Geoexploration, 19 (1981) 15-32 Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,

15 Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

ELASTIC INDIA

PROPERTIES

OF LOWER GONDWANA

ROCKS OF EASTERN

C. RAMACHANDRAN

and M. RAMACHANDRAN

NAIR (India)

Geological Survey of India, 15-Park Street, Calcutta 700016 (Received May 30, 1980; accepted December 10,198O).

ABSTRACT Ramachandran, Gondwana C. and Ramachandran Nair, M., 1981. Elastic properties rocks of eastern India. Geoexploration, 19: 15-32. of Lower

Compressional (P) and shear wave (S) velocities have been measured in the laboratory, in about 50 rock samples representative of the different geological formations of the Lower Gondwana rocks of eastern India. The P-wave velocity was measured along the bedding plane and perpendicular to it. The anisotropic factor ,V, /lb, was estimated. The absorption coefficient, (Y,expressed as db/cm was also determined. The effect of fluid (water and oil) saturation on velocity, absorption and anisotropy was evaluated. The elastic constants were calculated and the entire data were statistically analysed to obtain some empirical results relating the elastic parameters to the fluid saturation, absorption and anisotropy. The basic data on the elastic properties furnish useful information for seismic prospecting in the coal bearing Gondwana rocks. Fluid saturation, in general, increased the P-wave velocity. In the same kind of rock, the absorption coefficient decreased with increasing compressional wave velocity. Absorption increased in medium and fine grained sandstones on saturation with water while it decreased in coarse-grained sandstones and shales. l,V, is noted invariably greater than lb,. In general, fluid saturation decreased the anisotropic factor in sandstones and shales alike. An attempt has been made to compare the elastic properties of the Gondwana sandstones with those of the older and younger sandstones in India.

INTRODUCTION

A detailed study of the elastic properties of the different rocks of the Lower Gondwana formations of eastern India is particularly interesting in view of the fact that these formations contain the main coalfields of India and that seismic surveys are now more widely applied for coal seam delineation. Laboratory measurements of compressional wave (P-wave) velocity, shear wave (S-wave) velocity, density, porosity, absorption characteristics and elastic moduli are useful in the interpretation of geophysical and geological data. Laboratory determination of P and S-wave velocities had its beginning in the late 1930s, but, was pursued more actively in the 1950s, by among

0016-7142/81/0000~000/$02.50

o 1981 Elsevier Scientific

Publishing

Company

16

others, Hughes (1950,1951,1952,1956,1957) and Wyllie et al. (1956, 1958). Using an ultrasonic pulse method, Birch (1960,196l) studied Pwave velocity in igneous and metamorphic rocks from different parts of the world. Simmons and Brace (1965), Kaarsberg (1966), Levykin (1965), Merculova (1963), King (1962,1966), and more recently Domenico (1976) and Gregory (1976) investigated elastic wave propagation in rocks using ultrasonic pulse method. Investigations involving the effect of overburden pressure and fluid saturation were reported by Wyllie et al. (1956,1958), Cook (1957), Volarovich et al. (1966) and Nur and Simmons (1969). Some studies on the elastic properties of Indian rocks were conducted by Balakrishna (1958,1966,1970), Datta (1967,1971), Datta and Simha (1968, 1969) and Datta and Ramachandran (1978). Absorption of elastic waves in rocks was investigated by Paselnick and Zeitz (1959), Volarovich (1960), Levykin (1962,1965),Vanek (1962), Wyllie et al. (1962) and Datta (1967). An extensive account of the attenuation measurements is given by White (1965). Some 50 core samples of sandstones, shales, mica peridotites etc., belonging to the Lower Gondwanas of Ranigunj and Jharia coalfields have been collected for the purpose of the present study, from a dozen boreholes. P and S-wave velocities, absorption coefficient, anisotropic factor and elastic constants were determined using an ultrasonic pulse technique. The effect of fluid saturation on velocity, absorption and anisotropy has been investigated. The results provide comprehensive information on the elastic behaviour of the coal environs of eastern India. Besides, the Gondwana rocks being widespread in other parts of the world too, these results are significant while exploring in such environs.
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND MEASUREMENTS

