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Introduction Need for Engineering ground Improvement When a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternate solutions are: Avoid the particular site Design the planned structure accordingly. Use a soft foundation supported by piles, design a very stiff structure which is not damaged by settlements Remove and replace unsuitable soils. Attempt to modify the e isting ground. Classification of Ground modification Techniques: ! "roups of "round #mprovement techni$ues Mechanical Modification: %oil density is increased by the application of mechanical force, including compaction of surface layers by static vibratory such as compact roller and plate vibrators. Hydraulic Modification: &ree pore water is forced out of soil via drains or wells. 'ourse grained soils( it is achieved by lowering the ground water level through pumping from boreholes, or trenches. #n fine grained soils the long term application of e ternal loads )preloading* or electrical forces )electrometic stabili+ation* Physical and chemical modification: %tabili+ation by physical mi ing adhesives with surface layers or columns of soil. Adhesive includes natural soils industrial byproducts or waste. ,aterials or cementations or other chemicals which react with each other and-or the ground. When adhesives are injected via boreholes under pressure into voids within the ground or between it and a structure the process is called grouting. %oil stabili+ation by heating and by free+ing the ground is considered thermal methods of modifications. Modification y inclusions and confinement: Reinforcement by fibers, strips bars meshes and fabrics imparts tensile strength to a constructed soil mass. #n.situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. %table earth retaining stucture can also be formed by confining soil with concrete, %teel, or fabric elements !uita ility" #easi ility and $esira ility /he choice of a method of ground improvement for a particular object will depend on the following factors. /ype and degree of improvement re$uired /ype of soil , geological structure, seepage conditions cost
Availability of e$uipment and materials and the $uality of wor0 re$uired 'onstruction time available 1ossible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of ground water resources Durability of material involved ) as related to the e pected life of structure for a given environmental and stress conditions* /o icity or corrosivity of any chemical additives . Reliability of method of analysis and design. &easibility of construction control and performance measurements #f soil is moist, free+ing is applicable to all type of soil.
2ecture 3:#ntroduction to ,echanical ,odifications ,echanical ,odification ,ajor aim of compacting soil #ncrease shear strength. Reduce compressibility. Reduce permeability. Reduce li$uefaction potential. 'ontrol of swelling and shrin0ing. 1rolong durability. %teps for optimi+ing densification process &or 4uman construction fills , specify placement conditions )water content ,density ,depth of layers etc* %elect appropriate e$uipment roller, vibro compaction ,tamping. ,ethod of compactor patterns of tamping %et up ade$uate control procedures. /ypes of compaction shallow surface compaction
Deep surface compaction %hallow surface compaction Achieved by static pressure and or dynamic pressure caused by impact or vibration. Rollers used %tatic Rollers #mpact or vibratory 5$uipments %mooth steel rollers and /amper, rammers and plate pneumatic tired rollers compacters %heepfoot rollers vibrating rollers "rid rollers #mpact rollers
Applicability of compaction Equipment
Equipment Most suitable soils Typical Least suitable
application Smooth ibratin! $ubber rollers Grid rollers tired Coarse &ith fines Weatheredroc( !raded coarse soils !rained Wheel Well!radedsand"!ra el
soils
uniform"
Static )ine !rained soils &ith -ams more than *+, fines .ibratin! Sand !ra el mi#tures emban(ment Sub!rade Layers Clean coarse !rained soils
.ibratin! plate Course !rained soils / Small 1atches to 0, fines Tamper rammers Impact roller and 'll type -ifficult area Wide ran!e of moist Sub!rade and saturated soil earth&or( access
Cohesi e soils
-ry"cohesionless soils
Production Rate:
'ssists in the selection of the most economical compaction equipments2
Where
P = production rate, B = drum width, E = efficiency S = rollin speed! "m#h $ = %ayer thic&ness, m ' = number of passes
(eep compaction $echniques: -ensification of deep soil is achie ed by the follo&in! techniques2
Precompression: 1re loaded by means of a surchar!e on the surface in an array of boreholes" causin! a !round to consolidate. E)plosion: E#plosi es are detonated on the surface in an array of boreholes causin! a loose soil structure to collapse2 *ea+y tampin : ' lar!e mass is dropped in to the !round surface" causin! compaction and possibly lon! term consolidation2 ,ibration:
-ensification is achie ed by a ibratory probe or piles.
compaction routin
If the e#plosion2
'ccordin! to Barendson and "o& -./013 the ratio of e#cess pore pressure" 23 o er the effecti e o erburden pressure as &ell as the ratio of surface settlement
affected by e#plosion"are related to h of the soil layer affected by e#plosion "are related to
and
is required2
&pplications Netherlands: A charge e$uivalent to 67 0g of /8/ was used is each of the 69m deep hole, speed 6:m apart. Use of about 677g of /8/ of soil. Heavy Tamping: /he depth D in meters to which heavy tamping is effective can be determined by W ; ,ass of the falling wt in metric tons 4 ; ht of fall in meters Degree of soil improvement pea0s at a critical depth 2ecture <:,echanical ,odifications Mechanical Modification 'i ro compaction and vi ro replacement ,a imum depth of influence D.
#igure ()*
#igure ()+ =ibro compaction is successful in loose sand soils typically with an original !PT value of , to *- near the surface and not applicable to clays. Relative density of up to .,/ can be achieved =ibro.replacement is most effective in cohesive soils with an undrained shear strength in the range of 37 to :7 0pa.
