Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.

Theobroma cacao also cacao tree and cocoa tree, is a small (48 m or 1526 ft tall) evergreen tree in the family Sterculiaceae (alternatively Malvaceae), native to the deep tropical region of the Americas. Its seeds are used to make cocoa powder and chocolate. Description Cacao leaves are alternate, entire, unlobed, 1040 cm (416 in) long and 520 cm (28 in) broad.The flowers are produced in clusters directly on the trunk and older branches; they are small, 12 cm (1/21 in) diameter, with pink calyx. While many of the world's flowers are pollinated by bees (Hymenoptera) or butterflies/moths (Lepidoptera), cacao flowers are pollinated by tiny flies, Forcipomyia midges in the order Diptera.[1] The fruit, called a cacao pod, is ovoid, 1530 cm (612 in) long and 810 cm (34 in) wide, ripening yellow to orange, and weighs about 500 g (1 lb) when ripe. The pod contains 20 to 60 seeds, usually called "beans", embedded in a white pulp. The seeds are the main ingredient of chocolate, while the pulp is used in some countries to prepare a refreshing juice. Each seed contains a significant amount of fat (4050%) as cocoa butter. Their most noted active constituent is theobromine, a compound similar to caffeine.

Taxonomy and nomenclature Cacao (Theobroma cacao) belongs to the genus Theobroma. It is now classified under the family Malvaceae, the mallow family, that of, e.g jute, marshmallow, kola nut, baobabs, okra, kenaf and cotton. Cacao belongs to the subfamily Sterculioidea, along with the kola tree. Both were in the ancient system into the family Sterculiaceae. In 2008, researchers proposed a new classification based upon morpho-geographic and genomic criteria : ten groups have been named according to their geographic origin or the traditional cultivar name. These ten groups are : Amelonado, Criollo, Nacional, Contamana, Curaray, Cacao guiana, Iquitos, Maraon, Nanay, Purs. The cupuau, Theobroma grandiflorum, is a closely related species, rather widely grown in Brazil, from which is produced a chocolate called cupulate in Brazil, or more generally Cupuau Chocolate and is considered of high potential by the food industry as well as by the cosmetics industry.

The scientific name Theobroma from Greek means "food of the gods". The word cacao itself derives from the name of cacao in one of the indigenous Mesoamerican languages learned at the time of the conquest when it was first encountered by the Spanish.

Distribution and habitat There are two prominent competing hypotheses about the origins of the domestication of the originally wild Theobroma cacao tree. One is that wild examples were originally distributed from southeastern Mexico to the Amazon basin, with domestication taking place both in the Lacandon area of Mexico and in lowland South America. But recent studies of Theobroma cacao genetics seem to show that the plant originated in the Amazon and was distributed by humans throughout Central America and Mesoamerica. The tree is today found only growing wild in the low foothills of the Andes at elevations of around 200400 m (6501300 ft) in the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. It requires a humid climate with regular rainfall and good soil. It is an understory tree, growing best with some overhead shade.

History of cultivation

Cultivation, use, and cultural elaboration of cacao were early and extensive in Mesoamerica. Ceramic vessels with residues from the preparation of cacao beverages have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the Early Formative (1900-900 BC) period. For example, one such vessel found at an Olmec archaeological site on the Gulf Coast of Veracruz, Mexico dates cacao's preparation by pre-Olmec peoples as early as 1750 BC.[5] On the Pacific coast of Chiapas, Mexico, a Mokaya archaeological site provides evidence of cacao beverages dating even earlier, to 1900 BC.[5] The initial domestication was probably related to the making of a fermented, thus alcoholic beverage,[6]. In a study of Theobroma cacao tree genetics[7], Motamayor et al. suggest a domestication and spread from lowland Amazonia, contesting an earlier hypothesis that the tree was domesticated independently in both the Lacandon area of Mexico, and in Amazonia. The cacao tree belongs to the Theobroma genus, in the Sterculiaceae family, that contains 22 species. Today, the most common of the cultivated species is Theobroma cacao, with two subspecies and three forms. Wild cacaos fall into two groups. The South American subspecies spaerocarpum has a fairly smooth melon-like fruit. In contrast, the Mesoamerican cacao

