Chapter 1 Outline: The Human Organism

I. Definitions
A. Anatomy: Studies internal and external structure B. Physiology: Studies the functions or processes (Function follows form/Levels of physiology)

II. Topics of Anatomy

A. Gross: Structures examined without a microscope (Macroscopic)
1. Regional: Focuses on a particular area 2. Systemic: Focuses on Systems 3. Surface: External form and relation to deeper structures (As in X-Rays or anatomic imaging)

B. Microscopic: using a microscope

1. Cytology: Cellular anatomy 2. Histology: study of tissues

III. Topics of Physiology

A. Reveals the dynamic nature of living things B. Considers observations of speci_c organ systems
1. Cell Physiology: Processes within the cells 2. Systemic: Processes of a system (EX: Cardiovascular: The heart and Blood Vessels) 3. Pathology:

IV. Structure and Functional Organizations (Increasing levels of organization)

A. Chemical level: Interaction of atoms B. Cell Level: Functional unit of life C. Tissue Level: Group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them D. Organ Level: One or more tissues functioning together E. Organ System Level: A Group of organs functioning together F. Organism Level: One living individual V. Organ Systems of the Body: know all 11 systems and components of each A. Integumentary: Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss
1. Skin, Hair, Finger Nails, Sweat Glands

B. Skeletal: Protection and support, body movements, Blood Cell production, Blood storage
1. Bones, Associated Cartilage, Ligaments, Joints

C. Muscular: Produces movements, posture, body heat production

1. Muscles attached to the bones by tendons

D. Lymphatic: Foreign substance removal, regulate tissue _uid balance

1. Lymphatic vessels, Lymph Nodes, other Lymphatic organs

E. Respiratory: Oxygen / Carbon Dioxide exchange, Regulate blood pH

1. Lungs and Respiratory passages

F. Digestive: Digestion, Absorption of nutrients and elimination

1. Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Intestines, Accessory organs

G. Nervous: Controls movements, Sensory system, Intellectual processes

1. Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, Sensory Receptors

H. Endocrine: Regulatory system for metabolism, Growth, Reproduction

1. Glands (Pituitary gland - secretes hormones)

Chapter 2 - Chemical Basis of Life I. Introduction A. Chemistry deals with the composition of substances and how they change. B. A knowledge of chemistry is necessary for the understanding of physiology. C. Body functions depend on chemical changes within cells. II. Structure of Matter A. Elements and Atoms 1. All matter is composed of elements, 92 of which occur naturally. 2. Living organisms require about 20 elements, of which oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen are most abundant. 3. Elements are composed of atoms; atoms of different elements vary in size and in how they interact. B. Atomic Structure 1. An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons in orbit around the nucleus. 2. Protons, with a positive charge, are about equal in size to neutrons, which have no charge. 3. Electrons are much smaller and bear a negative charge. 4. An electrically neutral atom has equal numbers of protons and electrons. 5. The number of protons denotes the atomic number of an element; the number of protons plus the number of neutrons equals the atomic weight. C. Bonding of Atoms 1. Atoms form bonds by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons. 2. Electrons are found in shells around the nucleus. a. The first energy shell holds two electrons; the second and third energy shells each hold eight electrons. 3. Atoms with incompletely filled outer shells tend to be reactive to form stable outer shells. 4. When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become ions. 5. Two oppositely-charged ions attract each other and form an ionic bond. 6. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons to become stable with filled outer shells. a. Two pairs of electrons shared between atoms form a double covalent bond. D. Molecules and Compounds 1. When two or more atoms combine, a molecule results. 2. If atoms of different elements combine, the molecule can also be called a compound. E. Formulas 1. A molecular formula represents the numbers and types of atoms in a molecule. 2. Various representations, called structural formulas, can be used to illustrate molecules. F. Chemical Reactions 1. A chemical reaction occurs as bonds are formed or broken between atoms, ions, or molecules. 2. Those changed by the reaction are the reactants; those formed are the products. 3. Two or more atoms or molecules can be joined during synthesis. 4. Larger molecules can be broken into smaller ones in decomposition reactions.