5echanical 5odification
6ohesi+e soils
Pre%oadin
o o o
7i ure1!1 1reload is made up of stones2 E#cess pore &ater pressure squi4ed out2 Effecti e stress in the soil increase
#igure ()0
$emo in! the preload and constructin! the buildin! the rebound is ery small2 5ence it affects a little2 Effect o o $educe the settlement of the structure Increase the stren!th of soil 6shear stren!th32
(emerits 1henomenon is ery lon! i2e2 dissipation of pore &ater pressure too( a lon! time2
#igure(), #n sand drains water travels in radial direction. %and drains <77 mm dia.
%and wic0s :9 mm dia. &dvantages of using sand 3ic4s 6. 'heaper 3. 5asy to wor0 Time for Preloading 5arron 6*70.8 &or <d consolidation
&here
n 7 number
#igure ()9
$ime for Preloadin 12 >nstallation of sand wic&s :! Place of sand blan&et 1! Placin preload fill =! 6onsolidation 9!Remo+al of preload : : : : : : 1< days -say4 ? days -say4 .9 days -say4 19 days ? days /= days
%imitation of Preloadin
12 Time *2 Loadin! 82 cost 1reloadin! is done for medium ran!e buildin!2 9ot suitable for hi!h rise buildin!s 2
#igure 0)*
(rop *ammer:
%sually & 7 &t of hammer W 7*2;t 5 7 5ei!ht of full 7 1< *2;m
%imitations:
12 )ore of influence is restricted deportin! on the si4e of &t2 &idth of hammer2
*2 To a depth compacted
82 impro e the !round for shallo& foundation2 Sometimes it refers to a dynamic consolidation means it dissipiates e#cess pore &ater by dynamic process2
#igure 0)+
=eyond a depth of *2;m there is no impro ement2
Ta(e a small portion as a trial and error area2 It is di ided into no2 of areas2 )or different al es of &t of hammer the density before and often the compaction is foundout2 The best result !i es the &t of hammer used in the field2
#igure 0)(
6ompaction piles
Instead of allo&in! the hittin! of hammer pile2 directin! into the !round it hits on the cassion
#igure 0)0
#igure 0),
Stone columns:
)irst decide the depth of impro ement after that chan!e the cassion pile2
Parameters required
12 Wt of hammer *29o of blo&s 82 5ei!ht of fall
predertermined
Closer spacin! better compactions2&ith Increase in the no of blo&s the compaction !oes up asymptotically2
Stone columns:
>nstallation:
12 .ibro floatation *2 $ammed stone Column
,ibro
floatation:
.ibro float is allo&ed to ibrate in hori4ontal direction by allo&in! &ater throu!h the cashin!2
7i ure =!8
$hree Actions:
12 1ushed into !round2 *2 1assa!e of &ater loosenin! the soil2 82 .ibrate in hori4ontal direction2 'fter ibration the !ap is filled &ith stone2
#igure 0)9
Rammed stone columns:
The &hole soil mass is ta(enout > then it is filled by stone columns2
' stone column spacin! 6s?d3 of *2; < / is adopted for most practical problems2 It has been reco!ni4ed that closer spacin! is preferred under isolated footin! than beneath lar!e rafts2
Stone 6olumns
#igure ,)*
Stresses actin! on stone column
#igure ,)+
A 7 Influence 'rea2 As 7 'rea of stonecolumn A @ As 7 soil 'rea
Spacin
7i ure 9!1
#igure ,)0
E)ample 9!.
Say spacin!
Stone column is suitable for ery lar!e area loadin! in a soft clay &here lar!e deformation occurs2
#igure ,),
6'3Settlementof untreated soil
#igure ,):
Ac 7'rea of stone column As 7 'rea of soil &ithin influence A 7 influence 'rea A 7 'c @ 's
#igure ,)9
Where
calculation
ta&e
to
The ma!nitude of stress concentration depends on relati e stiffness of !ranular pile?stone column
7or equilibrium
is reduced2
E)ample: @ 9!:
#igure ,).
Say 0++ mm
stone column
120 m c?c
!rid
n 7 ; ta(en
=y 1ro ision of stone column &e are able to reduced the settlement to only ;+, of the untreated soil2
#igure :)*
at corner 7 +2A/.
Ta(e
at center 7 12+
>mmediate settlement
= 7 8*
)or Layer I at a
at
Trian!ular !rid
#igure 9)*
Total load carryin! capacity of treated soil C 7 Load carryin! capacity of stone column@ Load carryin! capacity of soil 71A2/00@1B2B;78/2*80t
#igure .)*
Aranular Piles are often constructed throu h soft soil fully penetratin to an end bearin stratum howe+er they may be constructed as 7loatin piles the tips endin with soft layer 7or sin le isolated pile the most probable failure mechanism is bul in failure!
#igure .)+ /he shear strength of improved soil- grand is determined based on the concept of an e$uivalent soil. /he concept is based on assumption that the strength of the composite soil )granular pile and insitu soil* as a whole is e$ual to that of the e$uivalent soil for the same e tent.