A block diagram of the ultrasonic pulses equipment (Datta, 1965) used for the studies is given in Fig.1. Briefly, it consists of a quartz crystal oscillator of 1.5 MHz, the output of which is reduced to 125 Hz by a chain of synchronised multivibrators through a cathode follower: This output of 125 Hz is now differentiated and after clipping the negative spikes, the positive spikes are used to fire a normally non-conducting thyratron tube. During the 8 msec interval of positive spikes, the static capacitance between the silvered faces of a barium titanate transducer are charged to a potential difference of 459 V and then, discharged down to 10 V through the low resistance of the thyratron tube. As a result of the voltage surge, a damped seismic wave train of about 2 I.tsec duration which repeats itself at 8 msec intervals is produced. The wave train travels through the rock specimen and is received by a similar transducer which converts it to an electrical pulse that is amplified by a wide band amplifier and displayed on an oscilloscope. A time marker signal, at in-

17

I-

-I-

I r

I
I

Fig.1. Block diagram of the ultrasonic pulse equipment for laboratory measurements of the elastic properties of rocks.

tervals of 10 psec, that is obtained from the output of the oven-compensated quartz crystal oscillator through a clipper and a buffer amplifier measures the travel time of the pulse in the specimen. Barium titanate transducers have been used to generate P-waves. The directional dependence of velocity is studied by measuring the P-wave velocity (VP) along the core axis and at right angles to it. (The maximum velocity in a direction perpendicular to the core axis indicated the bedding plane velocity 11 VP, while the other gave the transverse velocity IVp). In a few samples the S-wave velocity was determined by measuring the delay time, t, between P and PSP pulses by a method similar to that of Hughes (1949) making use of the formula:

where D = diameter of the core sample. On measuring VP, V, and density, the elastic constants were calculated using the standard relations: Youngs modulus, Rigidity modulus, Poissons ratio, E = V,p(l + u) (1--20) (I - 0) p = E/2(1 + u) (VplW u = 2[(vp/vs)z - 2 -11

p,

18

Absorption measurements followed the method adopted by Auberger and Rinehart (1961) and Datta (1967). The amplitude A, of the first half cycle of the seismic pulse after its transmission through the sample is measured. The sample is then removed and the amplitude of the pulse, A0 is brought down to the same as A, by an r.f. attenuator placed between the receiving transducer and the wide band amplifier. If 0 is the total absorption and X, the length of the sample, the coefficient of absorption, 01,is given by: 1 Q!=p/x = - 20 log,,
X

( 1
Ao

AX

GEOLOGY AND ROCK TYPES

The rock samples under study belonged to the Lower Gondwana formations of the Ranigunj (Fig.2) and Jharia (Fig.3) coalfields. The Lower Gondwanas extend over the time scale Upper Carboniferous, Permian and Triassic and consist of the general Indian sequence of Talchir, Damuda and Panchet rocks. Of these, the Damuda Series is of paramount importance as the greatest coal-bearing Epoch in the geological history of India (Dutta, 1977). The Damudas have a maximum thickness of about 2.3 km in the Ranigunj coalfields and about 2.5 km in the Jharia coa&l&. The Damuda Series comprises four stages, viz., Karharbari, Barakar, Barren Measures and Ranigunj. The Barakars are the chief coal bearing strata in the Gondwanas, the coal to strata ratio being about 1:6 to 1 :lO in the coalfields of the Damodar valley. They consist essentially of sandstones and shales alternating with coal seams and occasionally conglomerate bands. These sandstones generally vary in colour from white to yellow and sometimes brownish red and are highly felspathic. The Barren Measures, overlying the Barakars in the Ranigunj coalfields comprise mainly carbonaceous shales with clay ironstone nodules, known as Ironstone shale formation, and sandstones. No workable coal seams are seen in the Barren Measures. The Ranigunj stage, the youngest of the Damudas is composed of sandstones, shales and coal seams. These sandstones are somewhat finer in texture than those of Barakars. The coarse white felspathic grits and conglomerates, very common in Barakars are not generally found in the Ranigunj stage.

