critical listening assumes discriminative and comprehensive listening have taken place so we already understand the message. %n our personal lives we must critically evaluate people4s intentions; in our professional lives we must do the same. %n #oth fields of experience we must #e a#le to distinguish the sales pitch from the word of the true #eliever. * friend asks her roommate to invest a su#stantial amount of her savings in a great deal. * director of research and development in a ma0or corporation attempts to persuade his colleagues that his division rather than marketing needs to hire a new manager. %n #oth personal and professional circumstances, it is crucial that the roommate and the director of marketing listen closely, and carefully scrutini"e the re8uest and the rationale #ehind it. To #e an effective critical listener, we must #e a#le to consider the influence of a speaker4s packaged image, demonstrate the a#ility to detect whether a proposition is logical and supported with reasona#le arguments, and #e a#le to assess when our own psychological needs or weaknesses are #eing unfairly played upon. Therapeutic listening is listening which lends a non50udgmental, healing ear to family, friends, and professional associates. %t is listening with the interests of the other in mind. The person who understands fully a friend4s loss, the parent who can empathi"e with a child4s anxiety, the employee who understands a colleague4s special concern, or the therapist who helps a patient work out a particular pro#lem are all demonstrating therapeutic listening. )ecause in each instance the listener attempts to feel with the other person rather than attempting to change his or her #ehavior, we call this type of listening empathic listening. The final goal of empathic listening is therapeuticMto help the other person feel #etter. To #e an effective therapeutic listener, it is essential to set aside our own interests and focus primarily on the needs and concerns of the other. Therapeutic listening implies, as !olvin and Coakley state, an a#ility to listen discriminatively and comprehensively. *ppreciative listening is en0oyment of messages for their own sake. %n personal and professional life it may involve listening to the nuances of a voice, an artistic performance, or television, radio, and film productions. !olf, >arsnik, Tacey, and Bichols in their #ook +erceptive $istening suggest that 'we listen appreciatively when we listen to aural sym#ols in order to gain pleasure through their reception( (.126, p. -1). *ppreciative listening is purposeful in our personal and professional lives as we learn to en0oy our listening and take delight in our relationships, as well as thinking of them in terms of accomplishments. $istening appreciatively relaxes us and puts us more in tune with ourselves and our environment. Thus, the student who turns on the radio after a full day of classes, the executive who plays a personal stereo while 0ogging, or the parent who finds a welcome respite #y watching television are all experiencing appreciative listening. *ll of us engage in the five types of listening #ehavior. 7ow well we listen, however, depends on a variety of factors that are influenced #y our #ackgrounds and experiences. %n Chapter Two we examine the various factors that affect our intra5 and inter5personal listening skills. <egardless of the type of listening we are engaged in, there are rules of #ehavior we must learn in order to #e an effective listener. )y way of illustration, how good would a friend #e at therapeutic listening if he provided no feed#ack, or a doctor if she were to look away when discussing a diagnosis with a patient& 6 ,imilarly, a college student may contend that he can listen simultaneously to a teacher4s lecture and to a foot#all game. *ppropriate comprehensive listening, however, suggests that such distractions severely limit comprehension. Admittedly, there are instances when limited feedback is appropriate. For example, a psychoanalyst may not look at a patient. However, such behavior is generally in response to the patients needs.
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7ow do we learn to demonstrate proper #ehavior for discriminative, critical, comprehensive, therapeutic, and appreciative listening& *s with all of our #ehavior, appropriate communication is a function of cultural norms and of group expectations. ,ociologists ,tockard and Aohnson (.12@) contend that the familial, educational, religious, and institutional systems we are immersed in serve to influence our #ehavior. *dditionally, our personal #ackgrounds (i.e., intelligence, psychological make5up, gender, ethnicity, religion, etc.) shape our interest and willingness to listen to others. !e may, therefore, share in the #elief that we should listen 8uietly to an orchestral symphony or to a dramatic performance. Ket individuals may #e perplexed #y the affective display of listening #y a mem#er of the opposite sex or a different country. ,u#se8uent chapters in this #ook will address the impact of gender, ethnicity, and specific professional roles on listening #ehavior. Despite the different focus of these chapters, each one acknowledges that through listening we empower people. %n all of our relationshipsM#oth personal and professionalMour ultimate goal is to empower individuals so that they may creatively function at their #est.

S!mma r y
%n this chapter we have discussed the importance of listening in our personal and professional lives. %n addition, we have admitted the difficulty we confront when attempting to define listening and have proposed one definition that takes into account the individual4s desire to listen, and the importance of focused attention, awareness, remem#ering, and the a#ility to interpret ver#al and nonver#al communication. !e also recogni"ed the importance of listening to the needs and concerns of each individual. The five kinds of listening that we all engage inMdiscriminative, critical, evaluative, therapeutic, appreciativeMare also explained as useful in our everyday living. inally, this chapter introduces concepts descri#ing how we ac8uire listening #ehavior.

"#ercises
.. or the duration of this class keep a listening 0ournal in which you record o#servations of listening #ehavior in your classesCseminars, at home (where you live), at work, and in your relationships. )egin your 0ournal with o#servations of effective and ineffective listening. or a five day period find examples of effective and ineffective listening, and compare and contrast the differences #etween the two. <eport on your findings to the group. /. *t the #eginning of the classCseminar, have each individual introduce him5 or her5self to the rest of the group and mention a few things a#out him5 her5self. Dnce the self5introductions are complete, ask each participant to take out a sheet of paper and write down what they remem#er a#out each individual. Hroup discussion should follow on how effectively each person recalled what was said and to what extent effective listening was or was not impaired, and why. 6. )reak up the classCseminar into several small groups. *ssign each group a professional role to discuss (i.e., nurse, teacher, surgeon, lawyer, police officer, mother, #usiness executive, 0ournalist, secretary, etc.). 7ave each group generate a list of ver#al and nonver#al cues that a mem#er of this profession would need to display that would indicate to others that they were listening. !ould the communication change if the individual were trying to listen discriminatively versus critically& 7ow& 3. *sk each classCgroup participant to interact with a friend or family mem#er #ut to refrain from providing feed#ack (ver#al or nonver#al). !hat kind of reactions did they receive from the other party& 7ow did they feel when they were not allowed to respond& !hat role does feed#ack play in listening& -. <ead 9thel Hlenn4s short article on the content analysis of fifty definitions of listening (see references). Consider the strengths and weaknesses of each group of definitions for your professional area. Then either write your own definition, or choose one of those listed and defend you choice (or your created definition) in /-@56@@ words. or example, you might consider what makes listening in your profession special or different, and hence re8uires a uni8ue definition of listening.

$ef e r e nc es
*rnold, !. 9. (.12@). Crisis Communication . Du#u8ue, %*: Horsuch ,caris#rick. )arker, $. $. (.1?.). Listening Behavior. 9nglewood Cliffs, BA: +rentice57all. )arker, $., 9dwards, <., Haines, C., Hladney, J., I 7olley, . (.12@). '*n %nvestigation of +roportional Time ,pent in Narious Communication *ctivities #y College ,tudents.( Journal of Applied Communication <esearch. 8, .@.5..@. )irdwhistell, <. $. (.1?@). Kinesics & Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication . +hiladelphia: L. of +*.

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