Bar&sdale and Bachus -./014 report a con entional method for determination of equi alent soil parameters based on area ratio
Eno&i et al -.//.4 su!!ested an approach based on The assumption that full stren!th of both the !ranular pile and cohesi e soil is mobili4ed
,ibro compaction:
%sed to impro e the density of cohesion less soil
.ibro float sin(s under its o&n &ei!ht and &ith assistance of &ater and ibration2 'fter reachin! a predetermined depth the ibrofloat is &ith dra&n !radually from the !round &ith subsequent addition of !ranular bac( fill causin! compaction .
#igure 7)*
,ibro Breplacement method: %sed to impro e the soil condition of cohesi e soils Efficiency is impro ed by stone columns2 In this method "follo&in! the penetration of ibrator and its &ithdra&al after reachin! the required depth the resultin! ca ity is filled by stone ?Gra els2 These materials are compacted2
The !ranular piles and in<situ soil form on inte!rated system" resultin! lo& compressibility and hi!h shear stren!th2
,ibro B composer method 1opular in Eapan and is used for impro ement of soft days in presence of hi!h !round &ater le el2
2ecture 67:#ntroduction to preloading and vertical drains Pre" loading and vertical drains Preloading #ncreases the bearing capacity Reduces the compressibility of wea0 ground Achieved by placing temporary surcharge on the ground. %urcharge generally more than the e pected bearing capacity. #n cohesion less soil and gravel lowering water table ,ost effective soft cohesive ground. /he process may be speed up by vertical sand drains. =ertical drains are installed in order to accelerate settlement and gain in strength of soft cohesive soil. =ertical drains accelerate primary consolidation only. As significant water movement is associated with it.%econdary consolidation causes only very small amount of water to drain from soil( %econdary settlement is not speeded up by vertical drains. @nly relatively impermeable soil benefit from vertical drains. %oils which are more permeable will consolidate under surcharge. =ertical drains are effective where a clay deposit contain many hori+ontal sand or silt lenses. Pre loading 'ertical Reduce total and differential speed up to settlement process settlement 5conomy in foundation do not reduce the amount of system deformationunder a given load.
#igure *-)*
#igure*-)(
1re loadin! allo&s cheaper spread footin!s2 1re loadin! allo&s sa in!s on foundation costs2
7i ure .<!= .ertical drains accelerate settlements and do not reduce final mo ements2
6ylindrical sand drains: Sand drains consisted simply of boreholes felled &ith sand2 The holes may be formed by dri in!" Fettin! and?or an!erin!2 Its diameter is *++ to /;+mm and &ould be spaced 1<; to Am appart2
' lar!e diameter sand" in a fine !rained soil" enables rapid consolidation of surroundin! material and also pro ide ertical compressi e reinforcement
Aeosynthetic drains:
#igure *-),
Pre loadin and +ertical drains Ad+anta es:
Easy and $apid installation Mode of uniform material" easily stored and transported tensile stren!th of the strips helps to preser e containin! lo& costs 2
$ype
6ore material
7ilter material
(imension -mm4
1.C 1E 11 1E 1ES
677
677 677
's the radial consolidation theory assumes the drain has a circular section on equi alent drain has to be calculated for strip drains2 'n equi alent sand drains diameter can be fund based on equal oid area2 Equal oid area "oerner -./084
7 oid area ?total c?s area of strip2 porosity of surd drains2 Equal circumference
#igure *-):
When the preload is remo ed the soil under!oes s&ellin! from = to C and oid ratio increases from When buildin! is erected" the same intensity of pressure is applied but no& the settlement is a function to reloadin!2 So settlement of buildin! reduces considerably2
In direct pre loadin!" the time for consolidation may run into years because of lo& permeability of clay and lon! draina!e path2 To reduce the time for consolidation ertical drains &ith draina!e blan(et on top are used2
#igure *-)9
#igure *-).
The flo& &ithin the 4one is combination of redial flo& to&ards the sand and ertical flo& to&ards the free drainin! boundary2 The a era!e de!ree of consolidation is
'ssumin! uniform ertical drain at the surface" -e!ree of consolidation due to redial draina!e2 Barron -./=04
Where,
#igure *-)7
Considerin! the influence area of each drain to be circular" &e ha e
Coefficient
of
radial
consolidation
In field problem"
is small compared to
ne!lected
)or
time
and
the
time
factor
can
be
calculated2
#igure *-)*2ecture 66:'ombined radial and vertical consolidation and smear effect
time" sec
With top > bottom draina!e &ith $ime factor $+ top draina!e2
#igure **)*
#igure **)+
for
3here
Step < 1
6alculate $+ for a i+en then find
Step< *
Set
Step < 8
7ind from -.4
Step< /
*ansbo
et
al
-./0.4
ha e
proposed
that
modified
factor
is
used2
a era!e
de!ree
of
consolidation
at
depth
for
radial
draina!e2
#igure **)(
hori4ontal permeability of the smeared soil lon!est draina!e path alon! ertical drain
a#ial permeability of to sand drains Cross< sectional area of drain2 Synthetic drains nullified smear effect
Assessment of Around conditions: 1re loadin! proFects required detailed site in esti!ations li(e borin!" penetratin! testin!" samplin! and Laboratory e#pt2 Special emphasis must be ta(en2
12 Stratification *2 -raina!e condition 82 Consolidation and permeability characteristics Stren!th and stress strain characteristics