Fig.2. Geology of the Ranigunj coalfields (eastern India) and borehole sample locations.

19

20

21 RESULTS

Table I presents the P-wave velocity in some of the typical Lower Gondwana rocks in dry and saturated (with water) states, as also, the respective anisotropic factors (coefficients), A, defined as:

The superscripts
TABLE I

d and s indicate

dry and saturated

conditions

of rocks.

Compressional wave velocities water saturated states Sample number

Coarse grained JM-16;15B

VP (m/set)

in some typical

Lower Gondwana

rocks in dry and

Formation

Description of sample _____Coarse gr. to granular sst. Coarse gr. to granular sst. Coarse to medium gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. with pebbles and carb. matrix Coarse gr. sst. with pebbles and Carb. matrix Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse to very coarse gr. and gritty sst. Very coarse gr. gritty sst. sandstones Medium Medium Medium Medium Fine gr. Medium Medium Medium Fine gr. Medium Medium 3050 3340 3140 3080 4260 3870 3990 4130 3570 3800 3700 3510 4570 4130 4380 4240 1.17 1.14 1.18 1.14 1.08 1.07 1.10 1.03

sandstones Barakar Barakar Barakar Karharbari

JM-15;25 JM-15;24 JM-15; 23A

JM-15;23B

Karharbari

3220

4140

3510

4240

1.09

1.02

JPK-1;44 JBH8;172 JBH-6;169 JBK-4 ;202 RBR-3 ;382

Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Ranigunj

3180 3050 3140 3820 2510

4300 3980 3650 4410 2970

3700 3520 4100 4260 3020

4320 4250 3770 4510 3130

1.17 1.15 1.20 1.12 1.20

1.0 1.07 1.03 1.02 1.05

RBR-3;386

Ranigunj

2680

3750

3180

4100

1.19

1.09

Medium and Fine grained JM-16;lA Barakar JM-16;9A Barakar JM-16;9B Barakar Barren JM-16;7 measure JM-16;ll Barakar JM-16;13 Barakar JPK-1;43 Barakar JPK-1;115 Barakar JBJ-2;124 Barakar JBH-6;163 Barakar JBK-4 ;204 Barakar

gr. gr. gr. gr. sst. gr. gr. gr. sst. gr. gr.

sst. sst. sst. sst.

3970

3700 3550 4010

3930

4580 3950 4280 4790 4670 5250 3480 4270 4050 3280 4790

4450 4420 3870 4380 4240 5180 3390 4020 5300 3880 4850

4570 4910 4240 4670 4780 5330 3700 4420 4760 3520 5000

1.12 1.19 1.16 1.28 1.08 1.02 1.29 1.11 1.50 1.22 1.09

0.99 1.24 0.99 0.98 1.02 1.01 1.06 1.04 1.18 1.07 1.05

sst. sst. sst. sst. sst.

5100 2620 3630 3540 3190 4430

22 (Table Z continued) Sample number RJK-1;351 RBR-4;372 JBK-3;146 JBK-3;144 *JM-16;12 *JM-19;84 *JBK-4;206 *RBR-4;370 Formation Description sample of

Ranigunj Ranigunj Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Ranigunj

Medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Medium Medium Fine gr. Fine gr. Medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst.

to fine to coarse gr. sst. gr. sst. sst. sst. to fine to fine

3340 3860 2720 3240 3730 2770 3160 3410

3940 4340 3740 3800 4690 3780 4020 3810

3200 4340 4360 3550 4320 3680 3850 3730

4080 4740 4170 5210 5100 4500 4390 4020

0.9 1.13 1.60 1.10 1.13 1.33 1.22 1.10

1.04 1.09 1.33 1.31 1.11 1.19 1.09 1.06

Shales and other rock types JM-16;5 Barren measure JM-16;16 Barakar JM-16;21 JM-16;22 JM-15;29 JPK-1;48 JBK4 ;208 RCL-1;264 RJK-1;367 RBR4;371 RBR4;376 RBR4;373 Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barren measure Ranigunj Ranigunj Ranigunj Ranigunj