subspecies has ridged, elongated fruits. At some unknown early date, the subspecies 'T. cacao' reached the southern lowlands of Mesoamerica and came into wide usage. The Maya believed that the kakaw (cacao) was discovered by the gods in a mountain that also contained other delectable foods to be used by the Maya. According to Maya mythology, the Plumed Serpent gave cacao to the Maya after humans were created from maize by divine grandmother goddess Xmucane (Bogin 1997, Coe 1996, Montejo 1999, Tedlock 1985). The Maya celebrated an annual festival in April to honor their cacao god, Ek Chuah, an event that included the sacrifice of a dog with cacao colored markings; additional animal sacrifices; offerings of cacao, feathers and incense; and an exchange of gifts. In a similar creation story, the Mexica (Aztec) god Quetzalcoatl discovered cacao (cacahuatl: "'bitter water"'), in a mountain filled with other plant foods (Coe 1996, Townsend 1992). Cacao was offered regularly to a pantheon of Mexica deities and the Madrid Codex depicts priests lancing their ear lobes (auto-sacrifice) and covering the cacao with blood as a suitable sacrifice to the gods. The cacao beverage as ritual were used only by men, as it was believed to be toxic for women and children.[citation needed] There are several mixtures of cacao described in ancient texts, for ceremonial or medicinal uses as well as culinary purposes. Some mixtures included maize, chili, vanilla (Vanilla planifolia), and honey. Archaeological evidence for use of cacao, while relatively sparse, has come from the recovery of whole cacao beans at Uaxactun, Guatemala (Kidder 1947) and from the preservation of wood fragments of the cacao tree at Belize sites including Cuello and Pulltrouser Swamp (Hammond and Miksicek 1981; Turner and Miksicek 1984). In addition, analysis of residues from ceramic vessels has found traces of theobromine and caffeine in early formative vessels from Puerto Escondido, Honduras (1100-900 BC) and in middle formative vessels from Colha, Belize (600-400 BC) using similar techniques to those used to extract chocolate residues from four classic period (ca. 400 AD) vessels from a tomb at the archaeological site of Rio Azul. As cacao is the only known commodity from Mesoamerica containing both of these alkaloid compounds, it seems likely that these vessels were used as containers for cacao drinks. In addition, cacao is named in a hieroglyphic text on one of the Rio Azul vessels. Cacao was also believed to be ground by the Aztecs and mixed with tobacco for smoking purposes. The first Europeans to encounter cacao were Christopher Columbus and his crew in 1502,[citation needed] when they captured a canoe at Guanaja that contained a quantity of mysterious-looking "almonds." The first real European knowledge about chocolate came in the form of a beverage which was first introduced to the Spanish at their meeting with Moctezuma in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan in 1519. Cortez and others noted the vast quantities of this beverage that the Aztec emperor consumed, and how it was carefully whipped by his attendants beforehand. Examples of cacao beans along with other agricultural products were brought back to Spain at that time, but it seems that the beverage made from cacao was introduced to the Spanish court in 1544 by Kekchi Maya nobles brought from the New World to Spain by Dominican friars to meet Prince Philip (Coe and Coe 1996). Within a century, the culinary and medical uses of chocolate had spread to France, England and elsewhere in Western Europe. Demand for this
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beverage led the French to establish cacao plantations in the Caribbean, while Spain subsequently developed their cacao plantations in their Philippine colony (Bloom 1998, Coe 1996). The Nahuatl-derived Spanish word cacao entered scientific nomenclature in 1753 after the Swedish naturalist Linnaeus published his taxonomic binomial system and coined the genus and species Theobroma ("food of the gods") cacao. Traditional pre-Hispanic beverages made with cacao are still consumed in Mesoamerica. These include the Oaxacan beverage known as tejate.

Cultivation

Cacao seed in the fruit or Pocha

Young Cacao plantation Cacao is cultivated on roughly 17,000,000 acres (27,000 sq mi; 69,000 km2) worldwide.[10] According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the top 20 cacao-producing countries in 2005 were as follows:

Value Production (Int'l $1,000*) (Metric Tons) Rank, Country 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Cte d'Ivoire Ghana Indonesia Nigeria Brazil Cameroon Ecuador Colombia Mexico 1,024,339 566,852 469,810 281,886 164,644 138,632 105,652 42,589 37,281 1,330,000 736,000 610,000 366,000 213,774 180,000 137,178 55,298 48,405 42,500 33,423 32,000 28,500 17,000 11,000 8,500 8,000 5,650 5,630

Papua New Guinea 32,733 Malaysia 25,742

Dominican Republic 24,646 Peru Venezuela Sierra Leone Togo India Philippines Congo, Rep. 21,950 13,093 8,472 6,547 6,161 4,352 4,336