$rial Emban&ments:
=uildin! a trial emban(ment in order to determine the feasibility of preloadin! and ertical drains a oids uncertainties associated &ith soil disturbance durin! samplin!2 ' trial emban(ment can !i e !uidance &ith respect to bearin! capacity of the !round2
The location of trial emban(ment should be choosen so that it forms part of final earth structure The shape of to trial emban(ment should allo& for appro#imation of the strain and draina!e coruscations of the final structure2 In case of 1 and reclamation proFect" the trial fill should be placed o er of &ide enou!h area to produce a reasonably stress increase &ith depth Width across the top of the emban(ment should be at least equal to the depth of the soft soil belo&2
The hei!ht of the trial emban(ment should be equal to that of planned emban(ment as soilGs permeability and coefficient of consolidation are li(ely to decrease &ith the applied load2Slip circle analysis should ensure that the &hole emban(ment &ill stand up2
Settlement obser+ations Settlement !au!es e2!2 of the hydraulic type" measure the lon! term settlement at the ori!inal !round surface2 co ered &ith a permeable blan(et durin! construction2 They are placed after the ertical drains ha e been installed2 ' settlement plate is suitable for initial settlement readin!2 ' benchmar( is set up on stable !round at a reasonable distance from the fill2 Le elin! points are placed at the end of the construction on top of the emban(ment2
#igure **)0
1reloadin! and sand drains Assi nment: (esi n:
-esi!n a suitable preloadin! scheme and estimate the settlement of tan(2
compression inde#
7 initial ertica pressure 'fter H+, of this settlement has ta(en place" the surchar!e is remo ed and construction of the buildin! be!ins2
#igure *+)*
#igure *+)+ Preloading < !and drains Upon reloading the foundation soil, the final settlement pressure could be e pressed in terms of reloading inde of the building )5 erting a
/he curve was assumed to show a distinct brea0 at the original overburden pressure of the normally consolidated soil element, this means the overburden pressure was assumed to be e$ual to the pre consolidation pressure. &or soil samples obtained in the pre consolidation pressure has to be deduced using 'asagrandeCs graphical procedure.
#igure *+)( &5 ; secondary consolidation under overburden pressure. 5C; primary consolidation due to surcharge. C$;secondary consolidation due to surcharge. Consolidations under !tructural fill 3ith !urcharge Assume a highway emban0ment is placed on highly compressible soil. /he e pected amount of final settlement can be at the top of the emban0ment. 4ow much e tra surcharge has to be applied for a given time t in order to produce of the final settlement under the emban0ment load 1 aloneD !tep* calculate for an assumed q. /hese are the final settlement due to emban0ment loading alone and emban0ment plus surcharge. !tep + 6settlement under p=q at time =8 !tep (
A land reclamation project re$uires (m sand E gravel fill a deposit with the following profile. "round water level at the surface %oft silty clay
to be placed in
?:m dense shale )a 5stimate final settlement under the proposed fill )b* 'alculate the tine re$uired for ?7F of the settlement % )c* 4ow much e tra surcharge is re$uired to produce a settlement e$uivalent to ?7F half of the time D &ind
in
2ecture 6<:#ntroduction to reinforced earth 1EIN#@1CE$ E&1TH /he 1rimary purpose of reinforcing a soil mass is to improve its stability, increasing its bearing capacity and reduce %ettlements and 2ateral deformations. Reinforcing materials: stainless steel, aluminum, fiberglass to nylon, polyster, polyamides, and other synthetics in the form of strips. Geosynthetics" geote>tiles" geogrids and geocomposits)
#igure *()*
Permanency Corrosion of metals and de!radation of synthesis is a maFor problem in desi!nin! reinforced soil structure2 $omanoff 61H;B3 has proposed the follo&in! relationship bet&een the loss of thic(ness It &ith time J:
Where m"n are constant" aryin! for different metals and soil en ironments .
The tensile stren!th of corroded steel strips is affected more stron!ly than the a era!e loss of thic(ness2
The tensile stren!th T remainin! in the strip after partial corrosion becomes2
Reinforced Earth E)ample: .1!. Considerin! a $einforced earth steel strip in bac( fill" estimate the possible limits of total thic(ness loss 6both sides of strip3 for a period of 1" ;" 1+" *+" 8+" /+" and ;+ years
)or 1 year
)or ; years
E>ample: *()+
' reinforced earth strip is initially thic( and &ide2The steel has a yield stren!th of :=<5pa calculate the safe load for this strip at the end of its ser ice life2 'ssumin! a factor of safety 12; and a predicted total a era!e loss of thic(ness due to corrosion of *mm2 1Mpa 7 1+8(9
#igure *0)*
thic( and A+ to
&ide
to 1+ strips could be attached to one face element" placed in t&o ro&s" at a ertical spacin! of
$ibbed strips are made of !al ani4ed steel2 They sho&ed superior performance in pullout tests" allo&in! the desi!n of narro& and thic(er strips &ith a reduced surface area subFected to corrosion2
12 , of fine content
*2 The bac( fill placed and compacted at a moisture content less than optimum moisture
6orrosion:@
15 of soil is more than ; and : 1+" soil resisti ity is more then 1+++
. .
1++ 1++<B;
1++ 1++<B;
1++ :1;
.
*;<+
. .*;<+ .