Sandy shale Intercalations of shale and sand Sandy shale Shale with sst. laminations Intercalations of shale and sand Shale Carbonaceous siltstone Ironstone shale Fine gr. interbanded sst. and shale Fine gr. sst. with shale laminations Interbanded fine gr. sst. and shale Sandy shale with carbonaceous streaks Shale and Jhama intermixed Sandy shale Mica peridotite Mica peridotite Mica peridotite Mica peridotite Mica peridotite

2310 3730 2610 4090 5100 3440 3310 5220 4740 2750 2240 1630

2960

4210 4340 4740 4930 5670 4380 5520 5630 5410

4390

4550 4570 4720 4930 4800 4380 3650 5630 4590 4120 3870 4050

1.84 1.16 1.82 1.21 1.11 1.27 1.69 1.08 1.14 1.60 1.67 2.27

1.54 1.01 1.57 1.21 1.17 1.29 1.10 1.03 1.16 1.84 2.02 1.80

4520 3020 4090 4100 3400 3330 5480

3970

2240 1920 2500

3750 3700

RBR-4;398 *JM-19;91 JBH-6;168 JBK4;209 JBK4;212 RBR4 ;393 RBR-4;394

Ranigunj Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Ranigunj Ranigunj

2560 2500 6000 4170 4600 4190 4270

3100 3550 4780 4720 4150 4620 3940

3140 4300 4440 4200 4550 3610 4230

3330 4670 4020 4390 4240 3940 3890

1.22 1.72 0.89 1.01 1.05 0.86 0.99

1.08 1.32 0.84 0.93 1.02 0.85 0.99

*Weathered sample. The first part of the sample

number

shows the borehole

number;

sst. = sandstone.

23

P-wave velocity in rocks As to the rock texture and composition related to the seismic wave propagation in Lower Gondwanas, they may be grouped into: (1) coarse-grained sandstones; (2) medium and fine-grained sandstones; (3) shales; and (4) mica peridotites. Table I gives a general picture of the seismic wave velocities in these rocks. Coarsegrained sandstones exhibit a P-wave velocity in the range 2500-3400 m/set with the (younger) Ranigunj rocks having a lower velocity than the (relatively older) Barakars. Medium and fine grained sandstones are characterised by a higher-order velocity, 3000-5000 m/set. Sandy shales have typically low seismic velocity, 1600-2600 m/set. In more compact shales and carbonaceous shales, the velocity increases and lies in the range 34404290 m/set. Among the shale group, ironstone shales show a high order of velocity, 5200 m/set. The intrusive sills and dykes of mica-peridotites too have a high order of velocity, 4000-5000 m/set. Effect of fluid saturation The change in P-wave velocity in rocks on saturation with water has been studied by conducting velocity measurements on samples soaked in water for about 48 h. Table I gives the results. It is observed that water saturation increases the P-wave velocity considerably, in some cases as high as 40-50% if compared to the dry state. Figs.4 and 5 illustrate the relations between the P-wave velocities in saturated and dry conditions in the case of coarse grained sandstones as well
kf 6000 E 2 Ag 5000 E 8 $ 6 : :: : B B ; 0 ? : s 1000 0 Medium and F;ne grafned Sandstones 2000 4000. @ 8 3000_/ 0 0 o -

Qs

J
x
x

xx

x3

I;

,
1000
2000 3000 velocity 4000 (dry 5000 sample), 6000 mjsec P-wave

ol 0 ,000 2000 3000 velocity 4000 (dry 5000 sample), 6000 mjsec P-Wove

Fig.4. Illustrating the effect of water saturation on P-wave velocity in coarse grained sandstones. Fig.5. Illustrating the effect of water saturation on P-wave velocity in medium and fine grained sandstones.