5. Exchange reactions occur as parts of molecules trade places. 6. Reversible reactions are symbolized by using two arrows. 7. Catalysts influence the rates of chemical reactions. G. Acids and Bases 1. Substances that release ions in water are called electrolytes. 2. Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water are called acids. 3. Electrolytes that release ions that combine with hydrogen ions in water are called bases. 4. Acids and bases that react to form water and electrolytes are called salts. 5. pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions [H+] in solution. 6. A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution with equal numbers of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl (OH-) ions. 7. A pH of zero to less than 7 indicates the presence of more hydrogen ions, and thus the solution is more acidic; a pH greater than 7 to 14 indicates more hydroxyl ions, or a basic solution. 8. Between each whole number of the pH scale there is a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration. III. Chemical Constituents of Cells A. Inorganic Substances 1. Water a. Water is the most abundant compound in living things and makes up two-thirds of the weight of adults. b. Most metabolic reactions occur in water. c. Water is important in transporting materials in the body since it is a major component of blood. d. Water carries waste materials and can absorb and transport heat. 2. Oxygen a. Oxygen is needed to release energy from nutrients and is used to drive the cell's metabolism. 3. Carbon Dioxide a. Carbon dioxide is released as a waste product during energy-releasing metabolic reactions. 4. Inorganic Salts a. Inorganic salts are the sources of ions of sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate. b. These electrolytes play important roles in many of the body's metabolic processes. B. Organic Substances 1. Carbohydrates a. Carbohydrates provide energy for cellular activities. b. These molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. c. Carbohydrates are made from monosaccharides (simple sugars); disaccharides are two monosaccharides joined together; complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), such as starch, are built of simple carbohydrates. d. Humans synthesize the polysaccharide glycogen.

2. Lipids a. Lipids are insoluble in water and include fats, phospholipids, and steroids. b. Fats supply energy, are composed of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, and are built from glycerol and three fatty acids. i. Fatty acids with hydrogen at every position along the carbon chain are saturated; those with one or more double bonds are unsaturated fats. c. Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group, and are important in cell structures. d. Steroids are complex ring structures, and include cholesterol, which is used to synthesize the sex hormones. 3. Proteins) a. Proteins have a great variety of functions in the body---as structural materials, as energy sources, as certain hormones, as receptors on cell membranes, as antibodies, and as enzymes to catalyze metabolic reactions. b. Proteins contain C, O, H, and nitrogen atoms; some also contain sulfur. c. Building blocks of proteins are the amino acids, each of which has a carboxyl group and an amino group. d. Proteins have complex shapes held together by hydrogen bonds. e. Protein shapes, which determine how proteins function, can be altered (denatured) by pH, temperature, radiation, or chemicals. 4. Nucleic Acids a. Nucleic acids form genes and take part in protein synthesis. b. They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus, which are bound into building blocks called nucleotides. c. Nucleic acids are of two major types: DNA (with deoxyribose) and RNA (with ribose). d. RNA (ribonucleic acid) functions in protein synthesis; DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) stores the molecular code in genes.

Chapter 3 Outline: Cell Structures and their functions

I. 1. 2. 3. I. 1. a. b. c. d. 2. a. 3. a. b. c. d. 4. a. b. c.

d.

5. a. b. 6. a. b.

Cellssmallest living subunits of a multicellular organism Work together with other cells Vary greatly in size and shapeusually need a microscope More than 200 kinds of cells in humans Cell structure Cell membrane (plasma membrane) Selectively permeable Phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins Phospholipid bilayerdouble layer i. Allows lipid-soluble compounds to move in and out by diffusion Cholesterol Decreases fluidity stabilizing the membrane Proteins Pores/channels Carrier enzymes Antigens when combined with oligosaccharides Receptor sites for hormones or other compoundstriggers certain reactions in the cell Nucleus All cells except mature RBCs Double layered nuclear membrane Nucleolus (one or more) i. Bundle of DNA, RNA, & protein ii. Forms RNA (rRNA, tRNA, & mRNA) Contains chromosomes i. 46 (double set) ii. Made of threads of chromatinusually uncoiled iii. Coils during cell division iv. Gene = genetic code for 1 protein v. Only genes for that cell are active Cytoplasm Liquid solution of dissolved minerals, gases, and other molecules Contains organelles Organelles Organs of the cell Ribosomes i. Made of protein and rRNA ii. On ER or floating in cytoplasm iii. Synthesize protein

c. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

i. ii. iii.

Membranous tubules that extend from the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane 2 types: Rough ERribosomes on the surface; Synthesizes proteins in the ribosomes, Smooth ERno ribosomes on the surface;Synthesizes lipids Tunnels that transport materials around the cell including lipids and proteins produced by the ER