: 1+
. . I1+++
;<1+ :*++ :1+++
H69
:A
I8+++
;<1+ < <
I1+++
/2;<H2; :*++ :1+++
6orrosion allowance for reinforced Earth structures:@ 5inimum ser+ice life ;year 1ro isional Structure 8+ year 6Temporary3 Structure B+ year 61ermanent3 Structure .<<year -permanent4 Structure
-),
*),
-),
()-
*)-
0)-
*),
-),
+)-
*)-
0)-
*),
,)-
+)-
*)-
()-
,)-
9)-
7ailure modes
.! E)ternal failure mode
)or the case of poor bac( fillmaterial 6behind the reinforced earth3and soft foundation strata" a deep seated circular failure surface could form2 2
#igure *0)+
$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5
Bearin failure
#igure *0)(
If the soil directly underlyin! the base of the reinforced earth &all is of lo& stren!th it may not ha e bearin! capacity2 =earin! capacity is determined by 5ansen formula2 adequate
Slidin
#igure *0)0
E+erturnin
#igure *0),
It is due to distortion of the reinforced earth mass
#igure *,)*
(esi n procedure:@
The follo&in! assumptions has been made &hile desi!nin! The earth pressure theory employed 6$an(ine or coulomb3 The ma!nitude of earth pressures 6acti e or at rest3 The distribution of ertical" hori4ontal and shear stresses The !eometry of failure surface assumed The len!th of reinforcin! strip &hich resists failure by slippa!e Ma!nitude required safety factors2
#igure*,)+
1EIN#@1CE$ E&1TH /he average vertical stress at depth + within the reinforced and unreinforced earth is ta0en as .
/he hori+ontal earth pressure is assumed to act at the bac0 of the coherent bloc0 of reinforced soil. Because of its overturning effect it is thought to cause increased vertical stress : near the wall face ,this increase can be estimated by either assuming a trape+oidal distribution of within the reinforced earth mass or by calculating the vertical pressure as for an eccentrically loaded footing according to concept of effective width proposed by ,eyerhof)6?G<* .
RE>'7ER6E( EAR$*
#igure *,)(
Safety a ainst rupture: Each strip is assumed to ha e to resist the resultant of the earth pressure actin! o er an area equi alent to the product of a era!e ertical and hori4ontal spacin! of the strips desi!nated as 5ence for a particular depth the tension Td de eloped in the strip is calculated as
In !eneral" allo&able tensile stress in steel may be ta(en as *?8 of the yield stress"
Safety
a ainst
Conser ati e minimum alue of a era!e ertical stress 7 effecti e s(in friction an!le
The ma#imum pullin! force a strip of len!th L and &idth b can resist before slippin! is
If a uniform
#igure *,)0
)2S D * In the tie bac( analysis the formula for determinin! failure by slippa!e is modified to
1ullout resistance of a reinforcin! tie Effecti e len!th2 Re+ised standard Analysis -./?04: It is a semi empirical method2 It ta(es into account a number of findin!s from laboratory model tests and )ield measurements2 o )ailure surfaces obser ed in many $einforced earth models are cur ed rather than strai!ht2 The simplest appro#imation is of bilinear shape2 Kri!inatin! at the toe of the &all2 o Ma#imum force in the reinforcin! strip in e#istin! &alls occurs at some distance behind the &all face su!!estin! that the concept of effecti e &idth is appropriate2 o Earth pressure in hi!h &alls &all to o pressure belo&2 for ribbed reinforcement bac( fi!ured from ary from pressure near the top of the
pullout tests and decreases &ith depth until it reaches a constant alue2
Auidelines:
#igure *,),
1. The effecti e len!th of the reinforcin! strips is defined by a bilinear boundary &hich can be dra&n for a !i en &all hei!ht 52 2. The Coefficient of lateral earth pressure decreases from the at rest alue the surface to "at a limitin! depth 2 at
remains constant at 2
#igure *,):
7riction coefficients:
#igure *,)9
Soil satisfyin! basic !rain si4e criteria for $einforced earth Smooth strips: $ibbed strips: 6$e!ardless of depth3
3and a depth of
#igure *:)*
$he For& method: 5ori4ontal !al ani4ed steel or !lass reinforced plastic strips are attached to ertical pole &hich in turn pro ide a connection bet&een the he#a!onal facin! elements2 Strips are allo&ed to slide ertically so that settlement of the bac(fill can be accommodated &ithout stressin! the face panel2
5ars
!trips
Pea& pullout
P64N8 pea4
*:9 0)(*)-*):9
*, -)*( :7 -)++
Elongation at
#igure *:)(
#igure *:)0
o Welded &ire mesh bolted to he#a!onal precost concrete face panels" it is (no&n as orspann system Losin!er 2
is used2
alue is equi alent to the coefficient of earth pressure at rest for a friction it represents
an!le of
Brea&a e of the mesh: safety a!ainst rupture of the &ires can be e#pressed similarly to
Where cross< sectional area of one &ire 6includin! corrosion allo&ance3 'llo&able &ire stress 6includin! safety factor3 .ertical spacin! bet&een mats2 ' era!e hori4ontal spacin! of lon!itudinal &ires2 .ertical 6o erburden3 stress2
Pullout Resistance:
1ullout
resistance
of
meshes
may
be
considered
of
t&o
parts:
The resistance 6
resultin! from friction !enerated on the surface of lon!itudinal bars of the passi e resistance de eloped on
;Wire diameter
effecti e len!th
May be ta(en as
L9ielsen 61H0/3M
The passi e resistance offered by trans erse bars in the mesh is to use the Ter4a!hi bearin! capacity equation61H/83 for strip footin!s of &idth 2
9e!lectin!