24

as medium and fine grained sandstones respectively. Empirical relations have been derived from least square curve fitting. The relations are: vP = 790 + 0.996 r$ for coarse grained sandstones; VP = 1660 + 0.69 V$ for medium and fine grained sandstones; and, vP = 1140 + 0.7 V$ in the case of shales and sandy shales. Notably, the coarse grained sandstones exhibit the highest increase in velocity on water saturation. Some samples of sandstones were saturated with oil as well, and the P-wave velocities determined. Saturation with oil too increased the compressional wave velocity. Figs.6 and 7 show the P-wave velocities (I$) in oil saturated samples vis-a-vis the velocities in dry condition. The empirical relations found here are: I$ = 740 + 1.24 I$ for coarse grained sandstones; I$ = 560 + 0.96 I$ for medium and fine grained sandstones; and I$ = 2040 + 0.5 I$ in the case of shales. Again, these relations show that the increase in velocity in coarse grained sandstones is more than that in medium and fine grained sandstones or shales.
Y
C6000 E

z
;: 5000 : P 4000 d : +i 3000 a x -5 0 5 $ 0 ,ooo2000

r
-

y T
2 E LA D

6ooor

5000

4000-

J 0 : 2 3000 7

/J
w . . .
,000 ~-wow 2000 velocfty 3000 (dry 4000 sample),

..
5000 mjsec 6000

I 0

I
0

,000 P-wave

2000

3000

4000 samples),

5000

6000

velocity~dry

m,sec

Fig.6. Illustrating the effect fine grained sandstones. Fig.7. Illustrating the effect

of oil saturation

on P-wave velocity

in coarse

and medium

and

of oil saturation

on P-wave velocity,

mainly

in shales.

Absorption A study of the absorption of compressional waves in rocks is of considerable importance in seismic exploration problems. The method by which elastic energy is lost while travelling through a medium is quite complex and is not clearly understood. Of the several loss mechanisms proposed in the past, the absorption involved in the relative motion of a solid frame of a porous rock and the viscous liquid in the pore space is believed to be the chief contributing factor for the elastic energy absorbed in a fluid saturated rock.

25

Table II presents the results of absorption studies in rock samples in dry and fluid saturated states as well as at a high temperature of 100C. P-wave absorption is more in coarse grained sandstones than in medium and fine grained sandstones in dry state. In coarse grained sandstones the absorption coefficient is about 2.574.0 db/cm while in the medium and fine grained sandstones, it is about 0.93-3.5 db/cm. In shales, sandy shales etc., the coefficient varies over a wide range, 2.12-8.05 db/cm. In burnt coal, it is observed to be about 11.1 db/cm.
TABLE II 01(db/cm) in some Lower Gondwana rocks in dry state, at 100C and

Absorption coefficient fluid saturated states Sample number Depth (m)

Formation

~~__

Description of sample

Coarse grained sandstones JM-15;15B 983 Barakar JM-15;25 486 Barakar JM-15;23B 548 Karharbari

JM-15;23A

548

Karharbari

JM-15;24 JPK-1;44 JBH-6 ;172 JBH8;169 JBK-4 ;202 RBR-3;382

486 453 728 612 937 253

Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Ranigunj

RBR-3 ;386

350

Ranigunj

Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. to granular sst. Coarse gr. sst. with pebbles and carb. matrix Coarse gr. sst. with pebbles and carb. matrix Coarse to medium grained sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse to very coarse gritty felspathic sst. Very coarse gr. gritty sst.

3.48 3.2 2.57

3.33 3.08 2.17

2.75 1.68

3.61 2.77 2.63

3.62

3.35

2.62

4.83

2.71 3.55 4.0 3.90 2.72 4.21

2.50 3.12 3.64 3.78 2.38 5.80

1.82 -

2.26 2.98 3.67 1.90 5.44

4.02

4.18

2.86

3.80

Medium and fine grained sandstones JM-16;lA 407 Barren measure JM-16;9A 611 Barakar JM-16;7 554 Barren measure JM-16 ;ll 611 Barakar JM-16;13 850 Barakar JM-1143 345 Barakar JPK-1;115 Barakar JBJ-2;124 105 Barakar JBH-6;163 240 Barakar JBK-4 ;204 921 Barakar

Medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Fine gr. Medium Medium Medium Fine gr. Medium Medium sst. gr. gr. gr. sst. gr. gr.

