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Introduction to Linguistics
Syntax IV
Linguistics 288b
Sentence relatedness
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Sentence relatedness
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The boy saw [the man with the telescope]. The boy saw [the man] [with the telescope].
Two sentences may differ in structure (with small changes in words), but with no difference in meaning.
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Linguistics 288b
Linguistics 288b
Sentence relatedness
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Sentence relatedness
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Or two sentences may have structural differences that correspond systematically with differences in meaning.
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Alice talked to the white rabbit. Who did Alice talk to? Alice slept under the tree. Where did Alice sleep?
The cat is sleeping. Is the cat sleeping? The can can sleep. Can the cat sleep?
Linguistics 288b
Linguistics 288b
Sentence relatedness
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Transformational rules
! ! ! !
We need some way to account for similarities in meaning in active and passive pairs - hire vs. was hired. We need some way to account for the differences between statements and questions.
The basic sentences of a language are derived by phrase structure rules. These are called deep structures. We never pronounce deep structures. Variants on those basic sentence structures are derived via transformations.
Linguistics 288b
Linguistics 288b
Transformational rules
! ! !
Transformational rules
! ! ! !
The sentences we actually speak are called surface structures. If no transformations apply, the deep and surface structures will be identical. We will see something similar in phonology.
Transformations move constituents in a sentence. In yes-no questions, an auxiliary verb (be, have, will, may, etc.) moves to the front of the sentence. This is also called subject-aux inversion. Where does the auxiliary move?
Linguistics 288b
Linguistics 288b
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Embedded clauses
SENTENCE
John said that Mary has left.
CP-structure
Spec
CP C C that IP NP N N Mary
Mar 18, 2002
I I has VP V V left
IP COMPLEMENTIZER
104-201B
CP
Spec
C IP NP N I
C Has
Specifier of CP
! ! !
What goes in Spec,CP? CP is the question domain. Yes/No Question: [+Q] property in C wh-question: [+Q] property in Spec,CP
CP [+Q]
Spec
C C [+Q] IP
VP V V left ?
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Linguistics 288b
CP [+Q] NP N N What
Spec
Q-properties
Subject questions and embedded questions do not have [+Q] in C
!
VP V
t NP NP
the what cake
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John asked what Mary will eat twh Not: *John asked what will Mary tI eat t wh John wondered whether Mary can swim. Not: *John wondered whether can Mary tI swim
Linguistics 288b 16
CP [+Q] NP N N Who
Spec
Yes-no transformation
! ! !
do is inserted in I; it then acts like a regular auxiliary. Draw the tree for this question (there is movement!).
Linguistics 288b
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Linguistics 288b
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Passive
Passive moves an XP, not X ! The direct object moves into the subject position. ! The derivation for Bert was hired is:
!
IP NP N N Bert I was I
VP V V hired
t NP NP
Bert
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Linguistics 288b
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Linguistics 288b
Summary
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Quick homework
1.
Four transformations
1. 2. 3. 4.
The very young child walked to the store. Sandy likes tricky problems. A man with a hat climbed down the chimney. The police might plant drugs in the apartment. Her doctor warned Jesse about the dangers of too much alcohol.
Linguistics 288b
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Linguistics 288b
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Quick homework
2.
Quick homework
!
Hixkaryana. Look carefully at the following data from a Carib language spoken in Brazil:
a. Kuraha yonyhoryeno byekomo. bow made boy The boy made a bow. Newehyatxhe worskomo komo take-bath women all All the women took a bath. Toto heno komo yonoye kamara. person dead all ate jaguar. The jaguar ate all the dead people.
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b.
c.
Linguistics 288b
Linguistics 288b
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Quick homework
3.
Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences. Be sure to indicate any movement.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Will the cat meow? Does the cat like fish? The cat was fed a fish. Was the cat fed a fish? What was the cat fed?
Linguistics 288b
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