' sin!le trans erse &ire of diameter d and equal to the mesh &idth force2
)or
Includin! cohesion
$EI9)K$CE- E'$T5
=y e#periment" 9ielsen 61H0/3 found e#pressions for the pullout force of meshes of !eometry =ased on the test results" the follo&in! equations2 arious
Ser e as !uidelines:
units &ith
Silty sand:
Washed sand:
Pure ra+el:
#igure *9)*
%se the Meyerhof61HB83 distribution of ertical stresses for calculatin! hori4ontal earth pressure and
#igure *9)+
&idth
E)ample.?!:
Calculate the resistance a!ainst pullout of a soil<bar friction an!le of There are &ide and lon! bar mesh buried in sand &ith
trans erse bars of equal diameter2 'ssume 6a3Calculate the pullout force required2s 6b3Chec( &hether the pullout resistance e#ceeds the allo&able force &2 r 2t bar rapture" assumin! an acceptable steel stress of 2
#igure *9)0
)le#ible sheets made of synthetic plastic or rubber as &ell as fabrics madeNimpermeableNby -efinitions 6used in te#tile technolo!y3 5onofilament wo+ens :<contains sin!le filaments in &arp 6machine direction3 and &eft 6cross machine3 direction. 5ultifilament wo+ens:@ made of multifilament yarns in &arp and &eft direction2 $ape wo+ens:@ Split Ofilm tapes 6rather than filaments &ith circular or elliptical cross section3 are used2 'on wo+ens:@ 5a e essentially random te#tile structure they are further cate!ori4ed accordin! to ho& fibers are interloc(ed or bonded" &hich is achie ed by mechanical" chemical" thermal means2 "nitteds :@ 1roduced by interloopin! one or more ends of yarn or comparable material2 $ypes -E)amples of eote)tiles4 =idim" )oss Geomat " Tre ira 6non &o en<needle Opunched polyester3 1olyfelt sodoca" 6non &o en" needle<punched polypropylene3 Typar 6non &o en" spun<bonded poly propylene3 Terram B++ 6non &o en" melded" 88, polyethylene"AB, poly propylene23 Geolon" 9icolon" polytrac" prope# 6&o en polypropylene3 Terra firma 6&o en polyester3 Terrafi# 8B+$s" Lotrac( *++ 6&o en Onon&o en composites3
#igure *.)*
Application 1a ements on soft soil 1a ement o erlays $ail roads Purpose of eote)tiles increase in bearin! capacity inhibit crac( propa!ation2 pre ent ballast contamination"distribute load on sub!rade2 Emban(ments $etainin! structures 9atural slopes $i ers "canals and reser oirs Water pollution control impro e stability" pro ide draina!e 2
reinforce and protect bac(fill protect slope a!ainst erosion"reinforce soil"pro ide draina!e2 $eplace or impro e traditional filter layers"erosion control2 e#tract and collect !ranular pollutants"reinforce and protect !eomembranes"relie e pore &ater or !as pressure belo& membranes2
Shore protection
pre ent erosion and sand mi!ration" act as filter and draina!e layer
=uildin! elements
(raina e: Collectin! and redirectin! seepa!e &ater &ithin a soil mass or adFacent to retainin! &alls cul erts and tunnel linin!s 2 E# < 9on<&o en fabrics or composits ha e sufficient inflo& capacity to fulfill this function2 Geote#tiles acts as a filter if it allo&s seepa!e from a &ater bearin! layer &hile pre entin! most soil particles from bein! carried a&ay by the &ater flo&2 Separation It is achie ed if the fabric pre ents mi#in! of adFacent dissimilar soils &hich may occur durin! construction or may be caused by repeated e#ternal loadin! of a soil layer system Most fabrics can act as separators pro ided they ha e adequate stren!th2 Reinforcement Means the inclusion of the fabric to pro ide tensile stren!th" redistribution of stresses and ? or confinement" thereby increasin! the stability of a soil mass" reducin! earth pressures" or decreasin! deformation or susceptibility to crac(in!2 )abrics are used to pro ide containment if they are used to form soil or concrete filled ba!s" tubes" or mattresses2 )abrics are used to act as a tensioned membrane if it supports loads across a !ap or plastic 4one of soft soil )abrics may be required to pro ide cushionin! a!ainst locali4ed stresses &hich may cause puncturin! or abrasion If placed on the surface of a slope the !eote#tile may pre ent erosion and dispersion of soil due to &ind" surface runoff or &a e action2
$epeated loadin!
$einforcement Separation
Creep
%npa ed roads
$einforcement Separation
$epeated loadin!
Erosion protection
)iltration
Soil draina!e
-raina!e )iltration
Clo!!in!