1.50 1.52 1.30 1.27 0.93 2.52 2.79 2.88 3.36 2.13

1.50 2.66 2.00 1.61 1.56 3.86 3.68 4.35 4.35 2.71

2.17 1.77 1.40 0.93 3.68 -

1.13 1.42 1.37 0.90 1.66 2.30 4.00 2.95 3.36 2.39

sst. sst. sst. sst. sst.

26 (Table II continued)

Sample number RJK-1;391 RCL-1;365 RBR-4;372 Depth (ml 497 596 253 Formation Description sample of

ad
2.78 2.32 1.28 3.20 2.57

Ranigunj Ranigunj Ranigunj

JBK-3;146

176

Barakar

Fine to medium gr. sst. Fine gr. sst. Medium to coarse gr. sst. with carb. streaks Medium gr. sst.

1.62 2.26 2.84

2.91

3.5

4.00

Shales and other rock types JM-16;5 Barren measure JM-16;20 JM-16;21 JM-16;16 JM-16;22 JM-15;29 JFK-1;48 RBR-4;371 JBK-4;213 963 963.1 761 961 360 253 983.1 Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Ranigunj Barakar

Sandy shale Carbonaceous shale Sandy shale Intercalations of shale and sst. Shale with sst. laminations Intercalations of shale and sst. Shale Fine gr. sst with shale laminations Burnt coal with minor baked carb. shale Siltstone with minor shale bands Carbonaceous siltstone Mica peridotite Mica peridotite Mica peridotite Mica peridotite Ironstone shale

4.8 2.12 2.58 2.30 3.24 2.50 7.1 8.05 11.1

3.92

4.72 1.29 2.26 8.5 11.75

1.66

1.30 2.08 3.00

3.08 5.48 10.8

5.32 6.25 -

JBJ-2;123 JBK-4 ;208 JBK-4;209 RBR-4;392 RBR-4 ;393 RBR-4 ;394 RCL-1;364

100 838 983 294 394.9 395 322

Barakar Barakar Barakar Ranigunj Ranigunj Ranigunj -

7.06

2.69 4.76 0.95 1.06 2.15 4.92 -

6.72 9.52 2.34 3.09 2.51 6.45 1.16

1.15 1.69 2.85 8.06 3.24

6.9 1.64 2.28 2.81 6.93 0.83

*Weathered samples. The first part of the sample

number

shows the borehole

number.

Fluid saturation decreased the absorption in coarse grained sandstones while it increased the absorption in medium and fine grained sandstones. No systematic trend was observed in the absorption coefficient in rock samples at 100C. Fig.8 relates the absorption coefficient (as) of saturated rocks with that (ad) of dry rocks in the case of coarse grained sandstones and medium and fine grained sandstones. Least squares analysis gave the following rela-

27
x

DRY k5

SAMPLES

x coarse 0 Medium

grained and

sandstones gralned 4000 velocity, SondStOneS

J

Fine 3000

1DDD

ZDOD P-wave

5000 mlsec

6000

Fig.8. Relating the absorption coefficient of sandstones in dry and saturated states. Fig.9. Relating the absorption coefficient with the P-wave velocity of sandstones in dry state.

tions: (YS = -1.79 + 1.51 crd for coarse grained sandstones; (YS = 0.47 + 1.07 ad for medium and fine grained sandstones. Another interesting relation is between the compressional wave velocity and the absorption coefficient as given in Fig.9. The absorption coefficient is observed to decrease with increasing P-wave velocity. Least square curve fitting provided the relations: ~1 d = 6.5 - 0.97 V$ for coarse grained sandstones and (ud = 6.36 - 1.11 6 for medium and fine grained sandstones. The effect of water saturation on a-VP relation is illustrated in Fig.10. The relations are given by the equations: 4 = 9.6 - 1.5 VP in the case of
6x

lOcl0

kooo P-wove

3000

4000 ,

5000 m/set

6000

0.9

IO

1.05

velocity

1.1 1.15 AiSrztrOplC

1.2 1.25 Factor

1.3

Fig.10. P-wave velocity and absorption coefficient of sandstones, saturated with water. Fig. 11. Absorption and anisotropy of Barakar sandstones.