20

Solomon Islands

3,851

5,000

*Based on 19992001 international prices Cacao production has increased from 1.5 million tons in 1983-1984 to 3.5 million tons in 20032004, an increase that has almost entirely been due to the expansion of the production area rather than to yield increases. Cacao is grown both by large agro-industrial plantations and also by small producers. A tree begins to bear when it is four or five years old. A mature tree may have 6,000 flowers in a year, yet only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of cocoa paste. There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate.[12] The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. Major cocoa bean processors include: Hershey's, Nestl and Mars, all of which purchase cocoa beans via various sources. In June 2009, Mars Botanicals, a division of Mars, launched Cirku, a cocoa extract product that provides cocoa avanols made with a patented process that contains a high level of phytonutrients.[13] Soil and climate Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6 - 7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes up to 1200 m with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24C to 25C. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and areca nut gardens. Seeds and sowing Cocoa is normally propagated by seed. Before sowing the seeds the pulp adhering to the seeds has to be removed. Cocoa seeds are individually sown in polybags soon after extraction. The bags are filled with surface soil and sub-soil mixed with compost, leaf mould and fertilizers. Nursery plants are ready for transplanting at 6 months of age when they attain a height of 60 cm. Planting Seedlings are transplanted with a ball of earth in 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm pits at a spacing of

3 x 3 m either way. Periodical mulching with leaves and watering should be done. Temporary shade has to be provided. Irrigation Irrigation should be given as and when necessary. During summer months irrigation should be given once in three days. Manuring Trees of 3 years of age and above are manured with 100 g N, 40 g P and 140 g K per tree in two split. Trees younger than three years may be applied with half of this dose. Time of application 1 3 years old trees Trees more than 3 years old N (kg/ha) 50 100 P 20 96 K 70 140

After cultivation Weeding is done as and when necessary. The unproductive shoots, dead, diseased twigs should be removed periodically. Banana is better as a primary shade plant in the early years of plantation. For permanent shades Jack, Silver Oak, etc. are planted. Plant protection

Pests

Mealy bug Mealy bug can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1 ml/lit or Dimethoate 2 ml/lit at fortnightly intervals. Release Coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10 tree. Aphids Aphids can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 35 EC 1 ml/lit at monthly intervals. Grey weevil Grey weevil can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1ml/lit. Hairy caterpillar Hairy caterpillar can be controlled by dusting Lindane 1.3 D or spray Lindane 20 EC @ 2ml/lit.

Diseases

Black pod disease Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 % Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride at 20 days interval.

Black pod disease Dieback disease The disease can be controlled by spraying 1 % Bordeaux mixture. Charcoal disease Charcoal disease can be controlled by spraying with 1 % Bordeaux mixture. Pink disease Prune the affected branches and swab the cut ends regularly with 1 % Bordeaux mixture. Harvest Bearing starts from 4th year but economic yield starts from 6th year onwards. The yield ranges from 500 - 1000 kg of dry beans/ha

Recent Growth Ghana's cocoa production enjoyed a period of on average 16% in the period 2000 03[2]. Cocoa has a long production cycle, far longer than many other tropical crops, and new hybrid varieties need over five years to come into production, and a further 10 to 15 years for the tree to reach
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its full bearing potential. Yet the reasons for this huge production increase are varied and in fact Ghana's cocoa yields per hectare are still low by international standards[2]. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute identify the following as particularly important[2]: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Land Labour Fertiliser Insecticide Agricultural equipment Western Sefwi (suggesting smuggling from Cte d'Ivoire) Rainfall Male cocoa farmer Use of spraying machine

Yet this studied suggests that the most important factors in the increased production are[2]:

New land brought under cultivation More intensive use of household labour A good rainfall pattern Effectiveness of farm spraying and increased fertiliser use

This study suggests that Ghana's cocoa farmers are not making the best use technological innovations in their production and instead their increased production is not sustainable [2]. Bringing new land under cultivation is risky, as much of the land was previously forest and after a short period and without adequate attention this land may be exhausted. Intensive use of labour has led to high increases in the cost of labour and may impact profitability and high rainfall is only periodic. Challenges of cocoa Despite chocolates centuries-old popularity, cacao is not an easy plant to grow.

It only thrives in climates 20 degrees north and south of the equator; It must be planted next to taller trees whose leaves will protect it from direct sun and high wind; It is susceptible to pests and disease which routinely destroy one-third of the worlds yearly crop.

In addition, the trees are not very productive. Consider:

A tree must be five or six years old before it will bear fruit. Each tree bears about 30 usable pods a year, which translates to roughly 1000 beans a year.