1ore si4e
#igure *7)*
Stress< strain modulus 7 slope of stress Ostrain cur e
!. Slope stabili4ation
.! Emban&ments Emban(ment can fail in a multitude of &ays in ol in! e#cessi e settlement and lateral spreadin!" &ith or &ithout sin!le or multiple failure surfaces and surface bul!in! becomin! apparent2 Geote#tiles pro ides restraint a!ainst lateral deformation and assist in load distribution on the soft subsoil2 Stability analysis of a reinforced emban(ment &ill ha e to ta(e the follo&in! modes of failure -a4 Bloc& slidin on the eote)tiles: ' ertical crac( or other type of failure throu!h the emban(ment isolates a bloc( of soil &hich slides out&ard on !eote#tiles 2 ' simple analysis &ould assume hori4ontal acti e earth pressures pushin! out&ard and soil fabric friction resistin! the process2
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#igure +-)+
%niform distribution of shear stress &ould imply tensile forces in the !eote#tiles &hich increases linearly to&ards the center of the emban(ment 2
' minimum factor of safety of 12; &2r2t stren!th and a fabric strain limited to 1+,
#igure +-)(
Slip surface is assumed to be circular either &ithin the emban(ment or throu!h the !eote#tile )abric pro ides an additional stabili4in! force T at the point of intersection &ith the failure surface2 Stabili4in! moment due to the fabric
The bearin! capacity of an emban(ment foundation is unaffected by a !eote#tile contained &ithin or Fust belo& the emban(ment
K erall bearin! capacity could be impro ed if a mattress li(e reinforced surface layer of lar!er e#tent is pro ided at the base of the emban(ment 2
-c4 E)cessi+e settlement : -ue to consolidation of the sub soil the emban(ment under!oes lar!e settlement and the presence of the fabric may reduce differential settlement2
=ecause of the draina!e effect of non&o en fabrics consolidation of the subsoil may be accelerated &ith a consequent !ain in stren!th &here deformation criteria require hi!h stren!th" hi!h Omodulus &o en fabrics the draina!e function may be pro ided by the Geocomposits 2
Ed!e reinforcement also helps to reduce erosion and may assist in the establishment of e!etation. 3npa+ed roads: $einforcin! action of !eote#tile can be used in unpa ed roads for economic ad anta!es2 Geote#tiles also fulfill additional basic functions such as separation" filtration and draina!e2 9on&o en and &o en fabrics are used in road construction2 roads without fabric
3npa+ed
5ammit 61HB+3 proposed a formula for determinin! the thic(ness of a!!re!ate required for unsurfaced roads and air fields so as to produce a rut depth less than 8 < in 6B;mm32 The desi!n thic(ness is a function of the number of co era!e 9 of an equi alent sin!le &heel load and the tire contact area 2
required for
is
Where
'!!re!ate depth unreinforced"m '#le load" P9 %ndrained cohesion of the sub soil
#igure +*)*
The placement of a fabric on soft sub!rade appears to ha e the effect of forcin! a !eneral shear failure &here other&ise a local or punchin! type of failure &ould occur2 The beamin! capacity factor increases from about 8 to ; or more2
The fabric pro ided restraint of the a!!re!ate and the sub!rade if placed at their interface2
Subsidence associated &ith &heel path ruttin! can de elop tension in a fabric built into road structure2 This is the case &ith hi!h<modulus fabrics &ith sufficient soil fabric friction to de elop an anchora!e 4one outside the loaded area2
#igure +*)+
%ltimate bearin! capacity of sub!rade
Where
1ressure P is calculated assumin! the a!!re!ate spreads the surface load at an an!le
Where 17 a#le Load unit &t of soil -ual tires are assumed &ith each set of tires co erin! an area B times % 2)or a tire pressure these dimensions are obtained for t&o different cases2
En hi hway truc&s
The determination of P is based on the assumption that the shape of the deformed !eote#tile represents sectors of parabolas so the olume of the central hea ed area is related to the soil displaced by from &hich settlement the fabric strain can be determined
&here b and bG represent the half chord len!ths of parabolas 1 and 1G the &idths a and aG are obtained from the relationships2
Where
Trac( &idth2
)abric tension
Membrane support
So sol in!
the required a!!re!ate hei!ht" for a !i en !eometry" load confi!uration and fabric modules2
#igure +*)0
Aeote)tiles and eomembranes Rail Roads:
Geote#tiles installed in the trac( bed are submitted to e#treme conditions of cyclic stress and seepa!e flo&2 Geote#tiles directly contact &ith coarse ballast &ithout protecti e layers abo e and belo&" are subFected to si!nificant abrasion and puncturin! &hich affects their filtration and reinforcement capacity
Laboratory tests and field obser ations confirm that hea y non&o ens better than li!hter non&o ens2 Geote#tiles are successful in sol in! difficult trac( foundation
perform
Economic !ains and better lon! term trac( performance could be achie ed by protecti e layer abo e ?or belo& the installed fabric
With particular reference to road and emban(ment construction proper mana!ement of a !eote#tile reinforced soil proFect requires the follo&lin! actions2
%ite preparation :< Le el site and remo e obstructions such as sharp tree stumps and
boulders" minimi4e disturbance of the sub!rade &here soil structure" roots in the !round and li!ht e!etation may pro ide additional bearin! stren!th2