28

coarse grained sandstones; fine grained sandstones. Anisotropy

s = 8.15 - 1.3 vP in the case of medium and and (Y

It is observed that ,,V is always greater than IV: the increase in velocity being as much as 100% in some of the samples of shale, sandy shale and other laminated rocks. The anisotropic coefficient decreased on water saturation of the rock sample, in most cases. It varied from 1.0 to 1.3 for sandstones while it was much higher for shales, sandy shales, laminations of shale and sand, and Jhama (burnt coal) The observed anisotropy in seismic wave propagation in rocks can be attributed to the layering when it is clearly visible. However, in shales, no layering is visible and the samples appear homogeneous. Nevertheless, shales possess pronounced anisotropy. White (1965) considers this anisotropy of shales as of an intrinsic nature. In rock formations of shales and sandstone laminations, the observed gross anisotropy can be attributed partly to the above intrinsic anisotropy of shale and sand and partly to the layering. Fig.11 shows the variation of the anisotropic factor, A with the absorption coefficient, a, in some Barakar sandstones. Samples of low anisotropic factor have low absorption too. An increase in anisotropic factor enhances absorption. This trend is however regular only in unsaturated rocks. Elastic constants Making use of the V, and V,, the elastic constants Youngs modulus (E), rigidity modulus (p) and Poissons ratio (u) have been computed and given in Table III. (The V, measurements have been made using the PSP signal wherever sharply defined). The results provide a fair estimate of the elastic constants to be expected of Lower Gondwana sandstones. Generally, the density of sandstones varied from 2.49 gm/cm3 to 2.75 gm/ cm3. V,/V, ratio lay between 1.5 and 1.9 and the Youngs modulus between 2.75.105 kg/cm* and 5.52~10 kg/cm2. The range of corresponding rigidity modulus was from 1.14.10 kg/cm* to 2.0.10 kg/cm*. And the Poisson ratio varied from 0.11 to 0.38. It is observed that E and p in general increase with
VP.

P-wave velocities

in sandstones

and their ages

A comparison of the P-wave velocities in sandstones of different ages (in the Indian context) would be of interest in seismic exploration. Leaving the present studies of the Lower Gondwana rocks, no systematic studies have as yet been reported on other formations. However, a fair comparison is made from available data from laboratory measurements on sandstones in dry state. The Tertiary (1.5-64.5 million years) sandstones of the oil-bearing Cambay

29

TABLE III Elastic properties of some typical Lower Gondwana rocks Sample number
_

Rock type

P (g/cm) 2.67 2.62 2.56 2.55 3.35 2.75 2.66 2.63 2.69 2.07 2.49 2.25 2.62

v,
(mlsec)

VS
(mlsec)

v,
1.80 1.77 1.75 1.61 1.75 2.29 1.78 1.67 1.96 1.88 1.51 1.59 1.78

VP

( lo5 kg/cm*) 0.28 0.26 0.26 0.186 0.25 0.38 0.27 0.22 0.32 0.3 0.11 0.17 0.27 4.54 4.00 3.67 3.78 3.37 5.52 2.72 3.10 3.62 3.70 2.75 2.68 3.76 1.78 1.59 1.46 1.59 1.35 2.00 1.07 1.27 1.37 1.42 1.24 1.14 1.48

*JM-16;lA *JM-16;9B *JM-15;23B *JM-15;24 RJK-1:361 JM-16;13 JBJ-2;124 JPK-1;115 JM-16;7 JM-16;ll JM-15;25 RBR-4 ;392 RBR-4;393

Medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Coarse gr. sst. Coarse to medium gr. sst. Fine to medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Fine gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Medium gr. sst. Fine gr. sst. Coarse to granular sst. Mica peridotite Mica peridotite

4580 4280 4140 3990 3440 5100 3540 3630 4010 3930 3340 3210 4190

2540 2420 2360 2480 1970 2230 1990 2170 2050 2100 2210 2020 2350

*Measurements are made in water-saturated samples.