Golgi apparatus Flat membranous sacs stacked like pancakes Synthesize and package carbohydrates Small sacs containing carbohydrates break of and fuse with the cell membrane where it is released out of the cell Mitochondria (mitochondrian) Power house of the cell Double membranecristae Aerobic reactions of cell respiration ATP production Cells requiring more energy have more mitochondria (muscle, liver) Have their own separate genes Duplicate during cell division Lysosomes Contain digestive enzymes called lysozymes Digest bacteria during phagocytosis of WBCs Digest worn out or damaged cells and parts Cause inflammation that can damage healthy tissue if not controlled Centrioles Rod-shaped Organize spindle fibers that separate chromosomes during cell

division Cilia (cilium) Many hair-like projections on certain cells Beat in unison causing a wave-like motion to move things across the surface (DOES NOT move the cell) Fallopian tubes, airways in lungs Flagella (flagellum) Mobile thread-like projection through the cell membrane Provides motility (moves THE CELL) Sperm is the only human cell with flagellumhas one Microvilli Folds of the cell membrane that increase surface area (like an air filter in a car) Increase absorptionsmall intestine, kidney tubules Vacuolespinched off plasma membrane during phagocytosis and pinocytosis (see below) Cellular transport mechanisms (Table 3-2) o Mechanisms to move substances in and out of the cell o Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport, filtration, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis o Diffusionmovement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration along a concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached Molecules randomly move until evenly dispersed in a solid, liquid, or gas CO2 and O2 diffuse across the capillary/alveolus junction in the lungs Movement occurs in all substances involved (except solids) o Osmosisdiffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

 Water moves from area of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is met (regardless of volume) Same as saying moves from area of low concentration of solutes to low concentration of solutes (high concentration of water = low concentration of solutes and vice versa) Isotonicequal concentration of solutes (Box 3-1) e.g., saline during plasma donation Hypotoniclower concentration of solutes Hypertonic solutionhigher concentration of solutes This occurs because the membrane will not allow anything but water to cross Small intestine and kidneys o Facilitated diffusiondiffusion of molecules through a membrane with help from proteins in the cell membrane called transporters or carrier enzymes e.g., glucose, AAs o Active transportenergy requiring process of moving molecules against a concentration gradient (lesser to greater concentration) Requires ATP Na+ pumps in nerve and muscle cells pump Na+ out o Filtrationsubstances are forced through a membrane by mechanical pressure Blood pressure created by heart pumping forces fluids out of capillaries into the interstitial spaces

 Brings nutrients to cells and waste products out of the blood in the kidneys o Phagocytosismoving cell engulfs something WBCs engulf bacteria Makes vaculoles This will be on the test o Pinocytosisstationary cell engulfs something Kidney cells engulf proteins to reabsorb them Makes vaculoles DNAdouble strand of nucleotides twisted into a double helix made up of A, T, G, C o Sequence of A, T, G, C determines the genetic code o The entire code is called the genome o Genethe genetic code for one protein (oversimplified) o Each amino acid comes from a triplet of 3 bases called a codon o Example: 100 AAs = 100 codons = 300 bases Protein synthesis (Table 3-3) o Occurs in the ribosomes o TranscriptionDNA mRNA Messenger RNA (mRNA)a mirror image of DNA made in the nucleus Leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome o TranslationmRNA protein (via tRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA) attaches to the mRNA at a site called the anticodon

complimentary to the codon tRNA picks up the corresponding AA and forms peptide bonds to make a protein DNA mRNA tRNA protein Genetic diseaseillness due to mistake in DNA Cell division o 2 typesmitosis & meiosis o Mitosisone cell divides into 2 identical cells both having a full set of chromosomes How we grow and repair Always happening in certain tissues Skin, stomach epithelium, red bone marrow Side note: red bone marrow has stem cells o Unspecified cell that can develop into different kinds of cells like RBC, WBC, or platelet Hardly or never happens in some tissues like cardiac muscle and nerve tissue o Meiosisone cell divides into 4 cells each having have of the chromosomes How we reproduce o Mitosis Diploid numberfull set of chromosomes (46 in humans) Double set of chromosomes although not identical (Cytokinesis) Stages of mitosis (Table 3-4, Fig 3-5) 1. (Interphase)

2. Prophase 3. Metaphase 4. Anaphase 5. Telophase a. Cytokinesis o IPMAT InterphaseNOT a phase DNA replication Resting stagenot dividing (not actually resting) Prophase Chromosomes (2 chromatids original DNA plus its copy) coil up Nuclear membrane disappears Centrioles move to opposite ends (poles) and extend spindle fibers to the chromosomes Metaphase Chromosomes line up in the middle Centromeres attach to the spindle fibers and divide (2 complete sets of chromosomes) Anaphase

 Spindle fibers pull chromosomes to each pole Telophase Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin Nuclear membrane reforms Cytokinesiscytoplasm divides and cell membrane closes off o Meiosis Results in gametes (egg and sperm) One diploid (2n 46 chromosomes) cell divides twice to form 4 haploid (1n 23 chromosomes) cells Haploid cells have of the DNA (one set) of a normal diploid (2 sets) cell Womenovaries Oogenesis (generate egg) Mentestes Spermatogenesis (generate sperm) Phasessame as mitosis, but all happen twice except for Interphase o Fertilizationegg and sperm (both haploid) meet and join chromosomes to form a 2n diploid zygote