Equipment selection:< use lo& !round pressure and small dump truc(s for initial sta!e of construction pay attention to !round disturbance caused by turnin! equipment and dumpin! procedures2
7abric placement :<$oll rather than dra! !eote#tile into place !i in! attention to the isotropic properties of the fabric 6i2e2 &arp direction parallel to road ali!nment32 Eliminate &rin(les" tension fabric and pro ide ed!e anchora!e for increased membrane action in cures" cuttin! and se&in! of or o erlappin! may be necessary2
Minimum co er is :<< to 1<< mm" dependin! on a!!re!ate si4e and &ei!ht of truc(s2 Ma#imum lift thic(ness may be imposed in order to control the si4e of the mud &a e 6bearin! failure3 a head of dumpin! due to e#cessi e fill &ei!ht compaction of first a!!re!ate layer is achie ed by the construction equipment alone2
&ssignment:;
Consider a slip circle as sho&n in )i! *12; and e aluate the stabili4in! effect of fabric &ith a tensile stren!th of 8+(9? m2 'ssume that adequate anchora!e pre ents failure by pullout2 12 Calculate the resistin! moment alon! the shear place for a cohesion of :<&pa -a soft clay4 * 2-etermine the increase in resistin! moment due to the fabric" assumin! it acts in a hori4ontal direction2
Separation: Geote#tiles acts as a separator" its placement bet&een reasonably firm soil and stonebase course" a!!re!ate or ballast Othe soil bein! belo& the !eote#tile and the stone abo e it2 Brust Resistance: Consider a !eote#tile on a soil sub!rade &ith stone of a era!e particle diameter placed abo e it2The stressed soil then tries to push the fabric up into the oids in the stone2
#igure ++)*
The required fabric stren!th The stress at the fabricGs surface Ma#imum oid diameter The a era!e stone diameter %ltimate fabric stren!th The burst test pressure =urst test diameter 712*inch2 'ssumin! E)ample:@ Gi en a safety of 82+Q ::!. truc( tire inflation pressure on a poorly !raded stone base course consistin! and the tire inflation pressure
of 8<in ma#imum si4e stone" What is the required stren!th of the !eote#tile assumin! a factor of
Application of eote)tiles
)or desi!n purpose )2S R 8 $ensile stren th: Tensile stress in the fabric is mobilised &hen an upper piece of a!!re!ate is forced bet&een t&o lo&er pieces that lie a!anist the fabric2Ma#imum strain &ith no slippa! e.
#igure ++)+
Mobili4ed Tensile force The applied pressure Strain in !eote#tile E)ample @ ::!: Gi en a truc( tire inflation pressure on a stone base course of 8<in ma#imum si4e
6alculateJ@
6a3 Ma#imum !rab tensile stress on the !eote#tile" assumin! and stone &ill occur Slippa!e bet&een the fabric
6b3 )actor of safety for a !eote#tile &hose ultimate !rab stren!th is"
#igure ++)(
Total ertical force imposed on the fabric adFacent to the puncture ' era!e dia of hole ' era!e dia of the a!!re!ate 1ropa!ation hei!ht 1ressure e#erted on the Geote#tile Shape factor rounded blunt
Sharp an!ular obFect Total ertical force on fibers $equired tensile force in fibers ' era!e diameter of the stone Initial a era!e oid diameter of Geote#tile2
Sphericity
1roFected area of the particle 'rea of the smallest circumscribin! circle around the particle Sand $oc( Shot roc(
7i ure :1!. When construction finished" the e#posed face of the &all must be co ered2 =itumen emulsion or Gunite is sprayed on the &all face2 Stability: Internal stability o erlap2 E#ternal stability slidin!" o erturnin!" bearin! capacity failure" deep<seated stability2 in ol es determinin! spacin! or lift thic(ness2 )abric len!th and
#igure+()+
=oussinesq elastic theory for li e load on the soil bac(fill is used
)actor of safety 6128<12;3 Geote#tile layers at any depth 4 &ill fail by pullout if the frictional resistance de eloped alon! their surfaces is less than the force to &hich the layers are bein! subFected2 The effecti e len!th of the !eote#tile layer alon! &hich the frictional resistance is de eloped may be ta(en conser ati ely as the len!th that e#tends beyond the limits of the $an(ine acti e failure
&ith hori4ontal2
len!th of embedment of the fabric layers in the anchora!e 4one2 Total len!th
7 7
The soil cohesion %nit &t of bac(fill soil2 'n!le of friction bet&een soil > friction -epth from !round surface2 factor of safety
6minimum 1m3
E)ternal stability
#igure +()(
6hec& for o+erturnin :
6hec& for slidin : 5ori4ontal dri in! force at the bottom of the &all
E)ample::1!. -esi!n a 1*ft hi!h !eote#tile &all that is to carry a stora!e area of equi alent dead load of The &all is to bac( filled &ith a !ranular soil ha in! properties of
' &o en slit film !eote#tile &ith ultimate &ide &idth tensile stren!th of *;+ lb?in and lb?ft is intended to be used in its construction2
7/0;
Step1
#igure +()0
Step@:
(etermine the len th of fabric layer -%4
$able :1!.
(epth D Spacin -ft4 12; 82+ /2; A2+ B2+ 02+ H2+ 1+2+ 12; 12; 12; 12; 12+ 12+ 12+ 12+ 12*B +2H* +201 +2B; +2/0 +2/B +2/A +2/; 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ 82+ ;28/ /2;0 820* 82+; *2;/ *2+/ 12;* 12+*
* 1
112+ 1*2*
12+ 12+
+2/; +2//
82+ 82+
+2;1 +
82; 82+
+2; +2;
#igure +(),
o.0
7actor of safety a ainst Slidin
o2(
7oundation failure
'pplication of Geote#tiles
E)ample :1!:
#igure +():
)or
't
Ta(e
#igure +()9
$able :1!:
%:5
%se
#igure +().
7i ure :1!/