basin (northwest India), Cauvery basin (southeast India) and of Makum coalfields (northeast India) are characterised by a P-wave velocity range 18503400 m/set with the exception of Lakadong sandstones of Meghalaya. The medium grained Lakadong sandstones bear a considerably lower velocity of 1000-1600 m/set. The Upper Gondwana (137-225 million years) (?) sandstones of Rajmahal (east India) also exhibit a lower P-wave velocity in the range 1500-2400 m/ sec. The present experiments on Lower Gondwana (225-270 million years) establish a velocity range 2500-5000 m/set with distinctly lower velocities of 2500-3400 m/set in coarse grained ones and 3000-5000 m/set in medium and fine grained types. A considerably higher velocity range of 5100-5500 m/set is observed for Vindhyan (500-900 million years) (?) sandstones from Rajasthan (west India) and Andhra Pradesh (south central India). The Cuddapah (1000-1400 million years) (?) sandstones have typically a compressional wave velocity of the order of 4200 m/set. Obviously, characteristic velocity spectrum can be ascribed to sandstones of a particular formation. However, in spite of the vast differences in ages of these sandstones from the Tertiary to the Precambrian it may not be said that older sandstones have typically higher velocities.

30 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

As regards the Lower Gondwana rocks of eastern India, the results of laboratory measurements and conclusions thereon may be summarised as follows. The Lower Gondwana sandstones have a density range 2.37-2.76 g/cm3. Ironstone shales have a density around 3.29 g/cm3 while mica peridotites and siltstones have a density around 2.85 g/cm3. In general, the compressional wave velocity increased with the density of the sandstones (the porosity of these sandstones having varied from 5% to 15%). Broadly speaking, the compressional wave velocity of formations like sandy shale, Jhama, intermixed shale and Jhama and very coarse grained sandstones in dry state falls between 1500 m/set and 3000 m/set. The velocity of coarse grained sandstones varies from 2500 m/set to 3400 m/set while that of medium and fine grained ones varies between 3000 m/set and 5000 m/set. Mica-peridotites, ironstone shales and some samples of sandstones with shale laminations or interbanded sandstone and shale formations have a velocity between 4000 m/set and 5220 m/set. Though there is occasional overlapping, the compressional wave velocities generally confine to the above ranges. Fluid saturation increased the P-wave velocity. In coarse, medium and fine grained sandstones, saturated with water, the velocity variation is between 3280 m/set and 5200 m/set. Most commonly, the compressional wave velocity parallel to the stratification is greater than in the transverse direction. The anisotropic factor llVp/~Vp is observed to be (1.3-2.0) higher in shales than in sandstones (where it is about 1.0-l .3). Fluid saturation invariably reduced the anisotropic factor. Also, the absorption decreased with a decrease in the anisotropic factor. The absorption coefficient in Lower Gondwana sandstones lies between 0.93 and 4 db/cm, being less in fine grained sandstones and more in coarse grained ones. Fluid saturation reduced the absorption in coarse grained sandstones while it increased the absorption in medium and fine grained sandstones. Also, the absorption was less in rocks of higher P-wave velocity. Empirical relations between the absorption and the P-wave velocity have been established. Limited V, measurements indicate a range of 1970-2540 m/set for the shear wave velocity in sandstones, the VP/V, ratio being 1.5-l .96. VP/V, ratio is the characteristic of the consolidation of a formation (Gregory, 1976) and it helps in identifying the lithological variations (Erickson et al., 1968). The elastic wave velocities and the respective elastic constants presented, in Table III, provide useful data for the purpose of seismic exploration in the Gondwana basins, and also, provide basic physical property data for geotechnical projects. The available data on the velocity of sandstones varying in age from the Tertiary to the Precambrian suggest that these formations exhibit distinct velocity spectra notwithstanding that the older rocks necessarily do not have a higher compressional wave velocity.

31 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to thank Dr. S. Datta (now with the Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad) for instrumentation and helpful suggestions in the problem. They also thank Shri P.M. Mathew, Chief Geophysicist, GSI, for his encouragement in the work. Thanks are due to the Director-General, GSI, for his permission to publish this paper.

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