It takes 500 beans to make 1 pound of bittersweet chocolate so in the best of circumstances, each tree produces beans for only 2 pounds of chocolate

Fermentation of cocoa Once the cacao beans are scooped from the pods, they are fermented and dried in the two-step curing process that sets in motion the development of the flavor nuances which make tasting chocolate so exciting. Fermentation is the first critical process to develop the beans flavor. The beans, still covered with pulp, are placed in large, shallow wooden boxes or are left in piles and covered with banana leaves. Once fermentation begins, the sugar in the pulp is converted into acids that change the chemical composition of the beans. Fermentation generates temperatures as high as 125 F, activating enzymes that create the flavor precursors which are the beginning of chocolate as we know it. The fermentation process takes anywhere from two to eight days. (Unfermented or lightly fermented beans have less chocolate flavor but are higher in health-promoting antioxidants.) Post-harvest treatment and processing Fermentation Beans must be fermented as soon as they are removed from the pod. Fermentation has four objectives: To remove the mucilage attached to the beans To kill the embryo so that the beans cannot germinate To encourage chemical changes within the bean which produce the substances responsible for the chocolate aroma To reduce the moisture content of the beans Fermentation is carried out in one of two ways. Traditionally, the beans are heaped on to and covered by banana leaves or a loam. The other method uses a series of rectangular wooden kegs covered with banana leaves. Kegs arranged like steps simplify turning and transfer of beans from one keg to the next by gravity. The size of heaps or kegs is determined by the need to have a sufficiently high temperature (40 to 50 C), to permit liquid to drain out and to let air circulate freely around the beans. Small quantities, below about 70 kg, will not reach the required temperature, while over about 150 kg aeration becomes restricted. To ensure uniform fermentation, heaps have to be turned at intervals of 2 days. The end of the fermentation process has to be judged by experience. At the right time the fermentation temperature will decrease to about 40 C and most beans will be brown; if opened the cotyledons will be seen to be pale in the centre, with a brown ring. If 75% of the beans have reached this coloration, the
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fermentation process is to be stopped. Fermentation usually takes 6 to 8 days for Forastero and 3 to 5 days for Criollo cocoa. Drying

Fermented beans must be dried to prevent deterioration. This is mainly done by spreading them out in the sun on concrete floors or on raised mats. The beans need to be covered overnight and in rain. Sun drying alone will take at least a week. Foreign matter can be picked out from the beans while they are spread out. Sun drying can be supplemented by drying with hot air of various technical devices. The dried beans should have a moisture content of 6 to 7%. Over 8% the beans become mouldy and below 5% they are brittle. In some humid, rainy climates, beans are dried inside or by blowers circulating hot air which can pose problems. If the beans dry too quickly some of the chemical reactions started in the fermentation process are not allowed to finish and the beans taste acidic or bitter. If the drying is too slow, mold and off- flavors can develop.

MARKETING From the early years until the late 1930s the local merchants were the ones controlling the cocoa trade in the Gold Coast. Companies like the U.A.C., Paterson and Zochonis (PZ), G.B. Olivant, UTC, Cadbury and Fry as well as J. Lyons were importing foods into the Gold Coast and purchasing farm products such as coffee, cocoa, kennels, rubber and palm oil for export overseas. All, however, was not smooth sailing. Difficulties arose as a result of Cadbury and Fry emphasizing on quality to lower prices and also supporting expansion of farms in various ways. This action did not go down well with other local merchant companies as they assumed Cadbury and Fry were monopolizing the industry. In 1937, farmers went on strike and refused to sell their cocoa on the grounds of low price for their produce. The outcome of these developments resulted in the establishment of the Cocoa Marketing Board (CMB) in 1947 to provide marketing services to farmers. The Produce Buying Agency was given monopoly over the internal marketing of cocoa in the country in 1977. The sector was however liberalized in 1992 as a result of a World Bank policy. This led to the licensing of many companies (LBCs) including Kuapa Kokoo to do the internal marketing of cocoa. The Cocoa Marketing Company performs the external marketing of cocoa.

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PRICING Ghanas cocoa pricing has witnessed some changes over the years. Beginning from 1947 when the Cocoa Marketing Board (CMB) was established, together with Cocoa Marketing Company (CMB) to advise the Government as to what price to pay to the farmers every year, taking into consideration the world price and local factors. At the moment pricing of cocoa is done by a committee known as Producer Price Review Committee (PPRC) which meets quarterly to review the cocoa prices payable to our farmers. This committee comprises of Government, Cocobod, LBCs and farmers representatives.

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